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Vitamin
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Avitaminisanorganiccompoundandavitalnutrientthatanorganism
requiresinlimitedamounts.Anorganicchemicalcompound(orrelatedsetof
compounds)iscalledavitaminwhentheorganismcannotsynthesizethe
compoundinsufficientquantities,anditmustbeobtainedthroughthediet
thus,theterm"vitamin"isconditionaluponthecircumstancesandthe
particularorganism.Forexample,ascorbicacid(oneformofvitaminC)isa
vitaminforhumans,butnotformostotheranimalorganisms.
Supplementationisimportantforthetreatmentofcertainhealthproblems,[1]
butthereislittleevidenceofnutritionalbenefitwhenusedbyotherwise
healthypeople.[2]
Byconventionthetermvitaminincludesneitherotheressentialnutrients,
suchasdietaryminerals,essentialfattyacids,oressentialaminoacids(which
areneededingreateramountsthanvitamins)northegreatnumberofother
AbottleofhighpotencyBcomplexvitamin
nutrientsthatpromotehealth,andarerequiredlessoftentomaintainthe
supplementpills.
healthoftheorganism.[3]Thirteenvitaminsareuniversallyrecognizedat
present.Vitaminsareclassifiedbytheirbiologicalandchemicalactivity,not
theirstructure.Thus,each"vitamin"referstoanumberofvitamercompoundsthatallshowthebiologicalactivityassociated
withaparticularvitamin.Suchasetofchemicalsisgroupedunderanalphabetizedvitamin"genericdescriptor"title,suchas
"vitaminA",whichincludesthecompoundsretinal,retinol,andfourknowncarotenoids.Vitamersbydefinitionareconvertible
totheactiveformofthevitamininthebody,andaresometimesinterconvertibletooneanother,aswell.
Vitaminshavediversebiochemicalfunctions.Some,suchasvitaminD,havehormonelikefunctionsasregulatorsofmineral
metabolism,orregulatorsofcellandtissuegrowthanddifferentiation(suchassomeformsofvitaminA).Othersfunctionas
antioxidants(e.g.,vitaminEandsometimesvitaminC).[4]Thelargestnumberofvitamins,theBcomplexvitamins,functionas
enzymecofactors(coenzymes)ortheprecursorsforthemcoenzymeshelpenzymesintheirworkascatalystsinmetabolism.In
thisrole,vitaminsmaybetightlyboundtoenzymesaspartofprostheticgroups:Forexample,biotinispartofenzymesinvolved
inmakingfattyacids.Theymayalsobelesstightlyboundtoenzymecatalystsascoenzymes,detachablemoleculesthatfunction
tocarrychemicalgroupsorelectronsbetweenmolecules.Forexample,folicacidmaycarrymethyl,formyl,andmethylene
groupsinthecell.Althoughtheserolesinassistingenzymesubstratereactionsarevitamins'bestknownfunction,theother
vitaminfunctionsareequallyimportant.[5]
Untilthemid1930s,whenthefirstcommercialyeastextractvitaminBcomplexandsemisyntheticvitaminCsupplement
tabletsweresold,vitaminswereobtainedsolelythroughfoodintake,andchangesindiet(which,forexample,couldoccur
duringaparticulargrowingseason)usuallygreatlyalteredthetypesandamountsofvitaminsingested.However,vitaminshave
beenproducedascommoditychemicalsandmadewidelyavailableasinexpensivesemisyntheticandsyntheticsource
multivitamindietaryandfoodsupplementsandadditives,sincethemiddleofthe20thcentury.Studyofstructuralactivity,
functionandtheirroleinmaintaininghealthiscalledvitaminology.[6]
Contents
1 Listofvitamins
2 Healtheffects
2.1 Supplements
2.2 Effectofcooking
2.3 Deficiencies
2.4 Sideeffects
3 Pharmacology
4 History
4.1 Etymology
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5 Societyandculture
5.1 Governmentalregulation
5.2 Naming
6 Antivitamins
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Externallinks
Listofvitamins
Eachvitaministypicallyusedinmultiplereactions,and,therefore,mosthavemultiplefunctions.[7]
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Vitamin
generic
descriptor
name
VitaminA
VitaminWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Vitamer
chemical
name(s)(list
notcomplete)
Retinol,retinal,
and
fourcarotenoids
includingbeta
carotene
VitaminB1 Thiamine
VitaminB2 Riboflavin
VitaminB3 Niacin,
niacinamide
VitaminB5 Pantothenicacid
Pyridoxine,
VitaminB6 pyridoxamine,
pyridoxal
VitaminB7 Biotin
VitaminB9 Folicacid,folinic
acid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin
Solubility
Fat
Water
Water
Recommended
dietary
allowances
(male,age19
70)[8]
Deficiency
disease
900g
1.2mg
Beriberi,
Wernicke
Korsakoff
syndrome
Drowsinessor
musclerelaxation
withlarge
doses.[11]
1.3mg
N/D[10]
Pellagra
Water
Paresthesia
1.31.7mg
Anemia[15]
peripheral
neuropathy
Pork,
oatmeal,
brownrice,
vegetables,
potatoes,
liver,eggs
Dairy
products,
bananas,
popcorn,
green
beans,
asparagus
Ariboflavinosis,
glossitis,
N/D
angular
stomatitis
5.0mg[13]
Water
Food
sources
Night
blindness,
hyperkeratosis, 3,000g
and
keratomalacia[9]
16.0mg
Water
Overdose
disease
Liver,
orange,ripe
yellow
fruits,leafy
vegetables,
Hypervitaminosis
carrots,
A
pumpkin,
squash,
spinach,
fish,soya
milk,milk
Water
Water
Upper
Intake
Level
(UL/day)[8]
Meat,fish,
eggs,many
vegetables,
mushrooms,
treenuts
35.0mg
Liverdamage
(doses>
2g/day)[12]and
otherproblems
N/D
Diarrhea
Meat,
possiblynausea broccoli,
andheartburn.[14] avocados
100mg
Impairmentof
proprioception,
nervedamage
(doses>
100mg/day)
30.0g
Dermatitis,
enteritis
400g
Megaloblastic
anemiaand
deficiency
during
pregnancyis
1,000g
associatedwith
birthdefects,
suchasneural
tubedefects
Meat,
vegetables,
treenuts,
bananas
Rawegg
yolk,liver,
peanuts,
leafygreen
vegetables
N/D
Maymask
symptomsof
vitaminB12
deficiencyother
effects.
Leafy
vegetables,
pasta,
bread,
cereal,liver
Acnelikerash
Meat,
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2.4g
Megaloblastic
anemia[16]
N/D
[causalityisnot
conclusively
established].
poultry,
fish,eggs,
milk
Manyfruits
and
vegetables,
liver
VitaminC
Ascorbicacid
Water
90.0mg
Scurvy
2,000mg
VitaminC
megadosage
VitaminD
Cholecalciferol
(D3),
Ergocalciferol
(D2)
Fat
10g[17]
Ricketsand
osteomalacia
50g
Fish,eggs,
Hypervitaminosis
liver,
D
mushrooms
15.0mg
Deficiencyis
veryrare
sterilityin
malesand
abortionsin
females,mild
hemolytic
anemiain
newborn
infants[18]
1,000mg
Increased
congestiveheart
failureseenin
onelarge
randomized
study.[19]
Manyfruits
and
vegetables,
nutsand
seeds
N/D
Increases
coagulationin
patientstaking
warfarin.[20]
Leafygreen
vegetables
suchas
spinach,
eggyolks,
liver
VitaminE
VitaminK
Tocopherols,
tocotrienols
phylloquinone,
menaquinones
Fat
Fat
120g
Bleeding
diathesis
Healtheffects
Vitaminsareessentialforthenormalgrowthanddevelopmentofamulticellularorganism.Usingthegeneticblueprintinherited
fromitsparents,afetusbeginstodevelop,atthemomentofconception,fromthenutrientsitabsorbs.Itrequirescertainvitamins
andmineralstobepresentatcertaintimes.Thesenutrientsfacilitatethechemicalreactionsthatproduceamongotherthings,
skin,bone,andmuscle.Ifthereisseriousdeficiencyinoneormoreofthesenutrients,achildmaydevelopadeficiencydisease.
Evenminordeficienciesmaycausepermanentdamage.[21]
Forthemostpart,vitaminsareobtainedwithfood,butafewareobtainedbyothermeans.Forexample,microorganismsinthe
intestinecommonlyknownas"gutflora"producevitaminKandbiotin,whileoneformofvitaminDissynthesizedinthe
skinwiththehelpofthenaturalultravioletwavelengthofsunlight.Humanscanproducesomevitaminsfromprecursorsthey
consume.ExamplesincludevitaminA,producedfrombetacarotene,andniacin,fromtheaminoacidtryptophan.[8]
Oncegrowthanddevelopmentarecompleted,vitaminsremainessentialnutrientsforthehealthymaintenanceofthecells,
tissues,andorgansthatmakeupamulticellularorganismtheyalsoenableamulticellularlifeformtoefficientlyusechemical
energyprovidedbyfooditeats,andtohelpprocesstheproteins,carbohydrates,andfatsrequiredforrespiration.[4]
Supplements
Inthosewhoareotherwisehealthy,thereislittleevidencethatsupplementshaveanybenefitswithrespecttocancerorheart
disease.[2][22]VitaminAandEsupplementsnotonlyprovidenohealthbenefitsforgenerallyhealthyindividuals,buttheymay
increasemortality,thoughthetwolargestudiesthatsupportthisconclusionincludedsmokersforwhomitwasalreadyknown
thatbetacarotenesupplementscanbeharmful.[22][23]WhileotherfindingssuggestthatvitaminEtoxicityislimitedtoonlya
specificformwhentakeninexcess.[24]
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TheEuropeanUnionandothercountriesofEuropehaveregulationsthatdefinelimitsofvitamin(andmineral)dosagesfortheir
safeuseasfoodsupplements.Mostvitaminsthataresoldasfoodsupplementscannotexceedamaximumdailydosage.Vitamin
productsabovetheselegallimitsarenotconsideredfoodsupplementsandmustberegisteredasprescriptionornonprescription
(overthecounterdrugs)duetotheirpotentialsideeffects.Asaresult,mostofthefatsolublevitamins(suchasthevitaminsA,
D,E,andK)thatcontainamountsabovethedailyallowancearedrugproducts.Thedailydosageofavitaminsupplementfor
examplecannotexceed300%oftherecommendeddailyallowance,andforvitaminA,thislimitisevenlower(200%).Such
regulationsareapplicableinmostEuropeancountries.[25][26]
Dietarysupplementsoftencontainvitamins,butmayalsoincludeother
ingredients,suchasminerals,herbs,andbotanicals.Scientificevidencesupports
thebenefitsofdietarysupplementsforpersonswithcertainhealthconditions.[1]
Insomecases,vitaminsupplementsmayhaveunwantedeffects,especiallyif
takenbeforesurgery,withotherdietarysupplementsormedicines,orifthe
persontakingthemhascertainhealthconditions.[1]Theymayalsocontain
levelsofvitaminsmanytimeshigher,andindifferentforms,thanonemay
ingestthroughfood.[27]
Effectofcooking
Shownbelowispercentagelossofvitaminsaftercookingaveragedforcommon
foodssuchasvegetables,meatorfish.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin
500mgcalciumsupplementtablets,with
vitaminD,madefromcalciumcarbonate,
maltodextrin,mineraloil,hypromellose,
glycerin,cholecalciferol,polyethyleneglycol,
andcarnaubawax.
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TypicalMaximumNutrientLossesduetocooking[28]
Vitamin&Minerals
Freeze
Dry
Cook
Cook+Drain
VitaminA
Reheat
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitARetinolActivityEquivalent 5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitAAlphaCarotene
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitABetaCarotene
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitABetaCryptoxanthin
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitALycopene
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitALutein+Zeaxanthin
5%
50%
25%
35%
10%
VitaminC
30%
80%
50%
75%
50%
Thiamin
5%
30%
55%
70%
40%
Riboflavin
0%
10%
25%
45%
5%
Niacin
0%
10%
40%
55%
5%
VitaminB6
0%
10%
50%
65%
45%
Folate
5%
50%
70%
75%
30%
FoodFolate
5%
50%
70%
75%
30%
FolicAcid
5%
50%
70%
75%
30%
VitaminB12
0%
0%
45%
50%
45%
Calcium
5%
0%
20%
25%
0%
Iron
0%
0%
35%
40%
0%
Magnesium
0%
0%
25%
40%
0%
Phosphorus
0%
0%
25%
35%
0%
Potassium
10%
0%
30%
70%
0%
Sodium
0%
0%
25%
55%
0%
Zinc
0%
0%
25%
25%
0%
Copper
10%
0%
40%
45%
0%
Itshouldbenotedhoweverthatsomevitaminsmaybecomemore"bioavailable"thatis,usablebythebodywhensteamedor
cooked.[29]
Thetablebelowshowswhethervariousvitaminsaresusceptibletolossfromheatsuchasheatfromboiling,steaming,cooking
etc.andotheragents.Theeffectofcuttingvegetablescanbeseenfromexposuretoairandlight.Watersolublevitaminssuch
asBandCseepintothewaterwhenavegetableisboiled.[30]
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SolubleinWater
ExposuretoAir
ExposuretoLight
ExposuretoHeat
VitaminA
no
partially
partially
relativelystable
VitaminC
veryunstable
yes
yes
yes
VitaminD
no
no
no
no
VitaminE
no
yes
yes
no
VitaminK
no
no
yes
no
Thiamine(B1)
highly
no
>100C
Riboflavin(B2)
slightly
no
insolution
no
Niacin(B3)
yes
no
no
no
PantothenicAcid(B5) quitestable
no
yes
VitaminB6
yes
yes
Biotin(B7)
somewhat
no
FolicAcid(B9)
yes
whendry
athightemp
VitaminB12
yes
yes
no
Deficiencies
Humansmustconsumevitaminsperiodicallybutwithdifferingschedules,toavoiddeficiency.Thebody'sstoresfordifferent
vitaminsvarywidelyvitaminsA,D,andB12arestoredinsignificantamounts,mainlyintheliver,[18]andanadult'sdietmaybe
deficientinvitaminsAandDformanymonthsandB12insomecasesforyears,beforedevelopingadeficiencycondition.
However,vitaminB3(niacinandniacinamide)isnotstoredinsignificantamounts,sostoresmaylastonlyacoupleof
weeks.[9][18]ForvitaminC,thefirstsymptomsofscurvyinexperimentalstudiesofcompletevitaminCdeprivationinhumans
havevariedwidely,fromamonthtomorethansixmonths,dependingonpreviousdietaryhistorythatdeterminedbody
stores.[31]
Deficienciesofvitaminsareclassifiedaseitherprimaryorsecondary.Aprimarydeficiencyoccurswhenanorganismdoesnot
getenoughofthevitamininitsfood.Asecondarydeficiencymaybeduetoanunderlyingdisorderthatpreventsorlimitsthe
absorptionoruseofthevitamin,duetoa"lifestylefactor",suchassmoking,excessivealcoholconsumption,ortheuseof
medicationsthatinterferewiththeabsorptionoruseofthevitamin.[18]Peoplewhoeatavarieddietareunlikelytodevelopa
severeprimaryvitamindeficiency.Incontrast,restrictivedietshavethepotentialtocauseprolongedvitamindeficits,whichmay
resultinoftenpainfulandpotentiallydeadlydiseases.
Wellknownhumanvitamindeficienciesinvolvethiamine(beriberi),niacin(pellagra),[32]vitaminC(scurvy),andvitaminD
(rickets).[33]Inmuchofthedevelopedworld,suchdeficienciesarerarethisisdueto(1)anadequatesupplyoffoodand(2)the
additionofvitaminsandmineralstocommonfoods(fortification).[8][18]Inadditiontotheseclassicalvitamindeficiencydiseases,
someevidencehasalsosuggestedlinksbetweenvitamindeficiencyandanumberofdifferentdisorders.[34][35]
Sideeffects
Inlargedoses,somevitaminshavedocumentedsideeffectsthattendtobemoreseverewithalargerdosage.Thelikelihoodof
consumingtoomuchofanyvitaminfromfoodisremote,butoverdosing(vitaminpoisoning)fromvitaminsupplementationdoes
occur.Athighenoughdosages,somevitaminscausesideeffectssuchasnausea,diarrhea,andvomiting.[9][36]Whensideeffects
emerge,recoveryisoftenaccomplishedbyreducingthedosage.Thedosesofvitaminsdifferbecauseindividualtolerancescan
varywidelyandappeartoberelatedtoageandstateofhealth.
In2008,overdoseexposuretoallformulationsofvitaminsandmultivitaminmineralformulationswasreportedby68,911
individualstotheAmericanAssociationofPoisonControlCenters(nearly80%oftheseexposureswereinchildrenunderthe
ageof6),leadingto8"major"lifethreateningoutcomes,butnodeaths.[37]
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Pharmacology
Vitaminsareclassifiedaseitherwatersolubleorfatsoluble.Inhumansthereare13vitamins:4fatsoluble(A,D,E,andK)and
9watersoluble(8BvitaminsandvitaminC).Watersolublevitaminsdissolveeasilyinwaterand,ingeneral,arereadily
excretedfromthebody,tothedegreethaturinaryoutputisastrongpredictorofvitaminconsumption.[38]Becausetheyarenotas
readilystored,moreconsistentintakeisimportant.[39]Manytypesofwatersolublevitaminsaresynthesizedbybacteria.[40]Fat
solublevitaminsareabsorbedthroughtheintestinaltractwiththehelpoflipids(fats).Becausetheyaremorelikelyto
accumulateinthebody,theyaremorelikelytoleadtohypervitaminosisthanarewatersolublevitamins.Fatsolublevitamin
regulationisofparticularsignificanceincysticfibrosis.[41]
History
Thevalueofeatingacertainfoodtomaintainhealth
wasrecognizedlongbeforevitaminswere
identified.TheancientEgyptiansknewthatfeeding
livertoapersonwouldhelpcurenightblindness,an
illnessnowknowntobecausedbyavitaminA
deficiency.[42]Theadvancementofoceanvoyages
duringtheRenaissanceresultedinprolonged
periodswithoutaccesstofreshfruitsand
vegetables,andmadeillnessesfromvitamin
deficiencycommonamongships'crews.[43]
Thediscoverydatesofthevitaminsandtheirsources
Yearofdiscovery
Vitamin
Foodsource
1913
VitaminA(Retinol)
Codliveroil
1910
VitaminB1(Thiamine)
Ricebran
1920
VitaminC(Ascorbicacid)
Citrus,mostfreshfoods
1920
VitaminD(Calciferol)
Codliveroil
1920
VitaminB2(Riboflavin)
Meat,dairyproducts,eggs
1922
(VitaminE)(Tocopherol)
Wheatgermoil,
unrefinedvegetableoils
1926
VitaminB (Cobalamins)
Liver,eggs,animalproducts
12
In1747,theScottishsurgeonJamesLind
1929
VitaminK1(Phylloquinone) Leafvegetables
discoveredthatcitrusfoodshelpedpreventscurvy,
Meat,wholegrains,
aparticularlydeadlydiseaseinwhichcollagenis
1931
VitaminB5(Pantothenicacid)
inmanyfoods
notproperlyformed,causingpoorwoundhealing,
1931
VitaminB7(Biotin)
Meat,dairyproducts,eggs
bleedingofthegums,severepain,anddeath.[42]In
1753,LindpublishedhisTreatiseontheScurvy,
1934
VitaminB6(Pyridoxine)
Meat,dairyproducts
whichrecommendedusinglemonsandlimesto
1936
VitaminB3(Niacin)
Meat,grains
avoidscurvy,whichwasadoptedbytheBritish
1941
VitaminB9(Folicacid)
Leafvegetables
RoyalNavy.Thisledtothenicknamelimeyfor
Britishsailors.Lind'sdiscovery,however,wasnot
widelyacceptedbyindividualsintheRoyalNavy'sArcticexpeditionsinthe19thcentury,whereitwaswidelybelievedthat
scurvycouldbepreventedbypracticinggoodhygiene,regularexercise,andmaintainingthemoraleofthecrewwhileonboard,
ratherthanbyadietoffreshfood.[42]Asaresult,Arcticexpeditionscontinuedtobeplaguedbyscurvyandotherdeficiency
diseases.Intheearly20thcentury,whenRobertFalconScottmadehistwoexpeditionstotheAntarctic,theprevailingmedical
theoryatthetimewasthatscurvywascausedby"tainted"cannedfood.[42]
Duringthelate18thandearly19thcenturies,theuseofdeprivationstudiesallowedscientiststoisolateandidentifyanumberof
vitamins.Lipidfromfishoilwasusedtocurericketsinrats,andthefatsolublenutrientwascalled"antirachiticA".Thus,the
first"vitamin"bioactivityeverisolated,whichcuredrickets,wasinitiallycalled"vitaminA"however,thebioactivityofthis
compoundisnowcalledvitaminD.[44]In1881,RussiansurgeonNikolaiLuninstudiedtheeffectsofscurvywhileatthe
UniversityofTartuinpresentdayEstonia.[45]Hefedmiceanartificialmixtureofalltheseparateconstituentsofmilkknownat
thattime,namelytheproteins,fats,carbohydrates,andsalts.Themicethatreceivedonlytheindividualconstituentsdied,while
themicefedbymilkitselfdevelopednormally.Hemadeaconclusionthat"anaturalfoodsuchasmilkmustthereforecontain,
besidestheseknownprincipalingredients,smallquantitiesofunknownsubstancesessentialtolife."[45]However,hisconclusions
wererejectedbyhisadvisor,GustavvonBunge,evenafterotherstudentsreproducedhisresults.[46]AsimilarresultbyCornelius
PekelharingappearedinaDutchmedicaljournalin1905,butitwasnotwidelyreported.[46]
InEastAsia,wherepolishedwhitericewasthecommonstaplefoodofthemiddleclass,beriberiresultingfromlackofvitamin
B1wasendemic.In1884,TakakiKanehiro,aBritishtrainedmedicaldoctoroftheImperialJapaneseNavy,observedthat
beriberiwasendemicamonglowrankingcrewwhooftenatenothingbutrice,butnotamongofficerswhoconsumedaWestern
stylediet.WiththesupportoftheJapanesenavy,heexperimentedusingcrewsoftwobattleshipsonecrewwasfedonlywhite
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rice,whiletheotherwasfedadietofmeat,fish,barley,rice,andbeans.Thegroupthat
ateonlywhitericedocumented161crewmemberswithberiberiand25deaths,whilethe
lattergrouphadonly14casesofberiberiandnodeaths.ThisconvincedTakakiandthe
JapaneseNavythatdietwasthecauseofberiberi,buttheymistakenlybelievedthat
sufficientamountsofproteinpreventedit.[47]Thatdiseasescouldresultfromsome
dietarydeficiencieswasfurtherinvestigatedbyChristiaanEijkman,whoin1897
discoveredthatfeedingunpolishedriceinsteadofthepolishedvarietytochickenshelped
topreventberiberiinthechickens.[32]Thefollowingyear,FrederickHopkinspostulated
thatsomefoodscontained"accessoryfactors"inadditiontoproteins,carbohydrates,
fatsetc.thatarenecessaryforthefunctionsofthehumanbody.[42]Hopkinsand
EijkmanwereawardedtheNobelPrizeforPhysiologyorMedicinein1929fortheir
discoveries.[48]
In1910,thefirstvitamincomplexwasisolatedbyJapanesescientistUmetaroSuzuki,
whosucceededinextractingawatersolublecomplexofmicronutrientsfromricebran
andnameditabericacid(laterOrizanin).HepublishedthisdiscoveryinaJapanese
TheAncientEgyptiansknewthat
scientificjournal.[49]WhenthearticlewastranslatedintoGerman,thetranslationfailedto
feedingapersonliverwouldhelp
statethatitwasanewlydiscoverednutrient,aclaimmadeintheoriginalJapanesearticle,
curenightblindness.
andhencehisdiscoveryfailedtogainpublicity.In1912PolishbornbiochemistCasimir
Funk,workinginLondon,isolatedthesamecomplexofmicronutrientsandproposedthe
complexbenamed"vitamine".ItwaslatertobeknownasvitaminB3(niacin),thoughhedescribeditas"antiberiberifactor"
(whichwouldtodaybecalledthiamineorvitaminB1).Funkproposedthehypothesisthatotherdiseases,suchasrickets,
pellagra,coeliacdisease,andscurvycouldalsobecuredbyvitamins.MaxNierensteinafriendandreaderofBiochemistryat
BristolUniversityreportedlysuggestedthe"vitamine"name(from"vitalamine").[50]).[51]Thenamesoonbecamesynonymous
withHopkins'"accessoryfactors",and,bythetimeitwasshownthatnotallvitaminsareamines,thewordwasalready
ubiquitous.In1920,JackCecilDrummondproposedthatthefinal"e"bedroppedtodeemphasizethe"amine"reference,after
researchersbegantosuspectthatnotall"vitamines"(inparticular,vitaminA)haveanaminecomponent.[47]
In1930,PaulKarrerelucidatedthecorrectstructureforbetacarotene,themainprecursorofvitaminA,andidentifiedother
carotenoids.KarrerandNormanHaworthconfirmedAlbertSzentGyrgyi'sdiscoveryofascorbicacidandmadesignificant
contributionstothechemistryofflavins,whichledtotheidentificationoflactoflavin.Fortheirinvestigationsoncarotenoids,
flavinsandvitaminsAandB2,theybothreceivedtheNobelPrizeinChemistryin1937.[52]
In1931,AlbertSzentGyrgyiandafellowresearcherJosephSvirbelysuspectedthat"hexuronicacid"wasactuallyvitaminC,
andgaveasampletoCharlesGlenKing,whoproveditsantiscorbuticactivityinhislongestablishedguineapigscorbuticassay.
In1937,SzentGyrgyiwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicineforhisdiscovery.In1943,EdwardAdelbert
DoisyandHenrikDamwereawardedtheNobelPrizeinPhysiologyorMedicinefortheirdiscoveryofvitaminKandits
chemicalstructure.In1967,GeorgeWaldwasawardedtheNobelPrize(alongwithRagnarGranitandHaldanKefferHartline)
forhisdiscoverythatvitaminAcouldparticipatedirectlyinaphysiologicalprocess.[48]
Etymology
Thetermvitaminwasderivedfrom"vitamine",acompoundwordcoinedin1912bythePolishbiochemistKazimierzFunk[53]
whenworkingattheListerInstituteofPreventiveMedicine.Thenameisfromvitalandamine,meaningamineoflife,becauseit
wassuggestedin1912thattheorganicmicronutrientfoodfactorsthatpreventberiberiandperhapsothersimilardietary
deficiencydiseasesmightbechemicalamines.Thiswastrueofthiamine,butafteritwasfoundthatothersuchmicronutrients
werenotaminesthewordwasshortenedtovitamininEnglish.
Societyandculture
Oncediscovered,vitaminswereactivelypromotedinarticlesandadvertisementsinMcCall's,GoodHousekeeping,andother
mediaoutlets.[32]Marketersenthusiasticallypromotedcodliveroil,asourceofVitaminD,as"bottledsunshine",andbananasas
anaturalvitalityfood".Theypromotedfoodssuchasyeastcakes,asourceofBvitamins,onthebasisofscientifically
determinednutritionalvalue,ratherthantasteorappearance.[54]WorldWarIIresearchersfocusedontheneedtoensureadequate
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nutrition,especiallyinprocessedfoods.[32]RobertW.Yoderiscreditedwithfirstusingthetermvitamania,in1942,todescribe
theappealofrelyingonnutritionalsupplementsratherthanonobtainingvitaminsfromavarieddietoffoods.Thecontinuing
preoccupationwithahealthylifestylehasledtoanobsessiveconsumptionofadditivesthebeneficialeffectsofwhichare
questionable.[33]
Governmentalregulation
Mostcountriesplacedietarysupplementsinaspecialcategoryunderthegeneralumbrellaoffoods,notdrugs.Asaresult,the
manufacturer,andnotthegovernment,hastheresponsibilityofensuringthatitsdietarysupplementproductsaresafebeforethey
aremarketed.Regulationofsupplementsvarieswidelybycountry.IntheUnitedStates,adietarysupplementisdefinedunder
theDietarySupplementHealthandEducationActof1994.[55]ThereisnoFDAapprovalprocessfordietarysupplements,andno
requirementthatmanufacturersprovethesafetyorefficacyofsupplementsintroducedbefore1994.[32][33]TheFoodandDrug
AdministrationmustrelyonitsAdverseEventReportingSystemtomonitoradverseeventsthatoccurwithsupplements.[56]In
2007,theUSCodeofFederalRegulations(CFR)Title21,partIIItookeffect,regulatingGMPpracticesinthemanufacturing,
packaging,labeling,orholdingoperationsfordietarysupplements.Eventhoughproductregistrationisnotrequired,these
regulationsmandateproductionandqualitycontrolstandards(includingtestingforidentity,purityandadulterations)fordietary
supplements.[57]IntheEuropeanUnion,theFoodSupplementsDirectiverequiresthatonlythosesupplementsthathavebeen
provensafecanbesoldwithoutaprescription.[58]Formostvitamins,pharmacopoeialstandardshavebeenestablished.Inthe
UnitedStates,theUnitedStatesPharmacopeia(USP)setsstandardsforthemostcommonlyusedvitaminsandpreparations
thereof.Likewise,monographsoftheEuropeanPharmacopoeia(Ph.Eur.)regulateaspectsofidentityandpurityforvitaminson
theEuropeanmarket.
Naming
Thereasonthatthesetof
vitaminsskipsdirectly
fromEtoKisthatthe
vitaminscorrespondingto
lettersFJwereeither
reclassifiedovertime,
discardedasfalseleads,
orrenamedbecauseof
theirrelationshipto
vitaminB,whichbecame
acomplexofvitamins.
Previousname
Nomenclatureofreclassifiedvitamins
Chemicalname
Reasonfornamechange[59]
VitaminB4
Adenine
DNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
VitaminB8
Adenylicacid
DNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
VitaminF
Essentialfattyacids
Neededinlargequantities(does
notfitthedefinitionofavitamin).
VitaminG
Riboflavin
ReclassifiedasVitaminB2
VitaminH
Biotin
ReclassifiedasVitaminB7
VitaminJ
Catechol,Flavin
CatecholnonessentialflavinreclassifiedasVitaminB2
VitaminL1[60]
Anthranilicacid
Nonessential
TheGermanspeaking
Adenylthiomethylpentose RNAmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
VitaminL2[60]
scientistswhoisolated
VitaminM
Folicacid
ReclassifiedasVitaminB9
anddescribedvitaminK
(inadditiontonamingit
VitaminO
Carnitine
Synthesizedinbody
assuch)didsobecause
VitaminP
Flavonoids
Nolongerclassifiedasavitamin
thevitaminisintimately
VitaminPP
Niacin
ReclassifiedasVitaminB3
involvedinthe
VitaminS
Salicylicacid
Proposedinclusion[61]ofsalicylateasanessentialmicronutrient
coagulationofblood
VitaminU
SMethylmethionine
Proteinmetabolitesynthesizedinbody
followingwounding
(fromtheGermanword
Koagulation).Atthetime,most(butnotall)ofthelettersfromFthroughtoJwerealreadydesignated,sotheuseoftheletterK
wasconsideredquitereasonable.[59][62]Thetablenomenclatureofreclassifiedvitaminslistschemicalsthathadpreviouslybeen
classifiedasvitamins,aswellastheearliernamesofvitaminsthatlaterbecamepartoftheBcomplex.
ThereareothermissingBvitaminswhichwerereclassifiedordeterminednottobevitamins.Forexample,B9isfolicacidand
fiveofthefolatesareintherangeB11throughB16,formsofothervitaminsalreadydiscovered,notrequiredasanutrientbythe
entirepopulation(likeB10,PABAforinternaluse[63]),biologicallyinactive,toxic,orwithunclassifiableeffectsinhumans,or
notgenerallyrecognisedasvitaminsbyscience,[64]suchasthehighestnumbered,whichsomenaturopathpractitionerscallB21
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andB22.TherearealsonineletteredBcomplexvitamins(e.g.Bm).ThereareotherDvitaminsnowrecognisedasother
substances,[63]whichsomesourcesofthesametypenumberuptoD7.Thecontroversialcancertreatmentlaetrilewasatone
pointletteredasvitaminB17.ThereappearstobenoconsensusonanyvitaminsQ,R,T,V,W,X,YorZ,norarethere
substancesofficiallydesignatedasVitaminsNorI,althoughthelattermayhavebeenanotherformofoneoftheothervitamins
oraknownandnamednutrientofanothertype.
Antivitamins
Antivitaminsarechemicalcompoundsthatinhibittheabsorptionoractionsofvitamins.Forexample,avidinisaproteininegg
whitesthatinhibitstheabsorptionofbiotin.[65]Pyrithiamineissimilartothiamine,vitaminB1,andinhibitstheenzymesthatuse
thiamine.[66]
Seealso
Provitamin
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