MATH1051, Calculus & Linear Algebra I

Poster B: Calculus
c
School
of Mathematics and Physics, The University of Queensland
Functions f (x)
A function f is a rule for sending a subset X of R to a subset Y of R.
It gives every x X exactly one y Y with y = f (x).
Domain and Range For a function f : X Y , we call X the
domain and Y the codomain. X is the set of allx R on which
the function is defined, for example if f (x) = x, the domain is
{x R | x 0} and the range, a subset of Y , is the set of all
y R which are output from the function; for f (x) = x the range is
{x R | x 0}.
The vertical line test is a method for deciding whether the graph of a
collection of points (x, y) is a function with y = f (x). To be a function,
every vertical line x = a, where a is is in the domain of f must intersect
with f (x) at exactly one point (x, y). For example, the ellipse 3x2+y 2 =
1 describes a collection of points (x, y) which does not pass the vertical
line test since ( 12 , 12 ) and ( 12 , 12 ) are both on the ellipse but we require
each x X to correspond to exactly one y Y with y = f (x) thus this
is not a function.
A function f : X Y is one-to-one ( abbreviated 1-1 ) if f (x1) =
f (x2) means that x1 = x2 for every x1, x2 X.
The horizontal line test is a method for deciding whether the graph of
the function y = f (x) is 1-1. If every horizontal line y = b, where b is
in the range of f , intersects the graph of y = f (x) exactly once, then
f is 1-1. For example the function y = f (x) = x2 is not 1-1 because
f (1) = f (1) but 1 6= 1. Also horizontal lines y = b, where b > 0,
intersect the function in exactly two places.
Inverse Functions If a function f : X Y is 1-1, then the inverse function f 1 : Y X exists. It satisfies f 1(f (x)) = x and
f (f 1(y)) = y for all x X and y Y . For example, here are some
1-1 functions and their inverses:
f : R R,
f (x) = ex,
f 1 :R R,
f 1(x) = ln(x),
 
 
1
[1, 1], g(x) = sin(x), g :[1, 1] , , g 1(x) = arcsin(x),
g: ,
2 2
2 2

2
1
1
h : [0, ) [0, ), h(x) = x ,
h : [0, ) [0, ), h (x) = x.

To find the inverse of a 1-1 function y = f (x), first solve for x as

1 of y and then replace all y with x. For example, if
a function
f

2 + 1, we write y = x4
f : [ 2, ) [3, ) with f (x) = x4 4xp

2
2
2
2) = y + 3, so x = 2 y p
+ 3. However,
4x + 1 and thus (x

1
1
have f (y) = x = 2 + y + 3.
f : [3, ) [ 2, ) so we p

1
Now replacing y with x, f (x) = 2 + x + 3.

Limits & Continuity of f (x), Differentiability

Limits The limit = limxa f (x) of a function y = f (x) as x
approaches a is the y value arbitrarily near x = a. For example
2
x
4 , is defined on the domain R \ {2} (not defined at
y = f (x) = x2
x = 2) but we can still find f (x) near x = 2 using the limit
x2 4
(x + 2)(x 2)
= lim
= lim (x + 2) = 4.
lim
x2
x2 x 2
x2
x2

Letg(x) = x + 5 x + 3. To find lim

xg(x), we
multiply
g(x)
( x + 5 x + 3)( x + 5 + x + 3)

by x+5+x+3 = 1. x
lim g(x) = lim
x
x+5+ x+3
x+5+
(x + 5 x 3)
2

= lim
= 0.
= lim
x
x
x+5+ x+3
x+5+ x+3

x+3

Squeeze Theorem: If lim g(x) = = lim h(x) and, for x near a

xa
xa
but not equal a, h(x) f (x) g(x), then lim f (x) = . To show
xa
1

2
= 0, 1 sin(1/x) 1 so x2 x2 sin(1/x) x2;
lim x sin
x
x0
1

= 0, observe that
apply squeeze. To show that lim (x 2) sin
x2
x2




1
1
1 sin x2 1. If x > 2, (x 2) (x 2) sin x2
x 2 and lim + (x 2) = 0 = lim + x 2. If x < 2, similarly
x2

x2

lim (x2) = 0 = lim x2. By squeeze thm. the result follows.

x2

x2

Continuity: A function f (x) is continuous at x = a if:

a belongs to the domain of f ,

limxa f (x) exists and is equal to f (a).


x + 2, if x > 1,
is continuous at x =
Example: Show that f (x) =
if x 1.
x2 ,
1: Evaluate the limits on both sides of x = 1. limx1+ f (x) =
limx1+ x + 2 = 1. limx1 f (x) = limx1 x2 = 1. Since
these limits are equal, f (x) is continuous at x = 1.
A function f (x) is continuous on the open interval (a, b) if f (x) is continuous at every c (a, b). (Can you sketch f (x) without lifting your
pen?)
Differentiability: The derivative of a function f (x) is defined f (x) =
f (x + h) f (x)
. We say f (x) is differentiable at x = a if this
lim
h
h0
limit exists at x = a. (sharp points on the plot of f (x) are points where
f is not differentiable.)
2

while f (x) is not continuous at x = 1.

these conditions hold and f and g are differentiable and g (x) 6= 0 near
a, (except possibly at a), then
f (x)
f (x)
lim
= lim .
xa g(x)
xa g (x)
sin(x)
cos(x)
= lim
= 1. Do not forget to check the
Example: lim
x0 x
x0 1
conditions before applying the rule.
Intermediate Value Theorem: (IVT) Let f be a continuous function on the closed interval [a, b] where f (a) 6= f (b). If N is a number
between f (a) and f (b), then there exists c (a, b) such that f (c) = N .
Example: Show that the function f (x) = x3 4x + 7 has a root in
the interval (4, 2). Since f (x) is continuous on [4, 2], f (4) =
41 6= f (2) = 7, and N = 0 is between 41 and 7, the IVT guaran10

7.5

5
2.5

tees that there exists c (4, 2) such that f (c) = 0.

Mean Value Theorem: If f (x) is continuous on the closed interval
[a, b] and differentiable on the open interval (a, b), then there exists a
c (a, b) such that
f (b) f (a)
= f (c),
ba
roughly meaning that there is a place where the slope of f (x) is the
same as the slope of the line connecting the endpoints of the domain.
-4

-3

-2

-1

-0.5

-1

If a function f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a. The

converse is false as seen in the image above where f is continuous at
x = 1 but not differentiable.

Differentiation Methods
The Chain Rule: Let f be a function of u and u be a function of x.
df (u)
df (u) du
Then dx = du dx . For example if y = sin(x2), we let u = x2 so

d sin(x2)
d sin(u) dx2
y = sin(u). dx = du dx = cos(u) (2x) = 2x cos(x2).
du + u dv . For example if y = x2 sin(x), we
The Product Rule: duv
=
v
dx
dx
dx
2
d sin(x)
d
dx
2
2
let u = x and v = sin(x). Then dx x sin(x) = sin(x) dx + x2 dx =
2x sin(x) + x2 cos(x).

Sequences
A sequence {an} is a list of ordered numbers an with n {0, 1, 2, . . . }.
For example {2, 4, 8, 16, . . . } is a sequence in which we may express the
terms as an = 2n+1. If we express the nth term an as a function on n
(e.g. an = 2n+1), this is called closed form. If we express an in terms
of previous terms, this is called recursive form.
Example: List the first few terms of the sequence an = n2 + 3n. We
replace n by 0, 1, 2, 3, etc: {0, 4, 10, 18, 28, . . . }.
Example: List the first few terms of the sequence a0 = 1, an+1 =
2an 3. We have a1 = 2a0 3 = 1, a2 = 2a1 3 = 5, etc.
Conversely we can be given the first few terms of a sequence and asked
for the closed form or recursive form.
Example: If {an} = {1, 1, 5, 13, 29, 61, 125}, give the recursive and
closed form. Notice that an+1 2an. In fact an+1 = 2an + 3. Since
we approx. multiply by 2 each term, the closed form is an 2n but in
fact an = 2n 3.
8 , 5 , 12 , 7 , . . . }, give the closed form of
Example: If {an} = { 43 , 34 , 15
12 35 24
the sequence. It helps to tabulate the terms next to the natural numbers:

-2.5
-5

Above: The function f (x) = x3 4x + 5 in the domain [1, 3]. At

the approx. point (1.527, 2.454), the tangent line is parallel to the line
y = 3x + 11.
Increasing/decreasing: Let x1, x2 belong to an interval I and assume
that x1 < x2. If f (x1) < f (x2), then f is strictly increasing on I. If
f (x1) > f (x2), then f is strictly decreasing on I.
Assume f is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b).
If f (x) > 0 on (a, b), then f is strictly increasing on [a, b],

If f (x) < 0 on (a, b), then f is strictly decreasing on [a, b],

If f (x) = 0 on (a, b), then f is constant on [a, b].

Critical Points of f (x)

Finding Critical Points: A function f : X Y has a critical point
at x = a X if f (a) = 0 or does not exist.
A critical point at x = a can be
a local maximum: f (a) f (x) for all x in some open interval
containing a,
a local minimum: f (a) f (x) for all x in some open interval
containing a,
an inflection point: neither of the above. For example f (x) =
x3 + 2 at x = 0.
Global Max/Min: Let f be a function defined on the interval [a, b] and
let c [a, b]. Then f has a global maximum at x = c if f (c) f (x) for
all x [a, b]. f has a global minimum at x = c if f (c) f (x) for all
x [a, b].
Global max/min are either local max/min or are at the endpoints of the
domain.
Classifying Critical Points: To classify a critical point P of a differentiable function f (x), we have two tests:
First derivative: Let f be continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
(a, b). Let c (a, b).
If f (x) > 0 for a < x < c and f (x) < 0 for c < x < b, (f
changes sign at c from + to : ), then f has a local max. at c.
If f (x) < 0 for a < x < c and f (x) > 0 for c < x < b, (f
changes sign at c from to +: ), then f has a local min. at c.

Second derivative test: Assume f exists and is continuous near c.

Then
If f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0, then f has a local min. at c: ,

If f (c) = 0 and f (c) > 0, then f has a local max. at c: ,

If f (c) = 0 = f (c), then the test is inconclusive, use the first

derivative test.

Important formulae to know

0.5

xa

0.5

-1

-1

xa

Trigonometry:

1.5

f (x) =| x 1 | is continuous but not differentiable at x = 1:

f (x)
LHopitals Rule: Assume we want to calculate lim
but either
xa g(x)
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 or . Then apply LHopitals rule: if

sin
tan =
,
cos
1
csc =
,
sin
2
cot + 1 = csc2 ,

cos
cot =
,
sin

1
sec =
,
cos

1 = sin2 + cos2 ,
cos(2) = 1 2 sin2 ,

sec2 = tan2 + 1,
sin(2) = 2 sin cos .

1 cos(x) 1
lim
= ,
x0
x2
2

lim bx = 0,

lim a1/x = 1,

lim x

1/x

= 1,

Finite Geometric Series:

ax
lim
= 0,
x x!

e 1
lim
= 1,
x0
x
1
lim r = 0,
x x
a
x
= ea .
lim 1 +
x
x

a(rn+11)
n
j=0 ar =
r1 .

Pn

an

1
4
3

2
3
4

3
8
15

4
5
12

5
12
35

6
7
24

Next we look for a relationship between each n and an which holds for
all n. Notice that the denominator of the an is always divisible by n. In
fact it is generally n(n + 2) unless part of n + 2 was canceled with the
2(n+1)
numerator. Once we realise this we can write closed form an = n(n+2) .
If a sequence {an}
n=0 has a limit R, then an converges
to . Otherwise the sequence diverges. For example, the se2 + 2n
2
n
+2n converges to 1 because lim
=
quence an = 3nn2+n+1
3
2
n 3n + n + 1
1
1 + 2/n
2.
=
lim
,
dividing
numerator,
denominator
by
n
n 3 + 1/n + 1/n2
3

Series q
A series

n=p

an is a sum of the terms of a sequence {an} starting with

and q to be .
ap and ending with aq , although we allow p to be
P

n-th term test: If limn an 6= 0, then

n=1 an diverges. If
limn
the series converges. Observe
P a1n = 0, we cannot assume that
that n=1 n diverges while limn n1 = 0.
P

Absolute Convergence: If
n=0 |an | converges, then
converges absolutely, and hence converges.

n=0 an

 an+1 
Ratio test: Let = limn an .
P
If < 1, the series n=1 an converges absolutely.
If > 1, series diverges.

If = 1, the test is inconclusive.

P p
p test:
converges if and only if p > 1.
n=1 n
Geometric Series:
geometric.

If the series

n=0 an =

n, then it is
ar
n=0

n = a and converges to this number.

ar
1r
Pn=0
n diverges.
ar
If | r | 1, then
n=0

If | r |< 1, then

Comparison test:

If | an |<| bn | and
converges.

If | an |<| bn | and
diverges.

n=0 | bn | converges, then

n=0 | an | diverges, then

n=0 | an |

n=0 | bn |

P
na , if lim
Alternating series test: For P
(1)
n
n an = 0, {an}
n=0
na converges.
(1)
is a decreasing sequence, then
n
n=0
The Taylor series of the function f at x = a is:

X f (n)(a)
f (a)
f (2)(a)
1
2
f (x) = f (a) +
(x a) +
(x a) + =
(x a)n.
1!
2!
n!
n=0

Interval/Radius of convergence : Interval of convergence,

I = {x R | series converges }.
The radius is half of the width of this interval.

Integration Methods

du
R 3x2+2
R d(x3+2x+1)
R dx
R du
dx
By Substitution: x3+2x+1 dx = x3+2x+1 dx = u dx =
u =
ln(x3 + 2x R+ 1) + C, where u = x3 + 2x + 1. R
R dex
x
x
By Parts: xe dx. Use udv = d(uv) vdu. xe dx = x dx dx =
R
R
R x dx
x
x
xde = d(xe ) e dx dx = xex ex + C.
R x+2
x+2 = A + B . Then
Partial Fractions:
dx.
Write
x
x1
x(x1)
x(x1)

x+2 = AxA+Bx and we must have A + B = 1 and A = 2 so

x(x1)
x(x1) R
R 2
R 3
x+2
that B = 3. Finally x(x1) dx =
x dx + x1 dx = 2 ln | x |

+3 ln | x 1 | +C.

Volume of Revolution

Limits: Let a be a constant, | b |< 1, and r > 0. Then

sin x
= 1,
lim
x0 x

The volume of the solid of revolution is obtained by rotating about the

x-axis the region under the curve y = f (x) from x = a to x = b is given
Rb
by: V = a f (x)2dx.

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If
R xf is continuous on [a, b] with a x b, then thed function A(x) =
= f (x). If
a f (t)dt is an antiderivative of f (x) and satisfies dx A(x)
Rb
F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then F (b) F (a) = a f (t)dt.