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NATIONAL
MOVEMENT
The
First
Major
Challenge:
The
Revolt
of
1857
The
Revolt
11
May,
1857-
sepoys
from
Meerut
enter
Red
Fort,
declare
Bahadur
Shah
II
as
the
Shahenshah-e-Hindustan.
Revolt
spread
to
North,
Central
and
Western
India.
South
remained
quiet.
Punjab
and
Bengal
marginally
affected.
A Sepoy Mutiny
19th
Infantry
at
Berhampur
refused
to
use
the
new
enfield
rifle,
disbanded
in
March
1857
34th
Native
Infantry
Mangal
Pandey
fired
at
Seargeant
Major
of
his
regiment.
Overpowered,
executed
and
his
regiment
disbanded
7th
Oudh
Regiment
defied
its
officers.
Disbanded
Kanpur
Nana
Saheb-
adopted
son
of
Peshwa
Baji
Rao
II.
Had
refused
family
title,
and
Banished
from
Poona,
was
living
near
Kanpur
Lucknow-
Begum
Hazrat
Mahal
and
her
son
Birjis
Quadr
Bareilly
-
Khan
Bahadur
Bihar-
Kunwar
Singh
70
yr
old
man
on
the
brink
of
bankruptcy.
Jhansi
Rani
Lakshmibhai-
Lord
Dalhousie,
had
refused
to
allow
her
adopted
son
to
succeed
to
the
throne
after
her
husband
died
and
had
annexed
the
state
by
the
application
of
doctrine
of
Lapse.
First
in
1824
47th
Regiment
at
Barrackpur
was
ordered
to
go
to
Burma.
To
the
religious
hindu,
crossing
the
sea
meant
loss
of
caste.
Sepoys
refused
to
comply.
Regiment
disbanded
and
rebels
hanged.
Afghan
war-
fleeing
sepoys
were
forced
to
eat
and
drink
whatever
came
their
way.
On
their
return
they
were
outcasted.
Rumours
about
govts
secret
designs
to
promote
conversions
to
Christianity
Mixing
of
bone
dust
in
atta
and
beef
and
pig
fat
in
cartridges
of
enfield
rifle.
Low
wages
Almost
every
agricultural
family
in
Oudh
had
a
representative
in
the
army,
whatever
happened
there
was
of
immediate
concern
to
the
sepoy.
1
Merchants,
intelligentsia
and
Indian
rulers
not
only
kept
aloof,
but
actively
supported
the
British.
Almost
half
of
Indian
soldiers
not
only
did
not
revolt
but
fought
against
their
own
countrymen.
Apart
from
a
commonly
shared
hatred
for
alien
rule,
the
rebels
had
not
political
perspective
or
a
definite
vision
of
the
future.
Civil rebellions
Often
led
by
deposed
rajas,
nawabs,
uprooted
zamindars,
poliygars,
and
officers
of
conquered
India
states
Rack-rented
peasants,
ruined
artisans
and
demobilized
workers
backbone/mass
base
These
sudden,
localized
revolts
often
too
place
because
of
local
grievances
Major
cause
rapid
changes
the
British
introduced
in
the
economy,
administration
and
land
revenue
system.
Causes of rebellion
Heavy
taxation
on
land
leading
peasants
into
indebtedness
and
sale
of
land
Zamindars
and
poligars
lost
control
over
their
land
either
due
to
the
extinction
of
their
rights
by
the
colonial
state
or
by
the
forced
sale
of
their
rights
due
to
their
inability
to
pay
land
revenue
Corruption
in
lower
levels,
of
police,
judiciary
and
administration.
Ruining
of
local
handicrafts
as
a
result
of
free
trade
in
India
and
levy
of
discriminatory
tariffs
against
Indian
goods
in
Britain.
Scholarly
and
priestly
class
who
were
financially
supported
by
earlier
rulers
also
actively
incited
hatred
and
rebellion
against
foreign
rule.
Foreign
character
of
British
rule.
Indians
felt
humiliated
being
under
a
foreigners
heel.
Sanyasi
Rebellion
led
by
religious
monks
and
dispossessed
zamindars,
made
famous
by
Bankim
Chandra
Chatterjee
in
his
novel
Anand
Math,
lasted
from
1763-1816
Chuar
Uprising
Bengal
and
Bihar
from
1766
to
1772
and
again
from
1795
to
1816
South India
Western India
Northern
India
Socially,
economically
and
politically,
the
semi-feudal
leaders
of
these
rebellions
were
backward
looking
and
traditional
in
outlook.
Their
resistance
represented
no
societal
alternative
Its
basic
objective
was
to
restore
earlier
forms
of
rule
and
social
relations
Suppression
of
the
civil
rebellions
was
a
major
reason
why
the
Revolt
of
1857
did
not
spread
to
South
India
and
most
of
Eastern
and
Western
India..
The
historical
significance
of
these
civil
uprisings
lies
in
that
they
established
strong
and
valuable
local
traditions
of
resistance
to
British
Rule.
Tribal
Uprisings
Causes
of
Tribal
Uprisings
Colonial
administration
ended
their
relative
isolation
and
brought
them
fully
within
the
ambit
of
colonialism
Recognized
Chiefs
as
Zamindars
and
introduced
new
system
of
land
revenue
and
taxation
of
tribals.
Introduced
large
number
of
money
lenders,
traders
and
revenue
farmers
as
middlemen.
Middlemen
were
outsiders
who
increasingly
took
possession
of
tribal
lands
and
ensnared
the
tribals
in
a
web
of
debt.
Usurped
forest
lands
and
placed
restrictions
on
access
to
forest
products,
forest
lands
and
village
common
lands.
Oppression
and
extortion
by
policemen
and
other
petty
officials
Beggar
Disruption
of
old
agrarian
order
of
the
tribal
communities
provided
the
common
factor
for
all
the
uprisings.
Features
Uprisings
were
broad
based,
involving
thousands
of
tribals,
often
the
entire
population
of
a
region
Ethnic
ties,
were
a
basic
feature
of
the
tribal
rebellions
Rebels
saw
themselves
not
as
a
discreet
class
but
as
having
a
tribal
identity
Fellow
tribals
were
never
attacked
unless
they
had
collaborated
with
the
enemy
Often
there
were
no
attacks
on
non-tribal
poor,
who
worked
in
villages
in
supportive
economic
roles,
such
as
telis,
gwalas,
lohars.
Normally
rebelled
when
no
alternative.
Began
with
looting,
attacking
outsiders
and
expelling
them
from
villages,
which
led
to
clashes
with
authorities
and
the
tribals
moved
to
armed
resistance
and
elementary
organization
4
Often,
religious
and
charismatic
leaders
messiahs-
emerged
at
this
stage
and
promised
divine
intervention
and
end
to
their
sufferings.
Live
in
the
area
between
Bhagal
pur
and
Rajmahal,
known
as
Daman-i-koh,
To
expel
the
outsiders
the
dikus
proclaimed
complete
annihilation
of
the
alien
regime
1854-
tribal
heads,
the
majhis
and
parganites,
began
to
meet
and
discuss
possibility
of
revolting
Called
an
assembly
of
nearly
6000
santhals,
representing
400
villages
at
Bhaganidihi
on
30
June
1855
Decided
to
revolt,
and
for
all,
the
usher
in
Satyug,
The
reign
of
truth,
and
True
Justice.
Santhals
believed
their
actions
had
the
blessings
of
God
(Thakur)
Sido
and
Kanhu-
principal
rebel
leaders
60000
santhals
mobilized
Bands
of
1500-2000,
they
attacked
the
mahajans
and
zamindars
and
their
houses,
police
stations,
railway
construction
sites,
the
dak
(post)
carriers,
-
in
fact
all
the
symbols
of
diku
Helped
by
a
large
number
of
poor
dikus
Crushed
ruthlessly
by
the
British,
more
than
15000
santhals
killed.
Kols of Chhotanagpur
1857
Indigo
Revolt
of
1859-60
Reasons
for
discontentment
Hem
Chandra
Kar,
Deputy
Magistrate
of
Kalaroa,
Bengal,
misread
an
official
letter
and
on
17th
august
proclaimed
that
in
case
of
disputes
relating
to
Indigo
ryots
,
ryots
shall
retain
the
possession
of
land
and
shall
sow
on
them
what
crops
they
please.
Beginning
made
by
Govindpur
ryots
in
Nadia
district,
under
Digambar
Biswas
and
Bishnu
Biswas.
Spread
to
all
indigo
districts
of
Bengal
Planters
couldnt
withstand
the
united
resistance
and
gradually
began
to
close
their
factories.
Cultivation
of
indigo
was
virtually
wiped
out
of
Bengal
by
1860
Reason
for
success:
tremendous
initiative,
cooperation,
organization
and
discipline
of
the
ryots.
Complete
unity
among
Hindu
and
muslim
peasants.
Leadership
was
provided
by
more
well-off
ryots
and
in
some
cases
petty
zamindars
Intelligentsia
of
Bengal
helped
by
organizing
a
powerful
compaign
in
support
Harish
Chandra
Mukherjee:
editor
of
Hindu
Patriot-
published
regular
reports
on
planters
oppression,
officials
partisanship
and
peasant
resistance.
Din
Bandhu
Mitra:
Neel
Darpan,
play
vividly
portayed
oppression
by
the
planters
Intelligentsias
role
was
to
have
an
abiding
impact
on
the
emerging
nationlist
intellectuals.
Missionaries
too
extended
support
to
the
planters
Government
response
was
restrained
appointed
committee
to
inquire
into
the
problem.
Report
exposed
coercion
and
corruption
underlying
the
entire
system
of
indigo
plantation.
Govt.
issued
a
notification
in
Nov.
1860
that
ryots
could
not
be
compelled
to
sow
indigo.
Several
instances
of
agrarian
unrest
during
the
1870s
and
1880s.
These
were
caused
by
the
efforts
of
the
zamindars
to
enhance
rent
beyond
legal
limits.
Under
Ryotwari
system,
tension
grew
between
peasants
and
the
money
lenders,
most
of
whom
were
outsiders
Marwaris
or
Gujaratis.
Early
1860s,
American
Civil
War
led
to
soar
in
Cotton
exports
which
had
pushed
up
prices.
End
of
civil
war
in
1864
brought
about
an
acute
depression
in
cotton
exports
and
a
crash
in
prices.
Simultaneously,
in
1867,
the
govt.
raised
the
land
revenue
by
50
percent.
Situation
was
worsened
by
bad
harvest.
Peasants
had
to
go
to
the
money
lenders.
Gradually
peasants
began
to
turn
against
the
perceived
cause
of
his
misery,
the
moneylender.
Social
boycott
of
outsider
Soon
transformed
into
agrarian
riots
when
it
did
not
prove
very
effective.
12
May,
1874,
peasants
gathere
in
Supa,
in
Bhimtari
taluq,
on
the
bazaar
day
began
systematic
attact
on
the
moneylenders
houses
and
shops.
Burnt
debt
bonds
and
deeds.
Govt.
acted
with
speed
and
soon
repressed.
Active
phase
lasted
only
about
three
weeks.
Modern
nationalist
intelligentsia
of
Maharashtra
supported
the
cause.
Poona
Sarvajanik
Sabha,
led
by
Ranade,
organized
a
successful
campaign
among
the
peasants,
against
land
revenue
settlement
of
1867.
Certain
shift
in
the
nature
of
peasant
movements
after
1857.
Princes,
chiefs
etc
having
been
crushed,
peasants
emerged
as
the
main
force
in
agrarian
movements.
They
fought
directly
for
their
own
demands,
centered
almost
wholly
on
economic
issues,
and
against
their
immediate
enemies.
Their
struggle
was
directed
towards
specific
and
limited
objectives
and
redressal
of
particular
grievances.
Limited
territorial
reach.
7
Landholders
Society
(1838)
and
British
Indian
Society
(1843)
merged
to
form
BIA
Owned
newspaper
titled
Hindu
Patriot,
with
strong
political
tone
First
President
Radhakanta
Deb,
Secretary
Devendranath
Tagore
Sent
first
petition
to
British
Parliament
in
1852,
pleading
i. Separation
of
legislature
from
executive
ii. Inclusion
of
Indians
in
legislative
council
iii. Increased
employment
of
Indians
in
higher
services
iv. Simultaneous
civil
service
exam
in
Britain
and
India
v. Extension
of
permanent
settlement
to
other
parts
of
India
vi. Abolition
of
salt
duty,
excise
duty,
stamp
duties
vii. Increased
grant
for
education
Charter
act
of
1853
belied
all
its
expectations
Proceedings
were
moderate
and
very
few
achievements
Initiative
of
Dadabhai
Naoroji,
to
present
the
correct
information
of
India
to
the
British
public
and
parliament
By
1869
it
had
branches
in
Bombay,
Calcutta
and
Madras
Popularity
declined
by
1881
1867-68
per
capita
income
in
India
Rs
20.
Major
Centers
Bengal
10
Punjab
Lala
Lajpat
Rai:
advocated
technical
education
and
technical
self
help.
Advocated
Hindu
alone
congress
and
unity
with
muslims
was
an
illusion.
Maharashtra
Bal
Gangadhar
Tilak:
used
religious
orthodoxy
as
means
of
mass
contact
by
organizing
Ganpati
festival
from
1894.
Shivaji
festival
from
1896.
Experimented
with
no-rent
campaign
in
1896-97.
Advocated
for
swaraj.
Keasari
in
Marathi
and
Mahratta
in
English,
two
newspapers
were
his
mouth
piece.
Partition of Bengal
SWADESHI MOVEMENT
11
October
16,
1905-
Actual
day
of
Partition,
was
declared
day
of
mourning
throughout
Bengal.
Chullahs
kept
unlit
and
people
tied
rakhi
(symbol
of
brotherhood),
Vande
Mataram
overnight
became
the
national
song
of
Bengal,
and
later
theme
song
of
national
movement.
Lok
Manya
Tilak
took
the
movement
to
various
parts
of
india
especially
to
Bombay
and
Poona.
Ajit
Singh
and
Lala
Lajpat
took
the
swadeshi
message
to
Punjab
and
parts
of
Northern
India
Syed
Haider
Raza
led
the
movement
in
Delhi
Chidambaram
Pillai
took
the
movement
to
Madras
presidency
Bihar,
Orissa
and
Assam
kept
away.
Here
the
educated
Bengalis
had
become
increasingly
unpopular
due
to
their
dominant
position
in
the
services
and
profession.
Counter
elite
movements
developed
here
with
the
spread
of
education,
ultimately
resulting
in
demands
for
a
separate
province
of
Orissa.
United
Provinces:
as
congress
political
activity
had
died
down
after
an
initial
spurt
in
the
late
1880s.
Leaders
still
felt
that
considerable
local
gains
could
be
made
through
cooperation
with
the
provincial
government.
Crackdown
came
soon
enough
particularly
on
students.
Fined,
expelled,
arrested
or
beaten
up
by
police.
Led
to
a
movement
for
boycott
of
official
educational
institutions
and
the
organization
of
national
schools.
Vande
mataram
banned,
press
controlled
through
newpaper
acts.
Congress
session
of
Calcutta
1906
under
Naoroji,
declared
that
goal
of
INC
was
self-
government,
like
the
colonies
of
Canada
and
Australia.
Moderate-Extremist Divide
Moderates
believed
that
techniques
like
boycott
should
be
used
only
in
special
circumstances
and
for
specific
purpose.
They
were
keen
to
get
the
movement
back
to
its
traditional
mode
of
mendicancy.
They
were
totally
opposed
to
an
all-out
struggle
against
the
British
Rule.
Extremists
were
all
for
extending
the
boycott
to
other
areas
and
for
refusing
cooperation
to
the
government
and
making
the
task
of
administration
impossible.
This
method
of
agitation
against
the
foreign
rule
came
to
be
known
as
passive
resistance.
Critical Appraisal
Jogendra
Chandra
Ghosh
set
up
an
association
in
March
1904,
to
raise
funds
for
sending
students
abroad
(usually
japan)
to
get
technical
training
Banga
Lakshmi
Cotton
Mills
was
launched
in
August
1906.
Taking
cue
from
Tagores
Shantiniketan,
the
Bengal
National
College
was
set
up
in
the
vernacular
medium
with
Aurbindo
as
its
Principal.
Planned
as
parallel
university
under
the
National
Council
of
education,
but
failed
to
get
any
colleges
affiliated
to
it.
Bengal
Technical
insititute
was
set
up
and
dozen
other
national
schools,
but
failed
to
get
students
due
to
negligible
job
prospects.
Period
also
saw
first
attempts
to
politicize
labour
unrest.
Examples
protest
walkout
from
the
Burn
Company
in
Howrah,
in
September
1905,
a
tram
strike
in
Calcutta,
printers
srike,
etc.
Pioneer
labour
leaders
Ashwini
kumar
Banerji,
Prabhat
Kusum
Roychaudhari,
Apurbakumar
Ghosh
Emergence
of
Samitis
(
or
corps
of
national
volunteers)
was
one
of
the
major
achievements
of
the
movement
in
mass
contanct.
Engaged
in
activities
like
physical
and
moral
training
of
members,
social
work
during
famines,
epidemics,
or
religious
festivals,
preaching
the
swadeshi
message
through
journals,
pamphlets
etc,
Disappeared
or
became
terrorist
secret
societies
during
first
round
of
repression
in
1908-09.
All
india
muslim
league
set
up
in
1906-
during
the
height
of
swadeshi
movement
communal
riots
broke
out,
due
to
success
of
British
divide
and
rule
policy.
Contribution
of
movement
was
most
marked
in
cultural
sphere.
Amar
Sonar
Bangla
Tagore
Swadeshi
influence
could
be
seen
in
Bengali
Folk
music
(Paligeet
and
Jari
gan)
In
Art,
R
N
Tagore,
broke
the
dominance
of
victorian
naturalism
over
indian
art
and
sought
inspiration
from
the
rich
indigenous
tradtion
of
the
Mughal,
rajputs,
and
Ajanta
paintings.
Nandlal
Bose
who
left
a
major
imprint
on
Indian
Art
was
first
recipient
of
a
scholarship
offered
by
the
indian
Society
of
Oriental
Art,
1907,
Jagdish
Chandra
Bose,
Prafulla
Chandra
Ray
Scientists
Militant
nationalists
did
not
know
how
to
go
beyond
a
more
vigorous
agitation
and
arrange
mass
movements.
Consequently
they
too
came
to
a
political
dead
end
by
1907.
After
1905
several
newspapers,
particularly
Sandhya
and
Yugantar
of
Bengal
and
Kal
of
Maharashtra
and
few
nationalist
leaders
secretly
began
to
advocate
revolutionary
terrorism.
Their
activities
took
the
form
of
(i)
assassination
of
oppressive
officials
or
traitors
from
their
own
ranks
and
(ii)
dacoities
to
raise
funds
for
purchase
of
arms
(swadeshi
dacoities)
13
1907-
unsuccessful
attempt
was
made
on
life
Lieutenant
Governor
Fuller
of
Bengal.
Hemachandra
Kanungo
of
Anushillan
Samiti,
went
abroad
to
get
military
training.
After
his
return,
a
combined
religious
school
and
a
bomb
factory
was
set
up.
Khudiram
Bose
and
Prafulla
Chaki
Kennedy
Murders
(
April
30,
1908)
while
the
real
target
was
magistrate
Kingsford
of
Muzaffarpur.
Chaki
shot
himself
and
Bose
was
tried
and
hanged.
Pulin
Das
Dacca
Anushillan
in
East
Bengal
had
branches
throughout
benga
and
beyond
Jatindra
Nath
Mukherji
led
Yugantar
Party
a
loose
confederation
of
groups,
tried
to
build
international
contacts,
so
as
to
organize
a
military
conspiracy
at
an
opportune
time.
V
D
Savarkar
organized
Abhinav
bharat
in
1904,
a
secret
society
of
revolutionaries,
which
he
led
from
Nasik
Shyamji
Krishnaverma
in
London
started
a
centre
in
1905
for
Indian
students
(india
house).,
along
with
a
journal
(indian
Sociologist)
and
an
Indian
home
rule
league.
In
1907
his
India
house
was
taken
over
by
Savarkars
group.
Madam
Bhikaji
kama-
Parsi
Revolutionary
in
Geneva
was
private
secretary
to
Naoroji
Virendranath
Chattopadhyay
Berlin
Sohan
Sigh
Bhakra
Ghadar,
Sanfrancisco.
British
Columbia
and
Pacific
coast
of
USA,
the
revolutionary
movement
acquired
a
mass
base.
About
15000
Indians,
mostly
Sikh
were
racially
discriminated.
Seeds
were
sown
in
1880s
when
Syed
Ahmed
khan
sought
to
use
it
as
a
counterpoise
to
the
national
movement
Asked
muslims
to
shun
all
politics
and
remain
politically
passive
British
actively
promoted
and
supported
Certain
Hindu
tinge
in
the
political
works
and
ideas
of
the
militant
nationalism
1906-
Muslim
League
was
founded
in
Dacca,
by
a
group
of
Zamindars,
ex-bureaucrats,
upper
class
muslims
like
Aga
Khan,
Nawab
of
Dacca
and
Nawab
Mohsin-ul-mulk.
Branch
set
up
in
London
in
1908
by
Amir
Ali
Activities
were
against
the
national
congress
and
the
Hindus
and
not
against
the
British
Muslim
political
elite
got
a
huge
shock
in
December
1911
with
the
annulment
of
partition
by
George
V
at
Delhi
Durbar
Muslims
were
further
alienated
by
Britains
refusal
to
help
Turkey
in
the
Italian
and
Balkan
Wars
(1911-12).
Younger
Muslim
intellectuals,
the
so
called
Young
Party,
got
dissatisfied
with
the
loyalist
and
slavish
mentality
of
the
upper
class
leadership
of
Muslim
League.
captured
league
in
1912,
and
began
steering
towards
greater
militancy.
In
their
social
composition
they
tended
to
be
very
much
like
the
radical
hindu
nationalists,
insofar
as
they
were
seldom
titled
Zamindars.
1912-
the
brillian
congress
leader
MA
Jinnah
invited
to
join
league,
which
adopted
setting
up
of
self-government
as
one
of
its
objectives.
In
the
same
year
Aga
Khan
resigned
as
President
Ahrar
Movement
(Militant
nationalist
movement)
Maulana
mahammad
Ali,
Hakim
Ajmal
Khanl,
Hasan
Imam,
Maulana
Zafar
Ali
Khan,
and
Mazhar-ul-Haq.
o Got
support
from
Ulema,
belonging
to
deoband
school
o Maulana
Abul
Kalam
Azad
Al
Hilal
newspaper
(1912)
GHADAR MOVEMENT
Crucial
role
played
by
Lala
Hardayal,
a
political
exile
from
India
and
Bhai
Parmanand,
Sohan
Singh
Bhakra,
etc
Working
committee
set
up
and
weekly
paper,
The
Ghadar
was
started
for
free
circulation.
,
Headquarter
at
San
Francisco,
called
Yugantar
Ashram.
Ghadar
militants
immediately
began
an
extensive
propaganda
campaign,
they
toured
extensively
,
visiting
mills
and
farms
where
most
of
the
Punjabi
immigrant
labour
worked.
15
Powerful
impact
made
by
the
poems
that
appeared
in
The
Ghadar,
soon
collected
and
published
as
Ghadar
di
Gooonj.
Ghadar
was
circulated
widely
among
Indians
in
North
America
and
within
a
few
months
it
had
reached
groups
settled
in
the
Phillippines,
Hong
Kong,
China,
the
Malay
States,
Singapore,
Trinindad,
the
Honduras,
and
of
course
India.
1914
three
events
influenced
the
course
of
the
Ghadar
Movement
a. arrest
and
escape
of
Har
Dayal
(active
association
with
Ghadar
came
to
an
abrupt
end)
b. Komagata
Maru
incident:
Sept
29,
1914,
a
shipload
of
would
be
sikh
and
punjabi
Muslim
immigrants
from
India
were
turned
back
from
Vancouver
by
the
Canadian
immigration
authorities.
On
their
return
clashed
with
police
in
Budge-
Budge
near
Calcutta.
c. Outbreak
of
First
World
war:
ailan-e-jung
of
Ghadar
Party
was
issued
and
circulated
widely.
Leaders
persuaded
Indians
living
abroad
to
go
back
to
india
and
organize
an
armed
rebellion.
Around
8000
emigrants
returned
to
india,
5000
were
allowed
to
proceed
unhindered.
Govt
was
fully
informed
of
the
plans
and
hence
returnees
were
scrutinized.
But
Punjab
in
1914
was
very
different
from
what
the
Ghadarites
had
been
led
to
expect
they
found
the
Punjabis
were
in
no
mood
to
join
the
romantic
adventure
of
the
Ghadar.
Militants
from
abroad
tried
persuading
to
no
avail.
Chief
Khalsa
Diwan
proclaiking
its
loyalty
to
the
sovereign,
declared
them
to
be
fallen
Sikhs
and
criminals,
and
helped
govt.
to
track
them
down.
Strengths of Ghadar
Weaknesses of Ghadar
Completely
underestimated
the
extent
and
amount
of
preparation
at
every
level
organization,
ideological,
strategic,
tactical
and
financial.
Sounded
the
bugle
of
war
without
much
preparation
Failed
to
generate
an
effective
and
sustained
leadership
that
was
capable
of
integrating
the
various
aspects
of
the
movement.
Almost
non-existent
organizational
structure
16
War
years
offered
a
great
opportunity
for
indian
revolutionaries.
Troops
were
drained
out
of
India.
The
war
brough
home
the
possibility
of
financial
and
military
help
from
Germany
and
Turkey.
The
number
of
political
dacoities
and
murders
reached
its
highest.
An
objective
basis
emerged
during
the
war
years
for
a
sort
of
joint
platform
of
the
moderates,
extremists,
and
Young
Party
controlled
muslim
League,
for
putting
constitutional,
but
still
quite
intense
pressure
on
the
British
Govt,
in
return
for
war
support.
Tilak
(extremist)
was
eager
to
strike
a
compromise
with
his
old
congress
enemies
after
his
return
from
jail,
in
1914.
Pherozshah
Mehta
refused
to
yield
even
while
other
moderates
were
willing.
Major
element
which
united
congress
was
the
sudden
rise
of
Theosophical
Society
leader,
Annie
Besant.
She
believed
that
substantial
measure
of
self-governance
was
necessary
for
an
Indo-British
friendship
and
that
only
way
of
achieving
this
was
through
a
nation-wide
agitaition
and
organization
modeled
on
the
British
Radical
and
the
Irish
Home
Rule
movements.
In
Dec,
1915
it
was
decide
that
the
Tilak
group
be
allowed
to
re-enter
Congress
(Mehta
had
died
meanwhile)
Congress
and
Muslim
League
met
simultaneously
in
Bombay
At
Lucknow,
Dec,
1916,
a
common
demand
was
raised
for
representative
govt.
at
the
centre
as
well
as
provinces,
and
dominion
status
for
india.
Hindu
Muslim
political
differences
wer
sought
to
be
resolved
by
the
famous
Lucknow
pact.
o Congress
accepted
the
separate
electorates
and
a
bargain
was
struk
over
the
distribution
of
seats
o Muslim
leaders
accepted
under
representation
in
Muslim
majority
areas
(40%
-Bengal),
in
return
for
over
representation
in
muslim
minority
areas
(30%
-
Bombay)
Lucknow
session
was
also
first
united
congress
since
1907.
o Tilak
Maharashtra
(excluding
Bombay
city),
Karnataka,
Central
Provinces
and
Berar
o Besants-
Rest
of
india
Both
operated
from
Poona
1917-
Tilaks
14000
members;
Besants
27000
Activities
of
Leagues
o Organizing
group
discussion
and
reading
rooms
in
cities
o Distributing
mass
sale
of
pamphlets
(arguments
for
self
rule)
o Lecture
tours
Demand
was
made
wholly
on
secular
basis
Aug
1917,
Montague,
the
secretary
of
state,
promised
a
responsible
govt.
to
India
Demand
for
home
Rule
or
self
govt.
could
no
longer
be
treated
as
seditious
By
the
end
of
WW
I,
the
leader
of
the
Home
Rule
League
who
had
aroused
the
masses
were
now
unable
to
show
the
way
forward.
The
stage
was
set
for
the
entry
of
Gandhi.
Champaran
In
the
early
19th
century,
European
planters
compelled
the
peasants
to
grow
indigo
on
a
part
of
their
holdings
(Tinkathia
system)
Towards
the
end
of
19th
century,
German
synthetic
dye
forced
indigo
out
of
market
18
European
planters
released
the
cultivators
from
their
obligation
of
cultivating
indigo,
but
enhanced
the
rent
and
other
illegal
dues.
Gandhi,
accompanied
by
Rajendra
Prasad,
mazhar
ul
Haq,
J
B
Kriplani
and
Mahadev
Desai
reached
Champaran
in
1917
after
invitation
of
the
peasants
Grievances
of
peasants
were
given
all-India
publicity
Govt.
abolished
Tinkathia
System
Gandhi
was
compared
to
Lord
Rama
and
the
planters
to
Rakshasas.
He
was
thought
of
an
holyman
with
miracle
powers,
who
could
end
all
exploitation.
Kheda
Suffered
from
repeated
famines
and
plague
after
1899
make
revenue
payment
difficult
1917-18,
a
poor
harvest
coincided
with
high
prices
of
kerosene,
ironware,
cloth
and
salt
The
farm
labour
employed
by
Pattidars
(small
peasant
proprietors)
had
successfully
forced
them
to
hike
up
their
wages
pattidars
appeals
for
remission
of
revenue
were
ignored
by
the
govt.
as
the
yields
were
less
than
1/4th
of
normal,
they
were
entitled
under
revenue
code
to
a
total
remission
of
land
revenues.
Gandhi
organized
first
real
peasant
satyagraha,
asking
peasants
to
withhold
revenue
and
fight
onto
death
Vallabhai
Patel
a
young
lawyer
of
kheda
joined
Gandhi
in
touring
villages
Govt.
issued
secret
instructions
directing
that
revenue
should
be
recovered
from
only
those
peasants
who
could
pay
The
movement
was
withdrawn
Sustained
village
work
continued
by
the
volunteers
was
to
build
up
over
years
a
sold
Gandhian
base
in
Gujarat
Ahmedabad
Feb-
March
1918-
purely
internal
conflict
between
Gujarat
mill
owners
and
their
workers
over
the
question
of
plague
bonus
of
1917
Employers
wanted
to
withdraw
it
once
the
epidemic
had
passed
Workers
demanded
50%
hike
in
wages
in
lieu
of
the
plague
bonus
to
take
care
of
the
rise
in
cost
of
living
during
the
war
Owners
were
willing
to
offer
only
20%
Ahmedabad
strike,
March
1918-under
Gandhis
leadership
First
use
of
weapon
of
Hunger
Strike
Success
and
workers
got
a
35%
wage
increase
Gandhian
hold
on
the
Ahmedabad
workers
was
consolidated
through
the
Textile
labour
association
of
1920.
19
Till
the
early
1919,
Gandhi
by
and
large
did
not
intervene
in
the
matters
of
all-India
politics.
It
was
the
provocative
enactment
of
Rowlatt
Act
in
Feb
1919,
which
made
him
launch
an
all
iNDIA
satyagraha.
Govt.
passed
the
act
in
1919,
inspite
of
stiff
opposition
from
the
Indian
members
of
the
council
It
entailed
detaining
anyone
without
trial
for
a
maximum
period
of
2
years.
Gandhi
March
23
1919-
called
for
all
India
Hartal
on
March
30
(later
postponed
to
April
6th)
Gandhi
used
three
types
of
political
network
o Home
rule
league
o Certain
pan
islamist
groups
o A
satyagraha
sabha
with
Gandhi
himself
started
at
Bombay
in
Feb,
1919.
o Gandhi
developed
excellent
relations
with
Abdu
Bari
of
Firangi
Mahal
Ulama
Lucknow,
who
along
with
other
radicle
leaders
of
Muslim
League
came
out
in
favour
of
satyagraha
against
rowlatt
act.
o Satyagraha
Sabha
concentrated
on
publicing
propaganda
literature
and
collecting
signatures
of
satyagraha
pledge.
o Elemental
movement,
almost
entirely
urban,
with
lower
middle
class
groups
and
artisans
playing
a
more
important
role
than
industrial
workers.
o Demonstrations
and
hartals
in
most
of
the
towns
on
March
30
and
april
6th
and
these
were
generally
accompanies
by
violence
and
disorder.
o In
Punjab
due
to
strong
reactions,
army
was
called
in.
o Gandhiji
withdrew
the
movement
on
18
April
after
the
Jalianwala
massacre
Rowlatt
act,
Jallianwala
Bagh,
Martial
law
in
Punjab
triggered
the
movement
Furthermore,
Reform
of
1919
with
ill
considered
scheme
of
diarchy
Harsh
peace
treaty
imposed
on
the
defeated
Ottoman
empire
Khilafat
movement:
(Ali
Brothers-
Mohammad
Ali
and
Shaukat
Ali)
o Turkish
caliph
sultan
must
retain
control
over
the
Muslim
holy
places
o He
must
be
left
with
sufficient
territory
to
enable
him
to
defend
Islamic
Faith
o Jazirut-ul-Arab
(Arabia,
Syria,
Iraq
and
Palestine)
must
remain
under
muslim
suzerainty
o May
14,
1920
Treaty
with
Turkey
o May
28,
1920
Hunter
Commission
Report
o Gandhi
who
had
been
in
close
touch
with
Khilafat
leaders
suggested
that
it
adopt
a
programme
of
non-violent
non-cooperation
to
protest
the
governments
behaviour
Allahabad
meeting
of
the
Central
Khilafat
Committee
(June
9,
1920)
unanimously
accepted
the
suggestion
of
non-cooperation
and
asked
Gandhiji
to
lead
the
movement
Movement
was
formally
launched
in
1st
August,
1920
after
the
expiry
of
the
notice
that
Gandhi
had
given
to
viceroy
in
his
letter
of
22
June
in
which
he
had
asserted
the
right
recognized
from
time
immemorial
of
the
subject
to
refuse
to
assist
a
ruler
who
misrules.
Congress
met
in
September
at
Calcutta
and
accepted
non-cooperation
as
its
own
programme
Dec
1920,
Nagpur
Annual
Session
o Surrender
of
titles
o Triple
boycott
of
schools,
courts,
and
councils
o Boycott
of
foreign
goods
o Promotion
of
national
schools,
arbitration
courts,
the
khadi
o Maintenance
of
a
Hindu-muslim
unity
o And
strict
non-violence
Gandhis
insistence
crucial
changes
brought
in
congress
o A
regular
four
anna
membership
to
enable
the
poor
to
become
members
o A
hierarchy
of
village-
taluka-
district
or
town
committees
21
Nov,
1922-
Kamal
Pasha
deprived
the
sultan
of
his
power,
abolished
caliphate
in
1924
o This
broke
the
back
of
khilafat
movement
o Hindu-Muslim
unity
gave
way
to
communal
riots,
1922-27
Following
annexation
of
Avadh
in
1856,
the
second
half
of
the
19th
century
had
seen
the
strengthening
of
the
hold
of
taluqdars
or
big
landlords
over
the
agrarian
society.
Had
led
to
exorbitant
rents,
illegal
levies,
renewal
fees
or
nazrana,
and
arbitrary
ejectments
or
bedakhli
More
active
members
of
Home
Rule
League
in
UP
initiated
the
proess
of
organization
of
peasants
of
the
province
on
modern
lines
into
kisan
sabhas.
UP
Kisan
Sabha
was
set
up
in
Feb
1918
Gauri
Shankar
Mishra
and
Indra
Narain
Dwivedi,
with
support
of
M
M
Malviya
Baba
Ramachandra,
emerged
as
the
strongest
leader
Difference
emerged
on
ways
of
working
between
non-cooperators
and
the
ones
who
preferred
constitutional
agitation
(
MM
Malviya
group)
Non
cooperators
set
up
an
alternative
Oudh
Kisan
Sabha
at
Pratapgarh
on
17
Oct.
1920.
o Succedded
in
integrating
under
its
banner
all
the
grassroots
kisan
sabhas
that
had
emerged
in
the
districts
of
Avadh
(over
330
Kisan
Sabhas)
o Asked
the
kisans
to
refuse
to
till
bedakhli
land,
not
offer
hari
and
begar
(forms
of
unpaid
labour),
to
boycott
those
who
did
not
accept
these
conditions
and
to
solve
their
disputes
through
panchayats.
In
January
1921,
the
nature
of
peasant
activity
underwent
a
marked
change.
looting
of
bazaars,
houses,
granaries
and
clashes
with
police.
Govt.
quikly
suppressed
the
outbreak
of
violence.
And
pushed
through
the
Oudh
Rent
(Amendment)
Act,
and
though
it
brought
little
relief
to
the
tenants,
it
helped
rouse
hopes
and
in
its
own
way
assisted
in
the
decline
of
the
movement
Northern
Avadh
Initial
thrust
provided
by
Congress
and
Khilafat
leaders
Main
grievances
extraction
of
rent
that
was
generally
50%
higher
than
the
recorded
rent,
oppression
of
thekedars.
23
Eka
meetings
were
marked
by
religious
ritual.
Assembled
peasants
vowed
that
they
would
pay
only
the
recorded
rent
buy
pay
it
on
time.
Demanded
commutation
of
produce
rent
(batai)
to
cash
rent
Developed
its
own
grass
roots
leadership
in
form
of
Madari
Pasi
and
other
low-caste
leaders
who
were
not
particularly
inclined
to
accept
the
discipline
of
non-violence
Unlike
kisan
sabha
movement
which
was
almost
solely
on
tenants,
Eka
movement
included
in
its
ranks
many
small
zamindars.
By
March
1922,
severe
repression
on
the
part
of
authorities
succeeded
in
bringing
the
eka
movement
to
its
end.
Mappila Rebellion
Separatist Trends II
Unprecedented
growth
of
communalism
was
in
fact
the
most
serious
negative
development
of
the
post
1922
years
Alliance
between
Khilafat
and
congress
lingered
on
till
early
1925.
Mohammad
Ali,
who
had
presided
over
the
Kakinda
Congress,
as
late
as
Dec.
1923,
finally
split
from
Gandhi
in
the
wake
of
reported
riots
Post
1919
political
structure
was
itself
designed
to
create
divisions
among
Indians
Huge
unemployment-
scramble
for
scarce
jobs
Spread
of
Tabligh
(propaganda)
and
Tanzim
(organization)
among
muslims
from
1923
and
the
Arya
Samajists
Shuddhi
and
Sangathan
started
after
Moplah
conversions
and
extended
in
1923
by
Shraddhananda
to
western
UP
to
win
back
Hindus
Muslim
League
was
once
again
active
(devoid
of
radical
and
nationalist
elements)
Ali
brothers
shifted
towards
adopting
communal
outlook
Lahore
Session
of
League
Presided
by
Jinnah
and
the
first
since
1918
to
meet
separately
from
Congress,
the
League
raised
the
demand
for
federation
with
full
provincial
autonomy
to
preserve
Muslim
majority
areas
from
domination
of
hindus.
Hindu
Mahasabha
started
at
Haridwar
Kumbh
Mela
by
Madan
Mohan
Malaviya
in
1915
was
revived
in
1923.
Founding
of
RSS
at
Nagpur
by
K
B
Hedgewar
in
1925
In
this
Hindu-muslim
tussle,
the
real
winners
were
the
British.
Emergence of Communists
Roy
shifted
to
Berlin
when
his
hopes
of
penetrating
India
through
Afghanistan
failed
Started
Vanguard
of
Indian
Independence
and
later
published
India
in
Transition
By
the
end
of
1922,
through
Nalini
Gupta
and
Shaukat
Usmani
Roy
established
contacts
with
emerging
communist
groups
in
India
especially
in
Bombay
(Dange)
Dange
brought
out
the
weekly
Socialist
from
Bombay
(1922)
first
ever
communist
journal
to
be
published
in
india
Roy
in
a
letter
to
Dange,
Nov
2,
1922,
outlined
a
plan
for
dual
organization
-
one
legal
and
another
illegal
a
secret
communist
nucleus
working
within
a
broad
front
Workers
and
Peasants
Party
British
panicked
of
a
Bolshevik
Revolution
o Arrested
(May,
1922)
Muzaffar
Ahmad,
SA
Dange,
Shaukat
Usmani
and
Nalini
Gupta
Communist
Party
of
India
was
founded
in
1925
No.
of
organizations
were
set
up
between
1925-27,
embodying
the
idea
of
broad
front
WPP
to
serve
as
a
legal
cover
Basic
objective
of
WPP
was
to
work
within
congress
to
give
it
a
more
radical
orientation,
make
it
party
of
people
Little
penetration
in
countryside.
In 1928, J Nehru joined hands with Subhas C Bose to organize the Independence of India League to
27
fight
for
complete
independence
of
India
and
a
socialist
revision
of
her
economic
structure
o Later
he
traced
the
final
parting
of
the
ways
back
to
the
Nehru
Report
discussion
of
1928-29
The
process
of
constitution
making
raised
the
question
of
the
future
status
of
Princely
states.
All
India
States
Peoples
Conference
(Bombay,
Dec,
1927)
first
o Organized
by
politicians
with
congress
leanings
o Demanded
extension
of
responsible
govt.
to
Princely
states
Lord
Irwin
set
up
a
committee
to
go
into
the
question
of
paramountcy
under
Harcourt
Butler
Butler
Report
(March,
1929)
o Reasserted
that
paramountcy
must
remain
paramount
but
it
was
not
automatically
transferrable
from
crown
to
any
future
self
governing
centre
enjoying
a
dominion
status
o Paramountcy
would
be
exercised
by
the
Viceroy
and
not
by
Governor
General
in
the
Council
o This
was
clear
attempt
to
take
the
subject
of
relations
with
prices
away
form
the
orbit
of
a
possible
congress
dominated
central
government
and
had
an
ominous
portent
for
the
unity
of
the
country
Simon Boycott
Revolutionary
Terrorism
Hindustan
Republican
Association
Surya Sen
Salt
Satyagraha
Gandhis
ultimatum
to
Irwin
of
Jan
31
contained
demand
in
the
form
of
11
points
Gandhis
statement
evoked
no
response
from
govt.
The
only
way
out
was
civil
disobedience,
including
non
payment
of
taxes
Initiated
campaign
by
breaking
salt
laws
Dandi
March,
(March
12
April
6)
from
Sabarmati
to
Sea
coast
Kamladevi
Chattapadhyay
persuaded
Gandhi
to
not
restrict
the
movement
to
men
alone
30
It
became
the
first
national
activity
in
which
women
participated
in
large
numbers
Gandhi
Arrested
Mid
May
(1930)
Tamil
Nadu
C
Rajagopalachari
led
a
salt
March
from
Tirichurapalli
to
Vedaraniyam
on
the
Tanjore
Coast
Abbas
Tyabji
took
Gandhis
place
Sarojini
Naidu
took
Tyabjis
place
after
he
was
arrested
Peshawar
Abdul
Gaffar
Khan
(Badshah
khan)
o Pakhtun
first
pushto
political
monthly
o Khudai
Khidmatgar
volunteer
brigades
(red
uniform)
Working
class
partipation
occurred
despite
the
total
exclusion
of
their
specific
grievances
from
the
11
points
and
congress
strategy
in
general
Communist
aloofness
as
they
considered
INC
as
bourgeois
Civil
disobedience
did
not
stop
inspite
of
violence
Low
muslim
participation
Gandhi
at
Lahore
congress
boycott
of
school
and
courts
impractical
Merchants
and
Traders
participated
31
Truce
Time
In
Bengal
terrorism
surpassed
all
previous
records
Dec
1931
RTC
negotiations
breakdown,
Untouchability
Cultural
Encounter
and
Social
Change:
Caste
Consciousness
and
Related
Movements
Jotibha
Phule
33
mid
1930s
were
marked
by
a
gradual
coming
together
of
orthodox
Gandhian
constructive
workers,
i.e.
no
changers
and
advocates
of
council
entry
in
a
common
front
against
a
growing
challenge
form
the
Left.
Idea
of
a
distinct
socialist
group
working
under
congress
Nasik
Jail
Meeting
1923
Congress
Socialist
Party
(CSP)
formally
set
in
Mat
1933
at
a
conference
in
Patna,
chaired
by
Narendra
Dev
CSP
activists
were
able
to
develop
close
connections
with
the
emerging
Kisan
sabha
Movement,
particularly
in
Bihar
and
Andhra.
Several
Kisan
Marches
organized
in
coastal
Andhra
(1933-34)
Sahajananda
in
Bihar,
revived
the
Kisan
sabha
and
mobilized
people
around
a
radical
programme
including
abolition
of
zamindari
Communist revival
Largely
formal
and
unimportant
third
and
last
sessionof
RTC
was
held
in
Nov-Dec
1932
with
only
46
delegates
(as
against
112
in
1931)
Act
of
1935,
curtailed
whatever
limited
concessions
were
offered
in
1930-31
under
pressure
of
Civil
Disobedience
In
provinces
diarchy
was
replaced
by
responsible
govt.
but
gave
discretionary
powers
to
34
Governor.
Electorate
increased
Kind
of
diarchy
introduced
at
center
Criticized
by
all
sections
of
Indian
Public
Muslims are not a minority but a nation and they must have their separate homeland
Economic Scene
On
average
brought
more
gains
than
losses
for
substantial
section
of
the
population
Employment
went
up
by
31%
betweein
1939
and
1942.
Rise
in
agricultural
prices
Labour
unrest
was
kept
in
check
by
substantial
dearness
allowances
and
supply
of
essential
goods
at
subsidized
rates
in
the
big
cities.
Traders
made
quick
profits
This
probably
explained
the
relative
weakness
of
the
national
movement
between
1931
1941
37
Two
major
developments
in
the
latter
half
of
1941
transformed
the
Indian
situation.
o Hitlers
invasion
of
Russia,
and
o the
dramatic
drive
through
South-East
Asia
from
Dec
1941,
which
in
four
months
swept
the
British
out
of
Malaya,
Singapore
and
Burma
German
invasion
of
Russia
confronted
Indian
communists
with
an
agonizing
choice.
After
six
months
of
hesitations
and
internal
debate,
the
CPI
in
January
1942
lined
up
with
the
rest
to
support
the
anti-fascist
Peoples
War
Cripps Mission
38
a. Massive
and
violent
but
quickly
suppressed,
mostly
urban
(hartals,
strikes
and
clashes
with
the
police)
Ahmedabad
Stalingrad
of
India
Textile
strike
(3
and
half
months)
Urban
middle
class
prominent
spearheaded
by
students
b. Middle
of
August
focus
shifted
to
countryside
Militant
students
fanned
into
villages,
leading
peasant
rebellion
against
authorities
reminiscent
of
1857
Installation
of
a
number
of
national
govts
(short
lived)
c. End
of
September
longest
and
least
formidable
Terrorist
strikes
by
educated
youth
against
communications
and
police
and
army
installations
By
the
end
of
1942
British
victorious
in
confrontation
with
Indian
Nationalism
War
conditions
allowed
a
ruthless
use
of
force
Remaining
2
and
half
years
passed
without
any
serious
political
challenge
Against
Congresss
Quit
India,
Muslim
Leagues
new
slogan
Divide
and
Quit
Gandhi
released
in
May
6,
1944
made
efforts
for
communal
harmony.
Jinnah,
however,observed
in
March
1045
Pakistan
is
our
irrevocable
and
unalterable
National
Demand.
Left Alternative
INA Trials
Wavell
Plan
and
Shimla
Conference
Eve
of
Independence
September
19,
Announcement
1945-46 Elections
Congress
won
the
general
seats
and
muslim
league,
the
muslim
ones
(except
in
NWFP)
League
formed
govt.
in
Bengal
and
Sind,
but
was
defeated
in
Punjab
In
1937
League
had
won
only
25%
of
muslim
seats
In
1946
90%
Feb
18,
1946
ratings
of
the
RIN
in
Bombay
and
Karachi
openly
revolted
41
Indian
sailors,
complaining
of
bad
food
and
racial
discrimination,
hoisted
the
congress
and
the
League
flags
on
their
ships
By
Feb
22-
the
strike
had
spread
to
naval
bases
all
over
the
country
involving
20,000
ratings
Demands
o Release
of
INA
and
other
political
prisoners
o Withdrawal
of
Indian
troops
from
Indonesia
o Acceptance
of
Indian
officers
as
superiors
Violent
street
fighting
on
Feb
22
and
23.
Clashes
took
place
in
Karachi
throughout
February
Sardar
Patel,
helped
for
once
by
Jinnah,
managed
to
persuade
the
ratings
to
end
their
strike
on
Feb
23
The
strike
committee
issued
a
bulletin
to
say
that
they
had
surrendered
to
their
national
leaders
and
not
the
Govt.
Comprising
o Lord
Pethick
Lawrence
(Secretary
of
state
for
India)
o Sir
Stafford
Cripps
(President
of
the
Board
of
Trade)
o A
V
Alexander
(First
Lord
of
the
Admirality)
Came
to
India
on
March
19,
1946
Could
not
reach
agreement
about
the
formation
of
an
interim
Govt.
and
the
machinery
for
formulating
the
constitution
after
discussions
with
the
Congress
and
Muslim
League
Cabinet
issued
a
statement
on
May
16,
1946,
formulating
a
plan
for
the
future
Govt.
of
India
India
to
be
divided
into
three
groups
o A
Madras,
Bombay,
Central
and
United
Provinces
o B-
NWFP,
Punjab
and
Baluchistan
o C-
Bengal
and
Assam
Scheme
for
formulating
constitution,
to
be
framed
by
the
constituent
assembly,
members
of
which
were
to
be
elected
on
a
communal
basis
by
the
provincial
legislative
assembly
and
representatives
to
states
joining
the
union
Cabinet
mission
plan
was
not
considered
satisfactory
by
any
section
League
accepted
on
June
6
1940,
in
as
much
as
the
basis
of
foundation
of
Pakistan
were
inherent
in
the
missions
plan
by
virtue
of
the
compulsory
groupings
of
the
six
muslim
majority
provinces
in
Group
B
and
C
Congress
accepted
in
June
25
with
a
view
to
framing
constitution,
but
did
not
agree
on
the
proposal
for
an
interim
govt.
Mission
left
on
June
29,
1046,
Viceroy
formed
a
care-taker
govt.
comprising
nine
officials.
42
Members
of
the
constituent
assembly
were
elected
by
the
legislative
assemblies
of
various
provinces
in
the
month
of
July,
1946.
It
resulted
in
an
overwhelming
majority
of
congress
League
withdrew
its
assent
to
the
Cabinet
Mission
plan
and
expressed
its
determination
to
resort
to
direct
action
to
achieve
Pakistan.
Aug
16
Direct
Action
Day
by
the
League
Lekar
Rahenge
Pakistan,
Ladke
leke
Pakistan
Communal
frenzy
5000
lives
lost
On
Muslim
Leagues
refusal
to
cooperate,
the
interim
govt.
with
Nehru
as
its
Vice
President
took
office
on
Sept.
2
1946
Later
5
Muslim
League
nominees
were
added
on
Oct.
26,
1946
Constituent Assembly
Met
on
Dec
9,
1946
under
Nehru
boycotted
by
elected
members
of
the
League
Met
again
in
the
third
week
of
Jan
1947
Rajendra
Prasad
as
President
o Nehru
moved
the
crucial
Objectives
Resolution
on
13
December
1946,
that
outlined
the
defining
ideals
of
the
constitution
of
Independent
India
and
provided
the
framework
within
which
the
work
of
constitution
making
was
to
proceed
o Objective
was
to
fuse
the
liberal
ideas
of
democracy
with
socialist
ideas
of
economic
justice
o Proclaimed
India
to
be
Independent
Sovereign
Republic
On
14th
August
1947,
constituent
assembly
would
take
over
as
an
independent
Indias
Legislative
assembly
Attlees Annoucement
Mountbatten Plan
After
Series
of
interviews
with
political
leaders
March
23-26,
decided
that
Cabinet
mission
framework
had
become
untenable
April
1,
1947
Gandhi
met
Mountbatten
o Suggested
that
the
running
of
the
Intern
Govt.
be
handed
over
to
the
leader
of
Muslim
League,
Jinnah,
to
avoid
partition
o Did
not
find
favour
and
Mountbatten
formulated
an
alternative
PLAN
BALKAN
o Envisaged
transfer
of
power
to
separate
provices,
with
Bengal
and
Punjab
Assemblies
being
given
the
option
to
vote
for
partition
of
their
provinces.
Plan
quickly
abandoned
after
Nehru
reacted
violently
in
Simla,
May
10,
(Mountbatten
had
informed
him
privately)
43
V
P
Menon
and
Patel
suggested
a
transfer
to
two
central
govt.
India
and
Pakistan
on
the
basis
of
grant
of
Dominion
status
(with
the
right
to
Secession)
Accepted
by
congress
Sikh
and
ML
accepted
June
2
and
announced
on
June
3
Became
the
basis
of
India
Independence
Act
Ratified
by
British
Parliament
and
crown
on
July
18
and
implemented
on
August
15,
1947.
Punjab
and
Bengal
was
divided
by
two
boundary
commissions
led
by
Sir
Cyril
Radcliff
East
Bengal,
West
Punjab,
Sind
and
Baluchistan
opted
for
Pakistan
West
Bengal
and
East
Punjab
opted
for
India
Sylhet
threw
its
lot
with
Pakistan
In
NWFP
Abdul
Gaffar
Khan
and
Red
shirts
demanded
an
independent
Pakhtoonistan
o Red
shirts
did
not
participate
in
the
plebiscite
which
went
in
favour
of
joining
Pakistan
Indian
independence
Act,
1947
declared
that
British
paramountcy
over
the
Indian
states
was
to
lapse
on
Aug
15,
1947
States
were
allowed
to
join
either
India
or
Pakistan
Sardar
Patel,
charge
of
states
dept.
in
July
1947,
tackled
the
situation
with
great
statesmanship,
ably
assisted
by
V
P
Menon
Asked
565
princely
states
to
hand
over
authority
in
3
areas
o External
affairs
o Defence
o Communications
to
Indian
Dominion,
Pointing
out
that
during
the
British
Rule
,
they
had
exercised
little
authority
on
these
3
subjects
Accession
of
Junagarh,
Hyderabad,
Kashmir
and
Manipur
proved
more
difficult
than
the
rest
Manipur
o Maharaja
Bodhachandra
Singh
signed
the
instrument
of
accession
on
the
assurances
that
internal
autonomy
of
Manipur
would
be
maintained
o However,
under
pressure
of
public
opinion,
Maharaja
held
elections
in
June
1948,
(thus
becoming
the
first
part
of
India
to
hold
and
election
on
universal
adult
franchise),
and
the
state
became
a
constitutional
monarchy
o Later
in
Sept.
1949,
Maharaja
was
pressurized
by
GoI
into
signing
a
Merger
agreement
without
consulting
the
popularly
elected
Legislative
Assembly
of
Manipur.
This
bred
anger
and
resentment,
which
festers
till
now.
44