RVS TECHNICAL CAMPUS - COIMBATORE

KANNAMPALAYAM, COIMBATORE 641 402

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

AT6512 Automotive Fuels and Lubricants Laboratory

LAB MANUAL

Prepared by
C.SELVA KUMAR
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR/ AUTOMOBILE

CONTENTS
Sl.No.

Date

Name of the Experiment

Flash and Fire point

Redwood Viscometer

Saybolt Viscometer

ASTM Distillation of Fuel

Aniline Point

Cloud and Pour Point

Copper Strip Corrosion Test

Penetrometer Test

10

Calorific Value of Liquid

11

Gas Calorimeter

12

Amount of Carbon Residue by Rams

Bottom Apparatus

13

Determination of Ash Content

14

Reid Vapour Pressure

Page No.

Staff
Signature

EX.NO.01

FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

AIM
To determine the flash point and fire point of fuel oils by using Pensky Martens
apparatus (closed type).
DEFINITION
FLASH POINT
The lowest temperature of the sample, corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa
760 mm Hg , at which application of a test flame causes the vapour of the sample to
ignite under specified conditions of test.
FIRE POINT
The fire point, is defined as the temperature at which the vapour continues to burn after
being ignited.
SUMMARY OF METHOD
The sample is heated at a slow, constant rate with continual stirring. A small flame is
directed into the cup at regular intervals with simultaneous interruption of stirring. The
flash point is the lowest temperature at which application of the test flame causes the
vapour above the sample to ignite.
SIGNIFICANCE

Flash point measures the response of the sample to heat and flame under
controlled laboratory conditions.
It is only one of a number of properties which must be considered in assessing
the overall flammability hazard of a material.
Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and
combustible materials.

APPARATUS

Pensky Martens Closed Tester

Thermometers (Two standard thermometers shall be used with the PenskyMartens tester)

TABULATION

S.No.

SAMPLES

FLASH POINT (C)

FIRE POINT(C)

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
Samples of asphalts or very viscous materials may be warmed until they are reasonable
fluid before they are tested. However, no sample should be heated more than is
absolutely necessary. It shall never be heated above a temperature of 17C ( 30F )
below its expected flash point.
APPARATUS SPECIFICATIONS
A typical assembly of the apparatus, gas heated, is shown in Fig. The apparatus shall
consist of a test cup, cover, and stove conforming to the following requirements.
Cup - The cup shall be of brass, or other non-rusting metal of equivalent heat
conductivity, and shall conform to the dimensional requirements
Cover Proper - The cover shall be brass, and shall have a rim projecting downward
almost to the flange of the cup. The rim shall fit the outside of the cup with a clearance
not exceeding 0.36 mm 0.014 in on the diameter.
Shutter - The cover shall be equipped with a brass shutter approximately 2.4 mm ( 3/32
in ) thick operating on the plane of the upper surface of the cover. cover openings shall
be exactly open and the tip of the exposure tube shall be fully depressed.
Flame Exposure Device - The flame-exposure device shall have a tip with an opening
0.69 to 0.79 mm (0.027 to 0.031 in) in diameter. This tip shall be made preferably of
stainless steel, although it may be fabricated of other suitable metals
Pilot Flame - A pilot flame shall be provided for automatic relighting of the exposure
flame.
Stirring Device - The cover shall be equipped with a stirring device mounted in the
centre of the cover and carrying two 2-bladed metal propellers.
Stove
Heat shall be supplied to the cup by means of a properly designed stove which is
equivalent to an air bath. The stove shall consist of an air-bath and a top plate on which
the flange of the cup rests.
Air Bath
The air bath shall have a cylindrical interior and shall conform to the dimensional
requirements in Fig.
Top Plate
The top plate shall be of metal, and shall be mounted with an air gap between it and the
air bath.

PROCEDURE

The oil cup was cleaned using solvent.

The cup was filled with fresh sample up to the mark.
The cup was placed in the apparatus bath.
The lid is placed on the cup and the thermometer was also inserted.
The electrical heater was turned to 50% of input volts and oil is heated.
After that spring handle was rotated at every degree rise from this point.
The temperature was noted at which the flash occurs.
The fire point was noted at which the fuel burnt continuously for 5 seconds.
The experiment was repeated for different samples.

RESULT
Flash point and fire point of given samples are ________________

is _______ C

EX.NO.02

REDWOOD VISCOMETER

AIM
To determine the kinematic viscosity of the given sample of oil at various
temperatures and to study corresponding variation with respect to temperature.
APPARATUS REQUIRED

Red wood viscometer with accessories

Measuring flask
Thermometer
Stop watch

Red wood viscometer is based on the principle of laminar flow through

the capillary tube of standard dimension under falling head. The
viscometer consists of vertical cylinder with an orifice at the center of the
base of inner cylinder.
The cylinder is surrounded by a water bath, which can maintain
temperature of the liquid to be tested at required temperature. The water
bath is heated by electric heater.
Cylinder which is filled up to a fixed height with liquid whose viscosity is
to be determined is heated by water bath to the desired temperature.
Then orifice is opened and the time required to pass the 50cc of oil is
noted. With this arrangement variation of viscosity with temperature can
be studied.

THEORY

FORMULA

In this case of red wood viscometer, the kinematic viscosity (v) of liquid
and the time (t) required to pass 50cc of liquid are correlated by
expression.
=0.0026 1.175/t
Where,
= Kinematic viscosity
t =time in seconds to collect 50cc of oil.

OBSERVATION
Sl.No. Temperature (0C)

Time taken to collect 50cc

of oil (sec)

Kinematic viscosity
(centistokes)

SIGNIFICANCE

Pump design can be done with the help of viscosity.

Pump operation of the engine depends on the proper viscosity of the
liquid fuel.
Its very important to know about the fluid flow through various objects.
Conveying of fluid can be done effect by means of viscosity data.

PROCEDURE

The instrument was leveled with the help of the circular bubble and
by leveling foot screws.
The water bath was filled with water.
The orifice is closed with the ball valve and the cylinder is filled up to
index mark with oil.
The steady state temperature of oil was recorded.
The procedure is repeated for different by heating oil with water bath.

RESULT
The kinematic viscosity for the given sample was determined and the graph was
plotted and it was observed that the kinematic viscosity of the given sample
decreases with increases in temperature.

EX.NO.03

SAYBOLT VISCOMETER

AIM
To determine the viscosity of the given petroleum products and to study the
variation of viscosity with respect to temperature.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
Saybolt viscometer apparatus
Thermometer (0 100 deg)
Sample
Stop watch
Beaker (100 ml capacity)
THEORY
Viscometers are used to define the viscous properties of a fluid at ambient or
defined temperatures. They are commonly available in the form of a calibrated capillary
tube through which a liquid is allowed to pass at a controlled temperature in a specified
time period. Other methods include rotational viscometry and falling ball tests.
Viscometers can have a few different technologies by which they operate.
For rotational viscometry, torque is required to rotate a spindle at constant speed
while immersed into the sample fluid. The torque is proportional to the viscous drag on
the immersed spindle, and thus to the viscosity of the fluid. For falling ball technology,
the viscosity is proportional to the time required for a ball to fall through the test liquid
contained in a precise an temperature controlled glass tube. Capillary viscometers
measure the flow rate of a fixed volume of fluid through a small orifice at a controlled
temperature.
The time it takes for a specific volume of fluid to pass through the orifice is
proportional to the fluid viscosity. However, it also depends on the density of the fluid
since the denser the fluid, the faster it will flow through the orifice. The property being
measured is then the kinematic viscosity and not the dynamic viscosity.
TYPES OF VISCOMETERS
Reverse flow viscometers
Small volume viscometers
Viscometers
Vacuum viscometers
Cylinder viscometers
Hydra motion viscometers

OBSERVATION

S.No.

Temperature (0C)

Time (seconds)

FORMULA
Kinematic viscosity, = At-B/t
Where, A=0.00226, B=1.95
A and B are constants.

Kinematic viscosity (centistokes)

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Do not connect bath to a power supply unless the bath is filled with oil.
Do not leave unit unattended, especially when operating at high bath
temperatures.
This could create a potential fire hazard.
SIGNIFICANCE
It is used to find the viscosity of the fluid.
Pump design can be done with the help of viscosity.
Pump operation of one engine depends on the proper viscosity of fuels.
Conveying of fluids can be done with the help of viscosity data.
It is very important to know about the fluid flow through various objects.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The viscometer was turned on after making sure that the bath was filled with
oil.
The bath was heated by means of water heater.
The power switch was turned on. The bath temperature was maintained at
various temperatures.
The bath was allowed to reach a steady temperature.
The cork stopper is used to block off the outlet of one of the Saybolt
viscometer tubes.
A measured quantity (+60 ml) of the sample was poured into the tube.
The sample temperature was allowed to equilibrate with that of the bath
(about 25 minutes).
Simultaneously the Saybolt tube was uncorked (using the pull chain) and the
stopwatch was started.
When the oil has reached the 60 ml mark, the stopwatch was stopped. The
time was recorded. The experiment was repeated for various temperatures.

RESULT
Thus the kinematic viscosity for given sample was determined for different
temperatures and tabulated. The graph was plotted and it was found that the kinematic
viscosity decreases with increase in temperature.

EX.NO.04

ASTM DISTILLATION CHARACTERISTICS

SCOPE
To determine the distillation characteristics (boiling range) of the given sample
using the distillation apparatus.

DISTILLATION
This method of test covers the distillation of motor gasoline, aviation gasoline,
aviation turbine fuels, special boiling point spirits, naphtha, white spirit, kerosene, gas
oils, distillate fuel oils and similar petroleum products. A 100 ml sample is distilled
under prescribed conditions which are appropriate to its nature. Systematic observations
of thermometer readings and volumes of condensate are made, and from the data, the
results of the test are calculated and reported.
The distillation (volatility) characteristics of hydrocarbons have an important
effect on their safety and performance, especially in the case of fuels and solvents. The
boiling range gives information on the composition, the properties, and the behavior of
the fuel during storage and use. Volatility is the major determinant of the tendency of a
hydrocarbon mixture to produce potentially explosive vapors.
The distillation characteristics are critically important for both automotive and
aviation gasoline, affecting starting, warm-up, and tendency to vapor lock at high
operating temperature or at high altitude, or both. The presence of high boiling point
components in these and other fuels can significantly affect the degree of formation of
solid combustion deposits.
Distillation limits are often included in petroleum product specifications, in
commercial contract agreements, process refinery/control applications, and for
compliance to regulatory rules.
This test method can be applied to contaminated products or hydrocarbon
mixtures. This is valuable for fast product quality screening, refining process monitoring,
fuel adulteration control, or other purposes including use as a portable apparatus for field
testing.
SIGNIFICANCE
Distillation (volatility) characteristics of petroleum products are indicative of
performance in their intended applications.
Petroleum product specifications generally include distillation limits to ensure
products of suitable volatility performance.
The empirical results obtained by use of this distillation method have been found
to correlate with automotive equipment performance factors and with other
characteristics of petroleum products related to volatility.
For motor spirit the 10% distillation value gives an indication of the engine start
conditions, also the final boiling point.

OBSERVATION

S.No Volume of Distillate collected (ml) Temperature C

TERMINOLOGY

Initial Boiling Point

The thermometer reading which is observed at the instant that the first drop of
condensate falls from the lower end of the condenser tube,

End-Point or Final Boiling Point

The maximum thermometer reading obtained during the test. This usually occurs
after the evaporation of all liquid from the bottom of the flask. The term maximum
temperature is a frequently used synonym.
Dry Point
The thermometer reading observed at the instant the last drop of liquid
evaporates from the lowest point in the flask. Any drops or film of liquid on the side of
the flask or on the thermometer are disregarded.
Decomposition Point
The thermometer reading which coincides with the first indication of thermal
decomposition of the liquid in the flask.
Percent Recovered
The volume in ml of condensate observed in the receiving graduate, in
connection with a simultaneous thermometer reading.
Percent Recovery
The maximum percent that is recovered.
Percent Total Recovery
The combined percent recovery and residue in the flask.
Percent Loss
100 minus the percent total recovery.
Percent Residue
The percent total recovery minus the percent recovery, or the volume of residue
in milliliters if measured directly.
Percent Evaporated
The sum of the percent recovered and the percent loss.

PROCEDURE

The given flask is to be thoroughly cleaned using solvent and dried.

The given test sample is then taken inside the flask and the cork with appropriate
thermometer is placed on the neck of the flask.
The flask is placed on the asbestos board and fixed to the metal condensers with a
cork. The asbestos board is raised of lowered till the flask is properly supported.
The 100cc measuring cylinder is placed below the condenser outlet. The heater is
then switched on and the temperature variation is noted.
The temperature at which the first drop of distillate is collected in the measuring
cylinder is noted and reported as the initial boiling point.
Heat is controlled, so that the distillation process is at a uniform state.
Middle boiling point is the temperature at which 50% of oil distills off.

RESULT
The Distillation characteristics are studied for the given samples and the values are noted
as follows:
1. Initial boiling point

2. Middle boiling point

3. Percentage of recovery

4. Percentage of non-volatile residue

5. Film boiling point

EX.NO.05

ANILINE POINT

AIM
To determine the aniline point of the given sample.
APPARATUS

The tube approximately 25mm in diameter and 150mm in length made of heatresistant glass.

A Jacket-approximately 37 to 42mm in diameter and 175mm in length made of

heat-resistant glass.

A Stirrer-manually operated, approximately 2mm in diameter soft iron wire.

THEORY
Aniline point
Aniline is a poor solvent for aliphatic hydrocarbons and excellent one for
aromatics. This property is used in the aniline point test. Aniline point of oil is the lowest
temperature at which the oil is completely miscible with an equal volume of aniline.
Equal volumes of the sample and aniline (5 ml each) are heated or cooled with
stirring in a jacketed test tube and temperature at which complete miscibility occurs is
noted.
High aniline point indicates that the fuel is highly paraffinic and hence has a
high diesel index and very good ignition quality. In case of aromatics the aniline point is
low and the ignition quality is poor
Diesel index
Diesel index is an indication of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. This is
determined by calculation from the specific gravity and the aniline point of the sample.
Although it is of the same order as the cetane number, it may differ widely from the
cetane number. Higher the diesel index better is the ignition quality of the diesel fuel. It
is normally used as a guide to ignition quality of the diesel fuel in the absence of test
engine for the direct measurement of cetane number.
The diesel index is calculated as follows:
(a) Diesel index = (Aniline point,F API)/100
(b) Diesel index = (Aniline gravity constant)/100
(c) Diesel index = (Cetane number 10)/0.72

Cetane number
Cetane number is related to the ignition delay of a fuel in a diesel engine, i.e.
how rapidly combustion begins after injection of the fuel into the combustion chamber.
The shorter the ignition delay period, higher is the cetane number of the fuel
Cetane number is the index of the ignition quality of a fuel. High cetane
number fuels will facilitate easy starting of compression ignition engines, particularly in
cold weathers, and faster warm up. These also result in increased engine efficiency and
power output, reduced exhaust smoke and odour and combustion noise. In the absence of
test engine, the diesel index or the calculated cetane index will give an approximate idea
of the ignition quality of the fuel.
Cetane number= 0.72Diesel index + 10

PROCEDURE

The apparatus was dried and cleaned.

10ml of aniline and 10ml of the sample were dried and pipetted into the test tube
fitted with stirrer and thermometer.

The thermometer in the test tube was cantered to make the immersion mark at the
liquid level; it is assured that the thermometer bulb does not touch the side of the
tube.

In the case of not mixing of aniline-sample at normal temperature, heat is applied

directly to the jacket tube so that the temperature raised at a rate of 1-3C/min till
complete miscibility was obtained.

Stirring is continued and the mixture is allowed to cool at a rate of 0.5 to

1C/min.

Cooling is continued to a temperature of 1 to 2C below the first appearance of

turbidity.

The temperature at which the mixture suddenly became cloudy throughout is

recorded as the aniline point.

RESULT
Results for the aniline point experiment were found to be

Aniline point =

Diesel index

Cetane number =

EX.NO.06

CLOUD AND POUR POINT DETERMINATION

AIM
To determine the Cloud point and pour point of the given sample.

REQUIREMENTS
Cloud and pour point apparatus, Thermometer, Ice crystals.

DEFINITIONS
The cloud point of a fluid is the temperature at which dissolved solids are no
longer completely soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the fluid a cloudy
appearance. This term is relevant to several applications with different consequences.
Also, the pour point can be defined as the lowest temperature expressed in multiples of
3C at which the oil is observed to flow when cooled and examined under prescribed
conditions.

THEORY
Cloud point and pour point are indicators of the lowest temperature of utility for
petroleum products. Cloud Point gives a rough idea of temperature above which the oil
can be safely handled without any fear of congealing or filter clogging. The sample is
periodically examined while it is being cooled in the cloud and pour point apparatus. The
highest temperature at which haziness is observed (cloud point), or the lowest
temperature at which the oil ceased to flow is observed (pour point), is reported as the
test result.
The cold filter plugging point test is used to determine the extent to which diesel
fuel or gas oil will flow, even though the temperature is below that at which wax crystals
normally appear, i.e. cloud point.
point is a well established test to estimate the temperature at which a sample of
oil becomes sufficiently solid to prevent its movement by pumping. The pour point
indicates the waxy nature of the oils.

SAMPLES SHOWING CLOUD AND POUR POINT

PROCEDURE
Measuring cloud point of petroleum product:
The test oil is required to be transparent in layers 40mm in thickness (in
accordance with ASTM D2500). The crystals of the sample typically first form at the
lower circumferential wall with the appearance of a whitish or milky cloud. The cloud
point is the temperature at which these crystals first appear.
The test sample is first poured into a test jar to a level approximately half full. A
cork carrying the test thermometer is used to close the jar. The thermometer bulb is
positioned to rest at the bottom of the jar. The entire test subject is then placed in a
constant temperature cooling bath on top of a gasket to prevent excessive cooling.
At every 1C, the sample is taken out and inspected for cloud then quickly
replaced. Successively lower temperature cooling baths may be used depending on the
cloud point. Lower temperature cooling bath must have temperature stability not less
than 1.5 K for this test.
Measuring pour point of petroleum product:
Two pour points can be derived which can give an approximate temperature
window depending on its thermal history. Within this temperature range, the sample may
appear liquid or solid. This peculiarity happens because sample crystals form more
readily when it has been heated within the past 24hrs and contributes to the lower pour
point.
The upper pour point is measured by pouring the test sample directly into a test jar. The
sample is then cooled and then inspected for pour point as per the usual pour point
method.
The lower pour point is measured by first pouring the sample into a stainless
steel pressure vessel. The vessel is then screwed tight and heated to above 100oC in an
oil bath. After a specified time, the vessel is removed and cooled for a short while. The
sample is then poured into a test jar and immediately closed with a cork carrying
the thermometer. The sample is then cooled and then inspected for pour point as per the
usual pour point method

RESULT
The pour point of the given sample was found to be

---------0C.

The cloud point of the given sample was found to be

---------0C

COPPER STRIP CORROSION TEST TEST BOMB

EX.NO.07

COPPER STRIP CORROSION TEST

AIM
To detect the corrosiveness of the given sample using copper strip corrosion test.

PRINCIPLE
The method covers the detection of corrosiveness to copper of aviation gasoline
from tractor fuel, solvent, kerosene, diesel, fuel oil, lube oil, certain other petroleum
products.
A polished copper strip is immersed in a given quantity of sample and heated at a
temperature and for a time characteristics of the material being tested. At the end of this
period, the copper strip is removed, washed and compared with copper strip corrosion
standards. It is particularly important that all types of feed sample which should pass a
tarnished strip classification. We collected clean glass bottles, plastic bottles or other
suitable containers that will not affect the corrosiveness properties of the sample.

REQUIREMENTS

Copper strip corrosion test bomb

Constant temperature water bath
Polishing ice
Glass test tube
Polishing paper

SIGNIFICANCE AND USE

This test method is suitable for setting specifications, for use as an internal
quality control tool, and for use in development or research work on industrial aromatic
hydrocarbons and related materials. It also gives an indication of the presence of certain
corrosive substances which may corrode equipment, such as acidic compounds or sulfur
compounds.

PROCEDURE

The test is to be operated at 50oC constant temperature.

The bath is set at the desired working temperature and waits for 20 minutes of time
after the start.
The copper strip is prepared for performing test. It is washed properly with solvent
(acetone) and surface of strip is prepared by rubbing with silicon carbide grid paper.
Clamp the strip with ice and polish it until uniform rubbing, when strip is clean
immerse it in prepared sample.
The strip is kept into 30 ml of sample which is kept inside the test bomb and the lid is
screwed tight.
After two hours in the bath the bomb is withdrawn and it is cooled with water.
The bomb is opened, the test tube is taken out and carefully the strip is withdrawn
from the sample.
The strip is compared with ASTM corrosion standards comparison chart and report
the tarnish level.

RESULT
The corrosiveness of the given sample is found out using the copper strip and
comparing it with ASTM standards and its value is found to be ____________________

EX.NO.08

PENETROMETER TEST

AIM
To determine the consistency of a grease using pentrometer
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.

Penetrometer
Sample grease
PRINCIPLE
Consistency or yield value expressed in terms of penetration, which is defined as
distance in tenth of millimeter that a standard cone penetrates vertically in to the sample,
under the standard conditions of load, temperature and interaction time. The value of the
load, temperature and time are taken respectively as 150 g, 25C and 5 seconds.
Consistency of the grease depends on the structure and interaction of the gelling
elements in I and to the extend on the viscosity if oil used. The National Lubricating
Grease Institute NLGI classified greases according to their consistency as measured by
the worked Penetration. The Classification system is as follows NLGI Consistency
Number

PROCEDURE
1. The apparatus is leveled, the cone is cleaned and sample of grease to be tested is
placed in a box and kept below the cone
2. The height of the cone is so adjusted with the help of mirror. The cone is adjusted
such that the tip of the cone just touches the grease sample
3. Initial dial reading is noted
4. The cone is released for exact 5 seconds by pressing a button provided for this
purpose
5. After 5 seconds, the press button is released and final dial reading is noted
6. The difference of the two dial readings gives the penetration.

RESULT
The Consistency of the given grease is ______ mm and NLGI number of the
given grease ____

X
000
00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6

Worked Penetration Range, 25 (77 F)

445 to 475
400 to 430
355 to 385
310 to 340
265 to 295
220 to 250
175 to 205
130 to 160
85 to 115

EX.NO.09

CALORIFIC VALUE OF LIQUID

AIM
To determine the calorific value of the given Solid / liquid fuel using Bomb calorimeter
APPARTUS REQUIRED
1. Bomb calorimeter test rig
2. Ignition wire
3. Sewing cotton
SPECIFICATIONS
Calorific value of Nichrome wire = 1400 J / g
Calorific value of Sewing cotton = 17473 J/g
Water equivalent of Calorimeter (W) = 9719 J / C
Mass of the Nichrome Wire / cm = 2.45 x 10

-3

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
A sample is weighted and placed in a heavy-duty stainless steel cylinder referred
to as Bomb. The Bomb is then sealed with oxygen and the sample is ignited
electrically. The complete oxidation of the compound releases heat and this is measured
through the temperature change of the water bath surrounding the bomb. A digital sensor
measures the rise in temperature. The heat of combustion at constant volume can be
calculated from the resulting rise in temperature.
4.

DISCRIPTION OF COMPONENTS
BOMB: - The Bomb is a stainless-steel cylindrical vessel having capacity of 300ml.
The volume of the Bomb does not change during a reaction and the walls are strong
2.

enough to easily bear the normal operating pressure of 26-kg/cm The bomb is tested at
2

extreme hydraulic pressures as high as 300-kg/cm . During burning of sample at high

pressure the nitrogen and sulphur contents are oxidized to nitric acid and sulphuric acid
respectively. The corrosion resistant nature of the Bomb protects it from the corrosive
vapours.
WATER / PUFF INSULATED JACKET : - It is made of Stainless steel and is highly
polished on the inside and outside to minimize radiative losses. A small pole provide on
top of the jacket to hold the Stirrer unit and an inlet through which water is added. A
screw is located at the bottom of the jacket for draining the water in the jacket. There is
no need to add water to Puff Insulated jacket. On top of the jacket provided are two
terminals for electrical connections from firing unit to bomb.
OFFSET STIRRER: - Stirrer is driven at a constant speed of 800 R.P.M. by a motor
through a heat insulator rubber belt.

CALORIMETER VESSEL: - The Bomb is placed in the vessel during the experiment.
It is made of copper and is brightly polished.
COMBINED LID: - Is used as a cover for Calorimeter vessel and Jacket.
FIRING UNIT WITH DIGITAL BECKMANN THERMOMETER
This Firing Unit is a unique combination of Ignition and Digital Beckmann
Thermometer. The sample placed in the bomb is ignited electrically, simply by pressing
the push button indicating fire.
PRESSURE GAUGE ON STAND : - An accurate pressure gauge is supplied for
measurement of pressure of oxygen in the Bomb. The dial is graduated
2
2
from 0 to 56 Kg / cm (0 to about 800 lb. / in ). Normally the oxygen is filled in the
2
Bomb at a pressure of 26 Kg / cm .
GAS RELEASE PIN: - It is used to release the pressure from the Bomb.
CRUCIBLE: - Stainless steel crucible is offered as standard with instrument. Platinum
Quartz and nickel crucibles are also being offered as accessories at extra cost.
IGNITION WIRE / COTTON THREAD: - Nichrome wire and cotton thread of
known calorific value are used as combustion aid.
PRECAUTIONS
Do not use too much of the sample. Max. limit is 2 grams
Do not charge with more oxygen. If more oxygen is admitted accidentally release the
oxygen
Do not fire the bomb if the gas bubbles are leaking from the bomb when it is submerged
Stand back from the Calorimeter atleast for 15 mins after firing

PROCEDURE
1. Place the accurately weighed Solid / liquid fuel of about 1 g in the crucible of the
calorimeter
2. Stretch a piece of the firing wire across the electrodes within the bomb
3. Tie about 10 cm length of sewing cotton around the wire
4. Place the crucible in position and arrange the loose ends of the thread so that they are in
the contact with the material
5. Introduce into the body of the bomb few ml of distilled water
6. Reassemble the bomb screw the fingers and tighten it avoiding excessive pressure
7. Charge the bomb slowly with oxygen from a cylinder to a pressure of 25atm and close the
valve effectively using as little pressure as possible
8. Place the bomb in the calorimeter vessel with Bomb support
9. Pour known quantity of water in the calorimeter vessel to submerge the nut of the bomb
to the depth of atleast 2 mm leaving the terminals projecting
10. Place the vessel with the bomb into calorimeter water jacket vessel carefully
11. Connect the ignition circuit and check for the continuity
12. Connect the stirrer and Beckman Thermometer
13. Run the stirrer for few minutes to reach the state and take initial water temperature
14. Set the digital Beckman thermometer to 0C after the steady state is reached
15. Fire the charge and continue to observe the temperature at intervals of 30 seconds and
Note down the temperature

RESULT
Thus the higher calorific value of the given fuel is calculated
Higher calorific value is _____ KJ / Kg

INFERENCE
The standard calorific value of Diesel is 43500 KJ/Kg
OBSERVATIONS
Length of the thread

= ______ cms

Mass of the fuel (m)

= ______ grams

Length of the fuse wire

= ______ cm

Initial Temperature of water at steady state = ______ C

Room Temperature

= _______ C

After firing
Rise in Temperature
TC
Temperature after reaching the steady state

CALCULATIONS
Length of the fuse wire consumed

= _____ cm

Length of the thread consumed

= _____ cm

Mass of the thread left

= ______ grams

HCV = T (WE ) (CVwire + CVthread) KJ / Kg

Weight of the sample in grams
Known values
Calorific value of wire / cm = 2.33 cal/cm
Calorific value of thread / cm = 2.1 cal/cm
Water equivalent = WE = 2576 Cal/C

EX.NO.10

GAS CALORIMETER

AIM :
To find the calorific value of a Gaseous fuel.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. A. CALORIMETER :

Main calorimeter body;

Three thermometers;
Air outlet tube;
Tripod legs; and
Burner with extra nozzle.

B. GAS FLOW METER :

Main Gas Flow Meter body;

Inlet / Outlet Nozzles;
Union nuts with washers for nozzles;
Union nut with washer for thermometer;
C. MISCELLANEOUS:

Measuring Jar

2. PREPARING FOR A TEST

Prepare the calorimeter for test.

Insert three thermometers provided with calorimeter in the rubber corks.
Insert rubber corks with thermometers into their places in the calorimeter.
Insert burner into its support rod in the bottom of the calorimeter and turn the Knurled
Knob so that the burner is fixed tightly. The burner must go into the center of the
calorimeter body.
Connect the calorimeter and the flow meter using rubber tubing provided. Do not
connect gas supply line. Take care to see that the water regulator of calorimeter is in
OFF position.

3. CONDUCTING A TEST :
Turn water regulator knob on calorimeter to ON position. Allow water to flow
through the calorimeter from overhead tank / tap. Allow water to flow for 3 to 4
minutes into laboratory sink through the calorimeter.

Turn water regulator to OFF position.

Stop water flow from overhead tank / tap.
Remove burner from calorimeter.
Allow 1 or 2 ltrs. of gas (as indicated by flow meter) to pass through the burner.
Light up the burner by holding a lighted match stick.
Adjust the air regulator sleeve at the bottom of the burner to get a blue, non-luminous
flame.
Fix the lighted burner back into position.
0
Adjust water regulator on calorimeter to get a temperature difference of 12 C to 15

C between the inlet water and outlet water as indicated by the respective
thermometers at the top of the calorimeter.
Allow 20 to 30 minutes for outlet water temperature to become steady.
Place empty measuring jar next to the calorimeter.
Swing water outlet pipe so that outlet water goes into glass jar. Simultaneously, note
the following meter reading.
Allow required volume of gas to pass through the flow meter.
As soon as this volume (as indicated by flow meter) has passed through the flow
meter, note the inlet and outlet water temperature and swing back the water outlet
pipe to calorimeter sink. Note the volume of water collected in the measuring jar.
Repeat the test with same volume of gas 3 or 4 times and take average temperatures of
inlet and outlet water.

RESULT
Thus the calorific value of the given gas is found and higher calorific value of the gas
3
is_______ KJ / m

OBSERVATION
Room temperature = ____C
S.NO

Water temperature
Inlet
T1 C

Outlet
T2 C

Volume of Gas
consumed
Qg
-3 3
ml
x 10 m

Volume of Water collected

during Qg gas consumption
Qw
-3 3
ml
x 10 m

FORMULA :

The formula to be used to calculate the Calorific Value of the test gas is as follows :
Vw
C.V. = -------- x (t2 t1) x 1000 x 4.187
sVg
3

Where, C.V. is Calorific Value of gas in kj / m ;

Vg is Volume of gas in litres consumed during test period; Vw is Volume of water in
0
litres passed during test period; t2 is outlet water temperature in C; and t1 is inlet water
0
temperature in C.

EX.NO.11

DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF CARBON RESIDUE

BY RAMS BOTTOM APPARATUS

AIM
To determine the amount of carbon residue left after evaporation and pyrolysis of an
oil.
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cooking bulb
Metal furnace
Temperature control box
Thermocouple sensor rod
Syringe for filling the sample oil

ASSEMBLY OF INSTRUMENT

Make connection of metal furnace with temperature control unit

Fix up the thermocouple wire with red and black terminal and rod inside the centre
hole on round casted block
Start the mains with 220 Volts AC

PROCEDURE

Place the cooking bulb in the cooking furnace at 550 C for about 20 minutes to
decompose any foreign organic matter and to remove water. Place in a closed
desiccator over CaCl2 for 20 30 minutes and the n weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg

Shake thoroughly the sample to be tested first warming if necessary to reduce its
viscosity. Strain the sample through a wire screen of nominal aperture 150 m (100
mesh) By means of hypodermic syringe introduce into the cooking bulb an amount of
sample as indicated in the Table-I . Make sure that no oil remains on the exterior
surface or on the inside of the neck of the bulb. Re-weigh the bulb and contents to the
nearest milligram

Place the cooking bulb in a Standard performance well with the furnace at the
checking temperature and allow to remain for 20 2 min. Remove the bulb with
metal tongs, the tips of which have just heated. Duplicate the furnace and bulb
conditions used when standardizing the bulb well. If there is appreciable loss of oil
from froating, discard test and repeat the determination using smaller sample

After removal cool the bulb in a desiccators under the same conditions used before fil
the bulb. When removing the bulb from the desiccator examine to make sure that
there are no foreign particles adhering to the bulb. If anything is found as black
particles on the capil neck brush them off with the piece of sized paper or camel hair
brush. Weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg.

Ramsbottom Carbon residue %

Sample Size, gms

Less than 6.0

6.0 to 14.0
14.1 to 20.0

4.0 0.1
1.0 0.1
0.5 0.1

MODEL CALCULATION
Calculation of Carbon residue of the sample
Carbon residue = (A x 100) / W
Where
A - Weight of the Carbon residue in grams
W Weight of the sample in grams

RESULT
Thus the amount of Carbon residue left after evaporation is determined

EX.NO.12

DETERMINATION OF ASH CONTENT

AIM
To determine the amount of ash content in the given fuel sample
APPARATUS REQUIRED
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Crucible
Metal furnace
Temperature control box
Thermocouple sensor rod
Syringe for filling the sample oil

ASSEMBLY OF INSTRUMENT

Make connection of metal furnace with temperature control unit

Start the mains with 220 Volts AC

PROCEDURE

Take the crucible and weigh it. Fill up the fuel sample and Fire it in the open air
Keep the Crucible in the Metal Furnace and set the temperature at 150 deg C
Remove the sample from the Furnace and weigh it

MODEL CALCULATION
Calculation of Ash Content
Carbon residue = (A x 100) / W
Where
A - Weight of the Ash in grams
W Weight of the sample in grams

RESULT
Thus the amount of Ash Content left evaporation is determined

EX.NO.13

DETERMINATION OF REID VAPOUR PRESSURE

Aim
To determine the Reid vapour pressure of the given fuel
Apparatus required
Reid vapour pressure test apparatus, Cold bath, fuel sample
Procedure
1. Preparation of Sample
The Sample fuel container must be kept in the cold bath till it reaches 0C to 1C
2. Preparation of Liquid Chamber
After ensuring that all traces of previous sample have been removed chill the open liquid
chamber and sample transfer connection at a temperature of 0C to 1C atleast 10 minutes
3. Preparation of Air Chamber
Thoroughly purge the air chamber of residual sample. Connect the pressure measure device
to the air chamber. Immerse the air chamber to at leasy 25mm above its top in the water bat
maintained at 37.8C for not less than 10 minutes just before coupling it to the liquid
chamber. Do not remove the air chamber from the bath until the liquid chamber has been
filed with sample
4. Assembly of apparatus
Attach the air chamber to the liquid chamber
5. Measurement of Vapour pressure
Measure the vapour pressure at different time intervals

RESULT
The Reid vapour pressure RVP of the given fuel is ________ KPa

INFERENCE

RVP in kPa

BHARAT STAGE
II Emission Norms

EURO III
EQUIVALENT
Emission Norms

35 60

60

EURO IV
EQUIVALENT
EMISSION
NORMS
60

Deviation from the Standard value: ______

OBESERVATION
Time

Reid Vapour Pressure

2
1b/in

Reid Vapour Pressure Kpa