EirwenJanePierrot,October2010

ESCAPINGDIPLOMATICIMPUNITY
THECASEFORDIPLOMATICLAWREFORM

INTRODUCTION

Simplybecausesomethinghasalwaysbeendoneacertainwaydoesnotmeanthatthereisno
possibilityofchange.AsProfessorGeoffreySawerhasobserved,thewholebodyofthelaw
standspotentiallyinneedofreform.1Indeed,therearemanylawswhich,whenpassed,
challengedtimelesstraditionsandradicallychangedthewaythingsweredone,yetovertime
havebecomewidelyregardedaspartofthefabricofdemocraticsociety.Governmentsshould
thereforebeambitiousintheirconsiderationsforimprovingthelaw,bothdomesticand
international,especiallywherefundamentalrightsandfreedomscomeintoquestion.
Theconceptofdiplomaticimmunityfromcivilandcriminalproceedingshasestablisheditselfas
afundamentalofcustomarydiplomaticlaw.Itisoneofinternationallawsmostsuccessfuland
enduringrules,with185statescurrentlyrecognisingtherulesofdiplomacyasstatedinthe
ViennaConventionof1961.UndertheConvention,diplomatsarenotsubjecttoarrestof
detainment(Article29);theyareimmunefromthecriminaljurisdictionofthereceivingstate
(Article31);andimmunefromciviljurisdictionforactscommittedwithintheirofficialcapacity
(Article31).Thefamilyofthediplomaticagentenjoysthesameimmunitystatus(Article37).
Missionstaffalsoenjoyvariablelevelsofimmunity(Article37).
Inrecentdecadesevidencehasmountedofabusebydiplomatsoftheirimmunities.Forthe
mostpartabuseisminor,suchasdiplomatsnotoriouslyfailingtopaymotoringfinesand

1GeoffreySawer,TheLegalTheoryofLawReform,UniversityofTorontoLawReview,20(1970),p.183.

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parkingtickets.2Nonetheless,fromtimetotimediplomats,theirfamiliesandtheirstaff,are
implicatedinextremelyseriousoffences,includingmurder,rape,childabuse,andimposing
slavery.Alloftheseoffencescanbesaidtoviolateinternationalhumanrightslawsand
conventions,therecognitionofwhichtranscendsnationalboundaries.Thisessayarguesthat
completeimmunityfromlegalproceedingsfordiplomatsisincompatiblewithinternational
humanrightslawandstandsinthewayofjusticeforvictims.Ininstanceswhereaconflict
arises,humanrightsmusttakesupremacyoverdiplomaticimmunity.TheViennaConvention
andtheRomeStatuteshouldthereforebeamendedtoallowforlegalproceedingstobetaken
againstdiplomatsattheInternationalCriminalCourt(ICC)inordertoensurethatdiplomatic
immunitydoesnotamounttodiplomaticimpunity.

DIPLOMATICIMMUNITY:HISTORICALDEVELOPMENTSANDCURRENTLAW

TherulesofdiplomaticlawenshrinedintheViennaConventionhavebeendescribedasthe
cornerstoneofthemoderninternationallegalorder.3Buttheprincipleofdiplomaticimmunity
datesbackfarfurtherthan1961.Itisoneoftheoldestrulesofinternationallaw.Diplomatic
immunitywaswellestablishedbytheendoftheseventeenthcentury,evolvingoutofthe
principlesofequalityofstatesandimmunityofthesovereign,whowassaidtoembodythe

2SeeForeignAffairsCommittee,TheAbuseofDiplomaticImmunitiesandPrivileges(London:Houseof

Commons,1984),1984/85 HC 127, p. vi.

3EileenDenza,DiplomaticLaw:CommentaryontheViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelations(Oxford,
2008),p.1.

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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010
state.4AsSatowputit,immunityisnotapersonalimmunitybutinrealitytheimmunityof
thesendingstate.5
Bythetwentiethcenturytherationalebehinddiplomaticimmunityhadsignificantlyaltered.
Thenotionofthemonarchasthepersonificationofthestatebydivineorderhadwanedwith
theincreasingsecularizationofsociety.Nevertheless,theprincipleofimmunityfordiplomats
remainedintact.Now,theprevalentprinciplejustifyingdiplomaticimmunityisthatof
functionaldoctrine.AsHazelFoxdescribesinherauthoritativetextonstateimmunity,
diplomaticimmunityisgiven
i)

asrecognitionofthesovereignindependentstatusofthesendingStateandofthepublicnature
oftheactswhichrenderthemnotsubjecttothejurisdictionofthereceivingState;and

ii) asprotectiontothediplomaticmissionandstafftoensuretheirefficientperformanceof
functionsfreefrominterferencefromthereceivingstate.6

Thelawofdiplomaticimmunityisnotthereforesomesortofdivinelawbutanecessityto
protectandpromotecivilizedinternationalrelations.7ThislogicwasexpressedbythePolish
SupremeCourtwhichheldthattheimmunityofStatehasadifferentjuridicalbasisfromthatof
diplomaticagents.TheimmunityofrepresentativesofaforeignStatehastheobjectiveof
safeguardingtheirlibertyintheexerciseoftheirfunctions,whilsttheimmunityoftheStateis
juridicallybasedonthedemocraticprinciplesoftheirequality.8

4By1758therulesofdiplomacywereputinwritingbyVattelinhisLeDroitDesGens.SeeDenza,p.2.

5ErnestSatow,SatowsGuidetoDiplomaticPractice5thEdition(London,1979),p.131.

6HazelFox,TheLawofStateImmunity2ndEdition(Oxford,2008),p.701.

7AnexcellentanalysisofthetheoreticalbasesofdiplomaticimmunitycanbefoundinMitchellS.Ross,

RethinkingDiplomaticImmunity:AReviewofRemedialApproachestoAddresstheAbusesofDiplomatic
PrivilegesandImmunities,Thesis(J.D.),WashingtonCollegeofLaw(1989),pp.176182.
8CitedinFox,p.711.

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Thefunctionalnecessityapproachexplainswhydiplomaticlawshavebeensosuccessful:their
relianceonreciprocity.Theagreementsaremutuallybeneficialforallstatesinvolved.AsDenza
describes,ThenegotiatorsoftheViennaConventiondidnotforgetthattheinternational
legislativeprocesscannotbecontrolledbymajorityvotebutdependsultimatelyonratification
bynationalParliamentslookingtonationalselfinterest.9

However,althoughdiplomatsaregrantedimmunityfromjurisdictionofthereceivingstate,
Article41oftheConventionmakesitclearthattheyareobligedtorespectitslawsand
regulations.Shouldthereceivingstatewishtosubjectthediplomattocriminalorcivilaction,
thereceivingstatemayrequestthatthesendingstatewaivethediplomatsrightto
jurisdictionalimmunity.Alternativelythereceivingstatecouldmakerepresentationstothe
sendingstatetoinitiateproceedings;orinextremecircumstancestheymaydeclarethe
individualinvolvedpersonanongrata.Inrealitysuchmeasuresarerarelytaken.

ABUSESOFDIPLOMATICPRIVILEGESANDIMMUNITIES

DespitethedutystatedunderArticle41,theConventioncontainsnoenforcementprovisionsto
compeldiplomatstocomply.Butlawwithoutanymeansofcompulsionismeaningless.10Thisis
apparentfromtheevidenceofdiplomatsbreakinglocallaw,andanissueofextremeconcern
whenitadiplomat,orhis/herstafforfamily,isallegedtohavecommittedagraveoffence,such
asmurder,inflictinginhumanetreatment,violenceagainstwomen,orimposingslavery.Such
examplesincludethecaseofFloydKaramba,arepresentativeattheZimbabweanmissiontothe
UnitedNationswhowasdeportedonchargesthatheseverelyabusedhischildren,yetcouldnot

9CitedinDenza,,p.3.

10SeeRoss,p.182.

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bechargedwithanycrime.11In1988ManuelAyree,thesonofaGhanaiandiplomattothe
UnitedNations,wasidentifiedasaserialrapistbutneverfacedanycharges.12Possiblythemost
widelypublicizedincidentofdiplomaticcomplicityinseriouscrimewasthemurderofa
Londonpolicewoman,killedfromashotfiredfromtheLibyanPeoplesBureau.13

Ofparticularconcern,bothforitsseriousnessanditsprevalence,istheappearanceofanew
formofenslavementwhichhassadlyimplicatedanumberofdiplomaticagents.Thousandsof
peoplehavefoundthemselvesvictimsofdomesticslavery,forcedtoworkwithoutfinancial
rewardinviolationoftheirhumanrightsanddignity.Theproblemwasdiscussedinareportby
theParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEuropewhichdeploredthefactthata
considerablenumberofvictimsworkfordiplomatsorinternationalcivilservantswho,under
theViennaConventionof1961,enjoyimmunity.14Kalayaan,aBritishcharitychampioningthe
rightsofdomesticworkers,hasproducedresearchwhichindicatesthat6.9%ofdomestic
workersindiplomatichouseholdsintheUKarevictimsoftraffickingfordomesticservitude.15
SuchcrimesareinviolationofEuropeanandinternationallaw.Article4oftheEuropean
ConventiononHumanRightsprovidesthatnooneshallbeheldinslaveryorservitudeorbe
requiredtoperformforcedorcompulsorylabour.Article3providesthatnooneshallsuffer
torture,inhumaneordegradingtreatment.Theinternationalcommunityisboundby

11MarkA.Uhlig,CourtWontBarReturnofBoyinAbuseCasetoZimbabwe,NewYorkTimes[online],1

January1988.Availablefromhttp://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/01/nyregion/courtwontbarreturn
ofboyinabusecasetozimbabwe.html.

12McFadden,RepatriationaskedforDiplomatsSon,NewYorkTimes,NewYorkTimes[online],8
February1981.Availablefromhttp://spiderbites.nytimes.com/pay_1981/articles_1981_02_00000.html.

13SeeIanBlack,SearchforPCYvonneFletchersKillerCastsOldShadowOverLibyasNewEra,The
Guardian[online],3September2010.Availablefrom
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/03/yvonnefletcherkillersearch.
14CouncilofEurope,DomesticSlavery(Strasbourg,2001),Doc.9102,p.149.

15Kalayaan,SubmissiontotheSpecialRapporteuronContemporaryFormsofSlavery(4June2010).
Availablefrom
http://www.kalayaan.org.uk/documents/SR%20contemporary%20forms%20of%20slavery%20
%20Kalayaan%20submission%20final%20_names%20now%20deleted%20for%20publication_.pdf.
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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010
InternationalLabourOrganisationConventionNumber29,whichstatesthattheillegalexaction
offorcedorcompulsorylabourshallbepunishableasapenaloffence.TheInternational
CriminalCodealsomakesitanoffencetoreduceapersontoslaveryorasituationsimilarto
slavery,totrafficortradeinhumanbeingsandtosellorbuyslaves.Furthermore,noneofthe
victimswereabletoexercisetheirrighttoaremedy,despitetheprovisionsprovidingthisright
asarticulatedinArticle2oftheInternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights,andArticle
14oftheConventionagainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentor
Punishment.

HUMANRIGHTS,DIPLOMATICLAWANDJUSCOGENS

Inrecentdecadesinternationalrecognitionoftheimportanceofhumanrightshasgrownand
withitpersuasiveargumentshaveemergedsuggestingthathumanrightsshouldprevailover
diplomaticimmunityshouldaconflictarise.
In1998theHouseofLordsfamouslyrefusedtograntGeneralPinochetheadofstateimmunity
fromadjudicationinthecontextofgrossviolationsofhumanrights.Itwasheldthatsuch
abusescouldnotbeheldapublicfunctionofaHeadofStateandthereforecouldnotbesubject
toimmunity.LordSteynsopinionillustratedthepointwell:
IfaHeadofStatekillshisgardenerinafitofragethatcouldbynostretchoftheimaginationbe
describedasanactperformedintheexerciseofhisfunctionsasHeadofState.IfaHeadofState
ordersvictimstobetorturedinhispresenceforthesolepurposeofenjoyingthespectacleofthe
pitifultwitchingofvictimsdyinginagonythatcouldnotbedescribedas[anact]undertakenby
himintheexerciseofhisfunctionsasaHeadofState.16

16OpinionofLordSteyninU.K.HouseofLords:Reginav.BartleandtheCommissionerofPoliceforthe

MetropolisandOthers,ExPartePinochet(Mar.24,1999).

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Thesamecouldequallybesaidofthoseholdingdiplomaticimmunity.Theproblemofcourse
liesinthatHeadofStateimmunityisgivenonlyrationemateriawhilstdiplomaticimmunityis
givenbothrationemateriaandrationepersonae.Thatsaid,inhisjudgmentonthesamecase,
LordNichollsstatedthat[I]nternationallawhasmadeplainthatcertaintypesofconduct,
includingtortureandhostagetaking,arenotacceptableconductonthepartofanyone
[emphasisadded].Thisappliesasmuchtoheadsofstate,orevenmoreso,asitdoesto
everyoneelse;thecontraryconclusionwouldmakeamockeryofinternationallaw.17
InthecaseofUSAv.IranheldbeforetheInternationalCourtofJusticein1980therewasfurther
suggestionthatlawsrelatingtoseriouscrimesagainstindividualsmusttakeprecedentover
othertreatylaw.Thejudgmentstatedthatthediplomaticprivilegeofinviolabilityoftheperson,
asstatedinArticle29oftheViennaConvention,couldnotmeanthatadiplomaticagentcaught
intheactofcommittinganassaultorotheroffencemaynot,onoccasion,bebrieflyarrestedby
thepoliceofthereceivingstateinordertopreventthecommissionoftheparticularcrime.18
Thekeyissuebeingreflectedinthesejudgmentsis,ifweacceptthatdiplomaticimmunitystems
fromfunctionalnecessity,thattheprivilegesofimmunityandinviolabilityaregrantedinorder
toprotectthediplomatsabilitytocarryouttheirworkeffectivelyandnotasapersonalbenefit.
ThedraftersdidnotdesigntheConventionwithamindtohelpinganindividualescape
prosecutionforwrongscommitted.
InthecaseofEpsonv.Smiththejudgesaid,itiselementarylawthatdiplomaticimmunityisnot
immunityfromlegalliability,butimmunityfromsuit.19Diplomaticimmunityislittlemorethan
aproceduralbarrier,ahandytooltoenablediplomatstocarryouttheirdutieswithout
hindrance.Withthisinmind,itisverydifficulttojustifydiplomaticimmunitytakingsupremacy

17OpinionofLordNichollsinU.K.HouseofLords:Reginav.BartleandtheCommissionerofPoliceforthe

MetropolisandOthers,ExPartePinochet(Mar.24,1999).

18UnitedStatesDiplomaticandConsularStaffinTehran,Judgment,1.C.J.Reports1980.

19Epsonv.Smith,QueensBenchDivision,1Q.B.426(1996).

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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010
inthehierarchyoflawsoverhumanrights.Humanrightshavefrequentlybeenwrittenaboutas
juscogensnottobederogatedfrom.Theyareenshrinedinaneverincreasingnumberof
regionalandinternationaltreaties,covenantsanddeclarations.Theycannottakesupremacy
overwhatisessentiallylittlemorethanaveryusefulcompromise.20

PROPOSALSFORREFORM

TheNdombasiCaseconcernedthelawfulnessofanarrestwarrantissuedbyBelgiumagainst
theCongoleseMinisterforForeignAffairs,wantedforbreachesoftheGenevaConventions
1949.TheCourtdecidedby13votesto3thatthedisputedarrestwarrantfailedtorespectthe
immunityfromcriminaljurisdictionandinviolabilitywhichMrNdombasienjoyedunder
internationallaw.However,initsjudgmentthecourtemphasized

thattheimmunityfromjurisdictionenjoyedbyincumbentMinistersforForeignAffairs

doesnotmeanthattheyenjoyimpunityinrespectofanycrimestheymighthave

committed,irrespectiveoftheirgravity.Immunityfromcriminaljurisdictionand

individualcriminalresponsibilityarequiteseparateconcepts.Whilejurisdictional

immunityisproceduralinnature,criminalresponsibilityisaquestionofsubstantive

law.Jurisdictionalimmunitymaywellbarprosecutionforacertainperiodorfor

certainoffences;itcannotexoneratethepersontowhomitappliesfromallcriminal

responsibility.21

Thecurrentarrangementisthereforeunsatisfactory.Thereisaclearargumentthatwithoutany
possibilityofenforcementactionbeingtakenagainstdiplomatsviolationofthelawwilloccur,
amountingtodiplomaticimpunity.

20Foranexcellentanalysisofthehierarchyofdiplomaticlawandhumanrightslaw,withreferencetojus

cogensseeDrorBenAsher,HumanRightsMeetDiplomaticImmunities:ProblemsandPossible
Solutions,Thesis(PhD),HarvardLawSchool(November,2000),pp.1926.

21ArrestWarrantof1April2000(DemocraticRepublicoftheCongov.Belgium),Judgment,I.C.J.Reports
2002.

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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010
Recognisingthisproblem,theParliamentaryAssemblyoftheCouncilofEuropehas
recommendedthattheViennaConventionbeamendedinordertowaivediplomaticimmunity
foralloffencescommittedinprivatelife.22Whilstattractiveatfirstglancethisissueraises
difficultquestionsabouthoweasilyalinecanbedrawnbetweenpublicandprivatefunctions.
Furthermore,thiscouldeasilybeopentoabusefrompoliticallymotivatedfalseaccusations.
Suchdrasticreformwouldbebothundesirableanddifficulttoachieve,duetothereciprocal
benefitofimmunityforallstatesinvolved.Immunityexistsforgoodreason:diplomats,as
representativesofaforeignstatelivinginahostnation,arevulnerable.Theveryrealriskto
diplomatsfrompoliticallymotivatedviolence,kidnappingandattackmakeprotection
necessary.Itwouldthereforenotbeprudenttodisposeofthelawofimmunityforthesakeof
beingabletoprosecute,forexample,nonpaymentofafewparkingtickets.
Withseriousoffences,asdemonstratedabove,immunityismuchhardertojustify.Butthe
problembetweensimplydrawingalinebetweenmajorandminoroffencesisthatcertain
offencesmaybeminorinonestate,completelylegalinanother,andaseriousoffence
elsewhere.Itwouldthereforenotbeadvisabletoreforminternationallawtoenablediplomats
tobepunishedbylocalcourtsforcommittinganycrimewhatsoever.
Thecruxoftheproblemisnotaboutliabilitybutaboutjurisdiction:theriskofabusemakes
jurisdictionofthereceivingstateoveractscommittedbydiplomatsundesirable,yetthereisno
guaranteethatheorshewillbebroughttojusticeinthesendingstate.However,thereisabody
thatdoeshavejurisdictionacrossinternationalbordersforissuesthatareheldtobeofserious
internationalconcern:TheInternationalCriminalCourt.
ThisessayproposesthattheViennaConventionbeamendedtomakeitclearthatdiplomatic
immunitycannotmeanimmunityfromtheICCsjurisdiction,andthatArticle5oftheRome
StatuebeamendedtoextendtheICCsjurisdictiontocovercrimescommittedbydiplomatic

22CouncilofEurope,p.149.

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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010
agentswhichbreachanindividualshumanrights.Unlikedomesticcourts,theICCwouldbeable
tooperatefreelyandfairly.Sittingoutsideofabilateralrelationsstructure,itwouldenable
justicetobeservedwithouttheriskofbreakdownofinternationalrelationsandmany
safeguardsexistintheICCtreatytopreventfrivolousorpoliticallymotivatedcases.

CONCLUSION

Ininternationallaw,asinanyotherlegalsystem,respectandprotectionofhumanrightscanbe
guaranteedonlybytheavailabilityofeffectivejudicialremedies.Ifarightisviolated,accessto
justiceisofparamountimportanceforthevictimandisanessentialcomponentoftheruleof
law.Governmentsaroundtheworldshouldbeunafraidtoprotectandenhancehumanrights
throughtherestatementofexistingrulesandtheformulationofnewones,inordertoensure
equalprotectionunderthelawandaccesstojusticeforall.Whereagapintheavailabilityof
judicialremedyisfounditshouldbeclosed,evenifthatmeansrethinkingaseeminglytimeless
legalprinciple:thatoftheimmunityaffordedtodiplomats.

[2,985words,inc,footnotes]

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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010

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BenAsher,Dror,HumanRightsMeetDiplomaticImmunities:ProblemsandPossibleSolutions,
Thesis(PhD),HarvardLawSchool(November,2000).

Black,IanSearchforPCYvonneFletchersKillerCastsOldShadowOverLibyasNewEra,The
Guardian[online],3September2010.Availablefrom
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/03/yvonnefletcherkillersearch.

CouncilofEurope,DomesticSlavery(Strasbourg,2001),Doc.9102.

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(Oxford,2008).

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ofCommons,1984),1984/85 HC 127.

Fox,Hazel,TheLawofStateImmunity2ndEdition(Oxford,2008).

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2010).Availablefrom
http://www.kalayaan.org.uk/documents/SR%20contemporary%20forms%20of%20slavery%
20
%20Kalayaan%20submission%20final%20_names%20now%20deleted%20for%20publication
_.pdf.

McFadden,RepatriationaskedforDiplomatsSon,NewYorkTimes,NewYorkTimes[online],8
February1981.Availablefrom
http://spiderbites.nytimes.com/pay_1981/articles_1981_02_00000.html.

Ross,MitchellS.,RethinkingDiplomaticImmunity:AReviewofRemedialApproachesto
AddresstheAbusesofDiplomaticPrivilegesandImmunities,Thesis(J.D.),WashingtonCollege
ofLaw(1989).
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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010

Satow,Ernest,SatowsGuidetoDiplomaticPractice5thEdition(London,1979).

Sawer,Geoffrey,TheLegalTheoryofLawReform,UniversityofTorontoLawReview,20(1970),
pp.183195.

Uhlig,MarkA.,CourtWontBarReturnofBoyinAbuseCasetoZimbabwe,NewYorkTimes
[online],1January1988.Availablefrom
http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/01/nyregion/courtwontbarreturnofboyinabuse
casetozimbabwe.html.

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ArrestWarrantof1April2000(DemocraticRepublicoftheCongov.Belgium),Judgment,I.C.J.
Reports2002

U.K.HouseofLords:Reginav.BartleandtheCommissionerofPolicefortheMetropolisand
Others,ExPartePinochet(Mar.24,1999)

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DraftCodeofCrimesAgainstthePeaceandSecurityofMankind1996,UNDoc.A/CN.4/L.532

EpsonvSmith,QueensBenchDivision,1Q.B.426(1996)

ConventionagainstTortureandOtherCruel,InhumanorDegradingTreatmentorPunishment
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InternationalCovenantonCivilandPoliticalRights1966
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EirwenJanePierrot,October2010

ViennaConventiononDiplomaticRelations1961

EuropeanConventiononHumanRights1950

C29ForcedLabourConvention1930

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