TRANSHUMANCE

IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA*

IAN M. MATLEY

HE mountainregionsof BosniaandHerzegovinaareone of the last

areasin Europe where the seasonalmovement of sheep takes place.

Driven by the dry summersof southernHerzegovina,the shepherds,
accompaniedby their families, seek the grassesof the mountainpasturesof
Bosnia.These grasses,however, aremarginalin quality,and wateris scantfor
men and animals.The conditionsfor livestockherdingareamong the poorest
in Europe, and the standardof living of the shepherdsand their families is
primitive in the extreme.
Transhumancehasbecome so much a partof the life of the Herzegovinian
peasantthat the practicehas been maintainedfor many generations,in times
of peace and of war. However, the economic and socialforcesat work today
in Yugoslavia are exerting a strong influenceon this type of livestock herding, and its continuationis in doubt.
HISTORY OF PASTORAL ACTIVITIES

Since pastoralpeoples leave few materialtracesof their movements, we

know little about the activitiesof prehistoricman in the Balkan mountains.
In the fifth century before Christ a group known as the Illyrians were
identified in the region west of the VardarRiver and north of the Epirus
mountains.By the second centurybefore Christ,when Roman influencewas
beginning to be felt in the region, the Illyrianshad establisheda state with
its capitalat Scutariin what is now Albania.By A. D. 9, however, the Romans
had annexed most of the area of present-dayYugoslavia, and the Illyrians
became Roman subjects.
The Illyrianswere seminomadic stock raisers,who used the mountain
pasturesfor grazing their goats and sheep. There is little doubt that the
pastoral culture of the inhabitantsof many areasin the Balkan Peninsula
* The author wishes to
express his appreciationto the American Council of LearnedSocieties for
financialsupportin carryingout fieldwork in Yugoslaviain the summerof 1966. He also wishes to thank
the many people in Yugoslavia who made this study possible, in particularDr. Cedomir Milic and Dr.
Milislav Lutovac of the SerbianAcademy of Science and Art, Dr. Tvrtko Kanaetand Dr. Dusan Maksimovid of the University of Sarajevo,Dr. Mario Petric of the EthnographicMuseum of Sarajevo,Mr.
Doka Markovic of the Butmir statefarm, and many librariansand officialswho were most generouswith
their time and assistance.Finally, he wishes to acknowledge the able assistanceof Mr. IbrahimBusatlija
of the Departmentof Geography of the University of Sarajevo,whose expert knowledge of the mountains and their inhabitantsmade each field trip a fascinatingexperience.
> DR. MATLEYis professor of geography at Michigan State University, East Lansing.

232

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

owes its origin in part to the Illyrians. The existence of Celtic pastoral
activitiesin the mountainsof present-dayBosnia and Herzegovinais doubtful. Although Celtic peopleswere active in the region in the third and fourth
centuriesof the presentera, they were probablyassimilatedfairly rapidlyby
the numericallysuperiorIllyrians.The breakupof the Roman Empire in the
east in the fifth century was followed by invasionsof Avars, Huns, Goths,
and others, none of whom settled in any large numbers.By the end of the
sixth century,however, Slavicpeoplesfrom the north were settlingthroughout the BalkanPeninsula,and by the middle of the seventhcentury the Slavs
were in full occupationof the territoryof the Illyrians.
It seemsunlikely that the first Slav settlerswere interestedin moving into
the mountains.It was this probablereluctanceof the Slavsto leave the fertile
lowlands and valleys that enabled scatteredgroups of earlierinhabitantsto
survivein the mountainsof the interior.Besidesthe remnantsof the Illyrian
population, large numbers of people speaking a Latin dialect managed to
carry on a pastorallife in the shelter of the mountains.These people are
known as the Vlahs, and small groups of them can still be found in Macedonia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, and northern Greece. The Vlahs, or
"Aromani"as they call themselves,speakwhat is in effecta dialectof Rumanian and are regardedby the Rumaniansas racial brothers. Their origin,
however, is highly speculative. It is generally assumed that they are the
descendantsof Roman settlersandRomanizednativeswho took to the mountainsduring the invasionsafter the disintegrationof the Roman Empire, but
whether the Vlahs of the Balkanswere always located in the same areasas
they aretoday or whether they moved along the mountainrangesfrom some
core region of Vlah culture,perhapsin the centralCarpathians,is debatable.
Although we have referencesto Vlahsin severalpartsof the BalkanPeninsula
in the sixth century, it is not until the tenth century that we have more
detailedaccountsof them. Referencesto the presenceof the Vlahs in Bosnia
date from the fourteenthand fifteenthcenturies,'and evidenceof theirsettlement in western Bosnia and easternSerbiais furnishedby place names still
in use.2 The problem of Vlah movements is further complicated by the
evidence of strong Vlah influencein the mountain areasof southernPoland,
Slovakia,and Moravia.
I Silviu Dragomir: Vlahii ?i Morlacii: Studiu din IstoriaRomanismuluiBalcanic [The Vlahs and
Morlachs: Study from the History of Balkan Romanism](Cluj, 1924), pp. 6-7.
2
Borivoje Z. Milojevic: Visoke planineu nasoj kraljevini[The High Mountainsin Our Kingdom]
(Belgrade, 1937), pp. 237-238. Milojevic gives examples of Vlah names in these and other areas of

Yugoslavia.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

233

Much of the availableevidence on Vlah movements and influencecomes

from the work of the linguists.The Rumanianlanguage,including the Vlah
dialect,may have developedin the east,possibly to the south of the Danube,
in present-day Bulgaria, where Roman settlement was densest, but most
Rumanianscholarssupport the theory of Dacia, the territory north of the
Danube, as the originalRumanianhomeland.There seemslittle doubt, however, that the Rumanianlanguage spreadto the western mountain regions
from the east with Vlah herders.3The major movements of the Vlahs seem
to have takenplacein the fourteenthand fifteenthcenturies,and much of the
Vlah cultural influence in the mountain areas of eastern and southeastern
Europe seems to date from this period.4
An understandingof the culture of the Vlahs and its origins is important
for the study of pastorallife in the BalkanPeninsula.The Vlahshave managed
to exist through the centuriesalmost exclusivelyby the herding of livestock
on mountain pastures;agriculturehas played little or no part in their lives.
In fact, so stronglyhas herdingbecome associatedwith the Vlahsthatin parts
of Greece the term vlakhosis used to denote a shepherd, with no ethnic
connotations, and since the Middle Ages the term vlah has been used in
SerbiaandBosniaassynonymouswith mountainherderof any ethnic group.5
The Vlahs are generallycreditedwith the originationand diffusionof the
katun,the temporarysettlement used by nomadic and transhumantherders
during their summer sojournon the mountain pastures.Although the word
catunappearsin modern Rumanian,applied to a hamlet or a small group of
dwellings, it is not of Latinorigin and may be of Thracianorigin, being used
3 For a summary of the linguistic evidence, with sources, see Ivan
Popovic: Geschichte der
serbokroatischenSprache(Wiesbaden,1960), pp. 59-64 and 79-85.
4 For details of Vlah culture and influence in eastern and southeasternEurope see F. Miklosich:
Uber die Wanderungen der Rumunen in den dalmatischenAlpen und den Karpaten(Vienna, 1879);
GustavWeigand: Die Aromunen (Leipzig, 1895); A.J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson: The Nomads of
the Balkans (London, 1914); Kazimierz Dobrowolski: Migracje woloskie na ziemiach polskich [Vlah
Migrations on Polish Lands] (Lwow, 1930); D. Crinjala: Rumunske vlivy v Karpatech[Rumanian
Influencesin the Carpathians](Prague, 1938); Dymitr Krandzalov:Wplywy rumufnskiew Karpatach
zachodnich [RumanianInfluencesin the Western Carpathians],in PasterstwoTatr Polskich i Podhala
[Herding in the Polish Tatrasand Podhale] (edited by Wlodzimierz Antoniewicz; 5 volumes; Warsaw
and Wroclaw, 1959-1963), Vol. 5, pp. 165-232; and Kazimierz Dobrowolski: Die Haupttypen der
Hirtenwanderungenin den Nordkarpatenvon 14 bis zum 2ojahrhundert,in Viehzucht und Hirtenleben
in Ostmitteleuropa:EthnographischeStudien (edited by Marta Belenyesy and Bela Gunda; Budapest,
1961), pp. 113-146.
5Jovan Cvijic: La peninsulebalkanique(Paris, 1918), p. 163; Cvetko Popovic: Stocarskakretanja
u Bosni i Hercegovini [LivestockMovements in Bosnia and Herzegovina], GlasnikZemaljskogMuzejau
Bosnii Hercegovini:
Etnologija,N. S., Vol. 18, 1963, pp. ios-119; referenceon p. 105. The word vlahwas
borrowed by the Slavsfrom the Germanicwalah,"stranger."The Germanicpeoples appliedthe term to
many ethnic groupswith whom they camein contact;hence such namesasWalach, Welsh, and Walloon.

234

THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW

in modern Albanianfor "village."6However, even if the name and concept

of the katunpredatethe Vlahs, thereis no doubt that by the Middle Ages the
Vlahs were the main agents in its distribution.There is little definite information on the exact location of all Vlah katuniin the Middle Ages, but their
general distribution,and the main directionsof Vlah livestock movements,
are known.7 By the end of the fourteenthcentury many of the Vlahs were
beginning to abandontheir wanderinglife and to establishpermanentsettlements, often on the lower slopes of the mountains;as a result,many of the
katuni disappeared.
In the Middle Ages livestock were moved mainly between the mountain
pasturesof the interior and the Dalmatiancoast. Herdersfrom the Velebit
Mountains, the Dinaric Alps, the mountains of western Bosnia, and the
Durmitor andProkletijeMountainsdescendedin winter, when the mountain
meadows were covered with snow, to coastal areaswhere pasturagewas
available.In Macedonialivestock were moved from the Sar Planinanorthward to the lowlands of Metohija, but the major movement was from the
mountainsof southernSerbiaand centralMacedoniato the coastallowlands
east of Salonika.8These annualmovements were descending,since the main
settlementsof the Vlahs were in the mountains.
The Turkishoccupationof the BalkanPeninsulain the nineteenthcentury
and the establishmentof nationalboundariesled to the cessationof many of
the longer annual livestock migrations, on the part of both the Vlahs and
others. Since the Middle Ages many of the Vlahs had become assimilated
with the surroundingSlav population, but in spite of losing their language
they still maintainedthe old Vlah way of life. Graduallythe Vlah language
and some aspectsof Vlah culture vanishedin the northernand centralareas
of present-dayYugoslavia,and at the censusof 1961 there were only about
eight thousandVlahs in Macedoniaand one thousandin Serbia.In Bosnia
and Herzegovina the Vlah language has disappearedcompletely. Not only
6 The term stan is used synonymously with katun, especially in northern Yugoslavia. Although
stanis obviously linked with the Rumanianstina,with the same meaning, both termsare of Slavic origin.
The Vlahs of Macedoniause mandrafor their temporarysettlements.This word is also found in Albanian
and Greek. In Apulia, in southernItaly, mandraappliesto a flock of sheep. The Muslims of Bosnia and
Herzegovinause the term mahala,of Turkishorigin. Most of these terms refernot only to the settlement
itself but also to the associatedpastoralareas.
7Jovan S. Trifunoski: Geografske karakteristikesrednjovekovnih katuna [Geographical Characteristicsof the Medieval Katun], in Simposijum o srednjovjekovnomkatunu [Symposium on the
Medieval Katun](edited by M. S. Filipovic; Sarajevo,1963),p. 29. This collection of papersfrom a symposium held in Sarajevoon November 24-25, 1961, containsinformation on the historicalactivities of
the Vlahs in the areaof present-dayYugoslavia.
8 Trifunoski,op. cit. [see footnote 7 above], p. 29 (map).

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

235

was the Vlah element in the population completely Slavicized, but many
Vlahs were converted to Islam during the Turkish occupation. Thus at the
moment the sheepherdingpopulation of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists
and smallernumbersof Serbsand Croats.
largely of Slavic-speaking-Muslims
LIVESTOCK MOVEMENTS FROM HERZEGOVINA

Even when the establishmentof the Turkish, Serbian, and Austrian

boundaries stopped many of the great annual livestock migrations, the
movements between the lowlands near the Adriaticcoast and the mountains
of Bosnia and Herzegovina continued, since the two regions lay within the
same national boundaries.Whenthe Congress of Berlin placed Bosnia and
Herzegovina under Austro-Hungarianadministrationin 1878, no change in
the boundariestook place, and the annualmigrationshave continued up to
the presentday.
The annual movements of flocks from southern Herzegovina to the
mountain pasturesof the interiorhave survivednot only becauseof the lack
of political barriersbut also becauseof the natureof the climate and terrain.9
The lower Neretva Valley as far inland as Mostar, and the surroundinguplands,fall within the Mediterraneanclimatic regime, with high temperatures
and drought in summer. For example, Mostar has an average temperature in August of 77? (with an absolutemaximum of 115?)and an average
rainfall of 1.7 inches, as compared with 7.4 inches in November. Most
of southern Herzegovina has a karst terrain,with the undergrounddrainage and lack of springs usually associatedwith it. The Neretva, fed by
undergroundwater and by a few tributaries,is virtually the only river that
crossesthe Karstin southernHerzegovina. Obviously the supply of water is
a major problem. Sufficientwater for human consumptionis obtainedfrom
occasionalwells and from snow in crevicesand sinkholeson the slopes of the
mountains, which is stored in trenches covered with straw. Cisterns are
constructedto store rainwater,but they are generallyempty for a large part
of the year. There is no water in sufficientquantitiesfor the support of livestock through the summer months,I? nor is there sufficient fodder. The
groundis stony and almostdestituteof vegetation; the soils,largelycalcareous
mountain soils with areasof terra rossa,are thin and poor, unsuited to the
growing of fodder crops.
9 For a general account of conditions leading to livestock movements see Jevto
Dedijer: La transhumance dans les pays dinariques,Annalesde Geogr.,Vol. 25, 1916, pp. 347-365; referenceon p. 350.
1OFor details of the hydrography and water supply of the Velez region near Mostar see Tvrtko
Kanaet: Podvelezje i Podvelesci [The Velez Region and Its Inhabitants](Sarajevo,1955), pp. 47-56.

236

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

The Herzegovinianpeasantswho takepartin the annuallivestock migrations are known traditionallyas Humljacior Humnjaci,literally "the inhabitantsof Humina"-the ancientname of part of southernHerzegovina.Most

-. :
..:ADRIATIC
?
:i '

. 3'''GEOGR. REV.,APR.,1968'1b :::'i

...1f30

o
Kilometers

NIA
IM^ACEDONIA

.'
ALB:
1

,'

FIG.i-Routes of livestock movements from the villages of Herzegovina to the mountain pastures.
After Cvetko Popovic (see footnote 5 for reference),p. 109.

of them live in villages in the zone stretchingfrom Ljubuski(eighteenmiles

southwest of Mostar)to Trebinje(fourteenmiles northeastof Dubrovnik);
their greatestconcentrationis in the lower Neretva Valley, including the
areasouth of Mount Velez, and in the uplandregion to the southeast,around
Stolac and Ljubinje.Peasantsfrom the Ljubuskiregion mainly follow traditional routes to the Ljubusa,Vran, and CvrsnicaMountains; some groups
move as far north as Bjelasnica(Fig. i). Herdersfrom the Velez region move
to Bjelasnicaand Visocica, those from the Stolac, Ljubinje,and Trebinje
regions move to Visocica, Treskavica,Lelija,and Zelengora.
Most of the movementsbegin inJune, and the peasantsare generallyback
in their villages by early October. These ascendingmovements almost cer-

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

237

tainlyfollow the traditionalroutesusedin the pastby the Vlahsin their

visitedyearafteryearby thesamegroups
descents,andthemountainpastures
haveprobablybeenin usefor centuries.
THE PODVELEZJEREGION

One of the most interestinggroupsof annualmigrantsconsistsof the

inhabitantsof the foothill region south of Mount Velez, known as the
Podvelezje. A scarcityof good agriculturalland, poor equipmentand backward techniques, and even a lack of interest make agricultureof minor
importance to the Muslim peasantsof the Podvelezje. Most of them grow
some potatoes,onions, and cabbage,and a little tobacco is grown in a few of
the villages. The acreageunder grain is small; the largestpart is devoted to
spring barley, followed by winter rye, with only a little wheat and oats. No
attempt is made to grow fruit, though wild apples,pears,cherries,and nuts
are found in the region. The climateis not particularlyfavorablefor a steady
yield of fruit, and the peasantshave no knowledge of the techniquesof fruitgrowing."

The main source of food supply and income is livestock. About go percent are sheep, the restcattle and horses.The keeping of goats was forbidden
in Yugoslavia in 1954, in the hope that this would aid the reforestationof
much of the Karst.The sheep are of the breed known as the Herzegovinian
pramenka,a smallanimalsimilarin appearanceto the Welsh mountainsheep,
and average about twenty-five to thirty-five pounds in weight. Although
sheep are kept primarily for milk production, this breed is not an efficient
milk producer,and during the four months on the mountain pastureseach
ewe producesno more than seven to eight pounds of cheese,the majorproduct and mainstayof the local economy."2Dogs arekept for protectionof the
flockson the mountainpastures,sincewolves arecommon in many areas,but
the dogs are not trainedto herd the flocks.
The inhabitantsof the Podvelezje distinguishseveralzones of pasturein
their region. The first is that of najdonjetrave,or "lowest grasses,"along the
northeasternedge of the Mostar basin. Above this is the zone of donjetrave,
or "lower grasses,"at about 2000 feet. The srednjetrave,or "middlegrasses,"
are found around the villages, which lie at an averageof about 2500 feet on
the plateau above the Mostar basin. The gornjetrave, or "upper grasses,"
extend up to the forest zone of the Velez range, and the najgornjetrave,or
" Kanaet,op. cit. [see footnote 1o above], pp. 73-75.
12
Ibid., p. 81.

238

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

"highestgrasses,"arefoundabovethe forestzone up to the summitsof the

range (more than 6000 feet).
Since the zone of lower grassesliesjust below the villages, the livestock
are grazedthere from the beginning of winter until the cold weather sets in
and arethen moved to the lowest grasses,where the herderslive in smallhuts.
Snow rarelyfallsin the Mostararea,and the winter rainscharacteristicof the
areafreshenthe pastures.When the weathermoderates,the herdsmove back
to the lower grasses,and by the end of March they have begun a gradual
movement to the pasturesabove the villages. By early May the herdsare on
the upper grasses,below the forest zone. There they remainuntil the departurefor the mountains,which takesplaceusuallyin the firstor secondweek of
June.'3Familieswith few livestock pasturethem on the highest grasses.Likewise, some of the livestock, especiallycattle and horses,of familieswho have
moved to the interiormountainsare grazedon the highest grassesunder the
control of herders;theseherdersdo not have properhuts but sleepin shelters
A small part of the livestock in the Podvelezjesummers
known as torarice.'4
on the slopes of Mount Velez.
When the time comes for the annualtrek to the mountains,all livestock
that are not summering on Mount Velez are assembled,along with some
animals belonging to peasantsin villages around Mostar and in the lower
Neretva Valley who do not move to the mountainsthemselves.Only certain
familiesin certainvillages have traditionalrights of grazing on these mountain pastures.Many of the rights were grantedby the Turks in return for
servicesrendered.
The herds are moved from the winter pasturesto the mountain pastures
in stages, which probably representthe last remnantsof the practice of the
Vlah shepherds.The sheep are in the lead, in chargeof the women; the men
bring up the rearwith the baggagehorses.The older men ridehorses,but the
women, true to Muslim tradition,generallymake the whole journey on foot.
Childrentoo young to walk far are wrappedin blanketsand strappedto the
baggage horses with rope.
Many of the herdersand theirfamiliesfrom the villagesof Svinjarinaand
Banji Do, about six miles southeastof Mostar on the lower slopes of the
I3 See Nikola Zdanovski: Stocarskakretanja[Livestock Movements], Radovipoljoprivredno-sumarsuniverzitetau Sarajevu,Vol. 3, 1954, pp. 117-143; referencein footnote on p. 122; and Kanaet,
kogfakulteta
op. cit. [see footnote lo above], p. 88.
14 For accountsof the use of the local pasturesin the Podvelezje region see Kanaet,op. cit. [see footnote lo above], pp. 87-92; Dedijer, op. cit.[see footnote 9 above], p. 354; andJevto Dedijer: Hercegovina
MaticeSrpske,Vol. 289, Novi Sad, 1912,pp. 53-54.
iHercegovci[Herzegovina and ItsInhabitants],Letopis

239

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

.I I * I * Railroad
Road
?- - - --Transhumance
route
0 - Konak
i-- Summersettlement
-- Village

il

'
;..

' ?
~:'::-

'f.
?

* .' , . ?

- '.?.

?'

'.*-

*.?::
..-;-

..'. '

.''.'Mr'*.
.

'

. ;.-I.'.'~:.'':.'.';'.

':...:- .
'."':':-','

THE MOUNTAINREGIONOF SOUTHERN

BOSNIAAND HERZEGOVINA
0

10

0p '_ 5t _
20
15

115 Miles
25 Kilometers

FIG.2-The mountainregion of southernBosnia and Herzegovina, showing the route followed by transhumant familiesfrom Svinjarinato Krosnje.Only roadsand railroadsmentioned in the text are shown on the map.

240

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

Velez range,head for their summersettlement,or mahala,at Krosnje,on the

northern part of the Bjelasnicarange (Fig. 2). They ascend gradually to
Mount Brasina,crossthe Karst,descendthrough the forest on the north side
of the Velez range, and follow a path along the western flank of the Crna
GoraRange, where they have a konak,or restingplace.'5The journey to this
point takesabout eight hours with livestock. From the konak the trail leads
to the bridgeover the Neretva Riverat the village of Glavaticevo,crosses,and
follows the river through beech forestsuntil it reachesthe second konak on
the bank of the Neretva. The third day is spent on the climb to Mount
Bjelasnica.For the herdersand theirfamilieswho areheadedfor the Krosnje
settlement this means a climb from 1500 feet to 5400 feet, which is under-

takenin two stages,a night being spent at a konak at the settlementof Raski
Do. On the fourth day they arrivein Krosnje,having covered some forty
miles in all.
THE SUMMER SETTLEMENT AT KROSNJE

Krosnjeis not only one of the highest, but also the oldest and largest,of
the summer settlements. It stands at 5380 feet, below the steep slopes of
Krvavac(6760feet), one of the peaksof the BjelasnicaRange. The settlement
consistsof nineteenhuts, arrangedin a circle on the slopesof a cirque(Fig. 3)
bounded on all sidesby crags and rough terrain.The settlementstandswell
above the treeline,and apartfrom grass,the predominantvegetation in the
immediatevicinity is nettles, which fill the center of the cirque.
The huts are on the averageabout thirty feet by fifteen, though several
are larger.The walls, usuallyabout four and a half feet high and about two
feet thick, are of dry-stone constructionand far from airtight(Fig. 4); consequently,the huts, though drafty,arewell ventilated.There areno windows.
The roofs are made of wooden planks,which in generalfit badly and arefull
of knotholes.'6
The typicalhut is dividedinto two parts,a living room, or kuca(literally,
"house"), and a combined dairy and storeroom,known as the mljecnar.At
one end of the kuca is a fireplaceof beaten earth surroundedby stones,on
which an open fire burnsfor cooking and heating. There is no vent for the
I5 Konakis a Turkishterm, meaning "haltingplace"or "a day'sjourney."The Serbo-Croatianterm
is padaliste.The route is describedin detail by Kanaet,op. cit. [see footnote lo above], pp. 98-102.
16This
type of hut is generallyassociatedwith herdersfrom Herzegovina and other almost treeless
areas; the Bosnian herders,coming from well-wooded areas,in generalconstructtheir huts entirely of
wood.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

241

FIG. 3-Summer settlementat Krosnje, on Mount Bjelasnica.

FIG.4-A kolibaat Krosnje. Both hut and sheep pens are of the Herzegovinian type. Firewood
stackedagainstthe wooden shed provides shelterfor a calf.

242

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

FIG. 5-A

family in front of their koliba, Krosjne.

FIG.6-Detail of trough (shown at right in Figure 5) containing snow for drinking water. The
wooden trough is covered by a sheepskinfor insulation.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

243

smoke,whichescapesthroughthe cracksandholesin the roof.Wood purchasedfroma stateforestryoperationon thelowerslopesof the mountainis

usedasfuelandis stackedagainsttheoutsideendwallof thehut.Alongboth
sidesof the fireplacelow platformsof wood, raisedaboutsix inchesabove
the dirtfloor,providethefamilywith placesto sit andto sleep.Thehutsare
often crowded, since familiesare large, and grandparents,
parents,and
childrenoftenspendthe summertogetherin one hut (Fig.5).
The dairycontainsthe equipmentfor the manufactureof cheeseand
creamfromsheep'smilkandis usedto storethecheeseandthesacksof flour
andpotatoesboughtin the villageof Pazaric,the nearestlargevalleysettlementto Krosnje.Thereis generallya doorbetweenthe livingroomandthe
dairy,thoughin somelargerhutsthe dairymay havea separateoutsideentrance.Thistypeof mountainhutis knownthroughoutthe SouthSlavlands,
from Sloveniato Bulgaria,as a koliba.'7
The manufacture
of cheeseis the majoractivityapartfrom the herding,
andmoneyobtainedfromthe saleof cheesein thetownsis virtuallytheonly
incomeof manyfamilies.Sheep'smilk is boiledin a largecopperpot suspendedoverthefireon a chainattachedto a rafter.Theboiledmilkis poured
into shallowrectangular
woodendishesandleft for twenty-fourhours.It is
thenpouredoff andthe creamleftin the dish.The milkis pouredagaininto
the copperpot andreheated,andrennet,preparedfrom the lowerintestinal
tractof a wetherram,is added.Ina few hoursthemilkhascurdled.Thewhey
is drainedoff, andthe cheeseis removedandplacedin a tub.When thereis
it is saltedandpushedinto the
enoughcheesein the tub to fill a goatskin,"8
skin.Thecheeseis white,soft,andclammyandhasa distinctive,rathersickly
'7 The word is probablyof South Slav origin, though it is found with the same meaning in Albanian
as kolib'and kalive,in Macedonian and Vlah Greek dialectsas caliva,in Rumanianas coliba,in Greek as
kalyvi, and in Turkish as kuliibe,the last borrowed from the Greek, as is also probably the Vlah caliva
(M. Murko: Zur Geschichtedes volkstiimlichenHauses bei den Siidslawen[Graz, 1904], p. 35; Tache
Papahagi:Dictionarul DialectuluiArommn[Dictionary of the AromanianDialect] [Bucharest,1963], pp.
261-262, 304, and 1181). In spite of its probableSouth Slav provenance,the word kolibahas been carried
as far west as Slovakiaand the TatraMountainsof southernPoland by Vlah shepherds(Silvia N. Armas:
In jurul problemei cuvintelor de origine romaneascain limba slovaca [About the Problem of Words of
RumanianOrigin in the SlovakLanguage],Studiisi cercetari
lingvistice,Vol. 17, No. 5, 1966, p. 587; Anna
Szyfer: Slownictwo pasterskieTatr i Podhala [PastoralVocabulary of the Tatras and the Podhale], in
PasterstwoTatr Polskich i Podhala[see footnote 4 above], Vol. 4, p. 171). The mountain hut found in
Bosnia and Herzegovina is similarin design and plan to the wooden huts of the RumanianCarpathians
and is almost certainly of Vlah origin.
I8 Goatskinsfor the storageof cheese have not been easy to come by since the keeping of goats was
bannedby government order, and ramskinsare often used. Although better than cowskins, ramskinsare
weak and teareasily, and airleaksthrough the pores(Kanaet,op.cit.[seefootnote 10 above], p. 138). Skins
are mainly used in Herzegovina; in Bosnia the cheeseis stored in small wooden tubs.

244

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

odor, unpleasantto those who arenot used to it. Local connoisseursof cheese
do not rank the Bjelasnicaproduct highly.
Another productis kajmak.The creamleft in the dishesafterthe milk has
been pouredoff for cheesemakingis collectedfor a few daysand then poured
into the copper pot and stirredby hand. The resultingkajmak, which resemblesDevonshire cream or Scottishcrowdie, is saltedand stored in skins.
A kind of butter can be made by adding acid preparedfrom boiled milk. In
some cases a chum is used for making both kajmakand butter, and milk
separatorsare beginning to appearin some of the settlements.Kajmakforms
an importantpartof the local diet, and only the surplusis sold. The whey left
over from cheese making is not wasted but is made into a dry, sour, but
nutritious,cheese known as urdaor hurda.'9Urda is generally made in the
villagesof the Podvelezje,but cheeseis made almostexclusivelyin the mountains during the summer.
Cheese, kajmak, urda, and milk form the basic diet of the herdersand
their familiesduring the stay in the mountains,with breadand potatoes as a
supplement.During my visit to a koliba on Bjelasnicathe only luxury the
inhabitantsallowed themselves was an occasional cup of Turkish coffee,
sometimeswith milk added. The childrenwere given a lump of sugarwith
a piece of bread,and as a specialtreatthey might get a plum each if someone
returnedfrom Pazaricwith a little fruit. As a rule no fruits or vegetables
other than potatoes are eaten in the mountain settlements.No agricultureis
carriedon at Krosnje, but at Sisan Do, southwest of Krosnje at about five
thousandfeet, some oats, barley, and potatoes are grown. This was the only
agricultureseen on Bjelasnica.
The provision of drinking water is a difficult problem on Bjelasnica.
Becauseof the karstterrain,there is little surfacewater and few springs.The
inhabitantsof Krosnje and other mountain settlementsmust rely on snow,
which can still be found in summerin hollows on Mount Krvavacor at the
bottom of sinkholes.A block of snow is laid on an inclined wooden trough
at the side of the hut and is generally covered with a sheepskinto control
melting (Fig. 6). The drip is caught in a container.A small cisternhas been
built above Krosnjeto trap some of the runoff from the slopes of Krvavac,
but when I visited the areain early August, the cisternwas empty. About a
19 This word is also found as urdain the mountain areas of Rumania and as far west as Slovakia
(Armas,op. cit.[see footnote 17 above], p. 589). Although its origin is unknown, the word hasbeen spread
by Vlah herders.In fact, the entire cheese-makingprocessdescribeddifferslittle in detail throughout the
Carpathiansand the Balkansand is probably of Vlah origin.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

245

mile northof Krosnjethereis a spring,but it is not strongandoccasionally

When I sawit in August,a thin streamof waterwas
driesup in summer.20
issuing.

Waterfor livestockis likewisea problem.If enoughsnowis availableit

is foundat the
is meltedfor theiruse.The only surfacewateron Bjelasnica
bottomof somehollowswheretheexit to the underground
drainagesystem
hasbecomeblocked.Suchponds,or lokve,aregenerallysmallandshallow,
in spiteof locallegendsthatthey arebottomless.The herdersfromKrosnje
drivetheirflocksfor severalmilesto variouslokve,includingone on Mount
Hranisava(Fig. 7).
Most of the day is spent in herding the livestock. At first light the members of the family are up and getting ready to move the livestock out of the
pens, which are attachedto the huts and enclosed with dry-stone walls; the
few calves brought to the mountains are kept in a covered shelter (telecar)
built on the rear of the koliba, often with wooden planks.21The sheep are
usuallymoved out to the pastureswhen the dew is beginning to disappear,at
about seven o'clock. The ewes are milked before their departureand again
on their return, about six o'clock in the afternoon. They are milked at the
struga,an opening in the middle of a semicircularwall or fence attachedto
some of the pens22(Fig. 8).
The livestock are herded by various members of the family. Cattle and
horsesarekept fairlyclose to the settlementand are generallylooked afterby
the children and old people; sheep are taken some distance in search of
pastureand water. The shepherdsare generally men and boys, but young
women often go ratherfar from the settlement with the flocks. The shepherdsknow the mountainpastureswell and the best times of the summerfor
their use. Unfortunately, the predominantgrassis Nardusstricta(matgrass),
known locally as vu/ji brk,"wolf's whiskers,"a poor-qualityforagefound on
mountain pasturesfrom Scotland to the Caucasus.The spread of Nardus
strictahas been hastenedby the grazingof sheep,which eat the most palatable
"2Jovo Popovic: Ljetni stanovi (mahale) na planini Bjelasnici [Summer Settlements on Mount
Bjelasnica],GlasnikZemaljskogMuzejau Bosnii Hercegovini,Vol. 44, 1932,pp. 55-96; referenceon p. 66.
21A smallerenclosed
pen for lambsis known asa kotac,an unfencedareafor sheepas a trio.Both these
words are found in Rumanianin the form of cotetand tirla but seem to be of Slavic ratherthan Vlah
origin.
22 The use and name of the
strugaare old and widespreadin the Carpathiansand the Balkans.The
Rumanian and Macedonian Vlah form of the word is strunga,and although the word is possibly of
Thracianor Illyrianorigin, the use of the strugaandits name certainlyowe their diffusionto the Vlah herders. The existence of the Vlah aruga,of Latin origin (ruga,"entry"or "path")synonymous with struga
strengthensthe argumentfor its Vlah origin. See Papahagi,op. cit. [see footnote 17 above], p. 154.

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

246

is
---i-

FIG. 7-A lokvaon Mount Hranisava.The huts are used by shepherdswho bring their flocksconsiderabledistancesfor the water.

FIG.8-Milking at the struga,Krognje.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

247

plantsandleavetheothers,whicheventuallydominatetheplantcommunity.
The only placeswherethe shepherdcanfindbetter-quality
forageareon the
bottomsof some of the hollowsin the Karst,wheresuchgrassesas Phleum
alpinum(Alpinetimothy),Agrostisvulgaris(bentgrass),Poa annua(annual
andP. pratensis
arefound.23
bluegrass),
(Kentuckybluegrass)
The herdingtechniquesareprimitivein comparison,for example,with
thoseof Scottishshepherds.The dogs are usedsolely to protectthe sheep
fromwolves,whicharecommonin the area.The shepherds
keepthe flocks
in motionby shoutingandchangedirectionor controlstraysby throwing
stonesor by theirsticks.At timestheyalmostseemto beventingtheirpent-up
frustrations
on theirchargesandyell andcurseferociously.Oncethepastures
havebeenreached,the tempoof life slows,andone findsgroupsof children
playingor sitting,eachwithhishomespunbagcontaininghalfa loafof bread
anda bottleof water,or a young womanspinningwool with a distaffand
spindle,while the sheepgrazenearby.Althoughthe idyllic aspectsof the
one cannotbut agreewith the wordsof
pastorallife havebeenexaggerated,
himself
born
and
in
bred
the
mountains
of Montenegro."Lifeon the
Djilas,
mountainsis not easieror morecomfortable,but it is loftierin everything.
There are no barriersbetweenman and the sky. Only the birdsand the
cloudssoarby.... On the mountainthereis somethingfor everyone-for
the young, brightnessand play; for their elders,sternnessand constraint.
Sorrowsare more sorrowfulthere, and joys more joyous, thoughtsare
deeper, and follies more innocent."24How far these aspectsof pastorallife

havehelpedto mold the characterandtemperament

of the Balkanpeoples
is debatable.That the mountainsof the Balkansformedthe core areasof
resistance
is duemoreto the
againsttheTurks,andlateragainsttheGermans,
characteristics
of
the
than
to
an
innate
physical
region
superiorityof mountain pastoralpeoples.Thereis no doubt,however,that the people of the
mountainareasof BosniaandHerzegovinaare tough andresilient,honest,
polite,andhospitable.
The herdersand theirlivestockleaveKrosnjeaboutOctober10, when
on the high pasturesarebeginningto fall.The stockreturnto
temperatures
the uppergrasseson MountVelez,andduringthe autumnandwinterthey
aremovedin stagesdown Velezto the Mostarbasinandthe lowestgrasses,
whichtheyreachat the endof December.At the beginningof Februarythe
cyclebeginsagain.
23Jovo Popovic, op. cit. [see footnote 20 above], p. 56.
24Milovan Djilas: Land without Justice
(New York, 1958), pp. 1lo-111.

248

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

LOCAL LIVESTOCKMOVEMENTSFROMBOSNIA

The pastures of Mount BjelaSnica are also visited in summer by herders

from the Bosnian side of the mountain. Although the traditional grazing
rights of the Herzegovinians extend over a large part of Bjelasnica, the traditional pasture areas for the Bosnians are limited to the northern edge of the
range. Quarrels between the two groups over grazing rights have been common throughout the border zone. The settlements do not always consist of
families from the same villages, but generally they come from the same
region.
The physical pressures that drive the herders from the Podvelezje to
seek summer pastures far from their homes are largely absent in Bosnia.
North of Mount Bjelasnica the valleys are well watered, the forests greener
and denser, and the pastures and meadows at lower levels of better quality.
In general, the Bosnian herders take their livestock from villages in the
valleys for a few hours' climb to summer settlements on pastures just above
the forest zone. As a rule the whole family does not take part in such shortdistance movements.
A typical Bosnian settlement, or stan, on Bjelasnica is Mrtvanje, at about
5000 feet some two miles due north of Krosnje. Its location on the edge of the
forest affords shelter for the livestock during the summer heat, and wood for
fuel and construction is readily available. Running water is also found nearby.
The huts, built entirely of wood,25 are on the average smaller than those of
Krosnje, and less primitive; for example, a louver is provided in the roof to
permit the escape of smoke from the fire (Fig. 9). The livestock pens are
enclosed with fences built from logs instead of stone, with the stems of the
branches left on the logs, supposedly to prevent wolves from getting into the
folds. The herders bring their livestock, including many cattle, from the
villages around Pazaric. The climb takes about three hours; thus the herders
are near their home villages. In fact, during the day when I visited the settlement, it was completely deserted, and the huts had the air of temporary
shelters rather than the family atmosphere of the Krosnje settlement.
The Mrtvanje stan is showing clear signs of gradual abandonment. Some
huts are collapsing, and in places the outline of the hut sites and livestock pens
is all that remains (Fig. o1). The decay is due partly to the development of
agriculture in the Pazaric region and the consequent diminution in reliance
on livestock. Moreover, some three hundred people, or about 20 percent of
25 The houses in Bosnian lowland villages are generally of wood with high-pitched roofs, whereas
Herzegovinianvillage houses are of stone with roofs of thatch, wood, or tiles.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

249

FIG. 9-Several kolibeat Mrtvanje,Mount Bjelasnica.These huts, constru.Ied of wood, are of the
Bosnian type. The sheep pens are fenced with logs.

FIG. lo-Relics of abandonedhuts at Mrtvanje.

250

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

the local work force, commute daily by train from Pazaric to Sarajevo,
fifteen miles away.26Furtherdevelopmentof industryin the Sarajevoregion
will no doubt increasethe number of commutersfrom the villages north of
Bjelasnica.In addition to the people seekingjobs in local industry are those
who have moved to industrialcitiessuchasZenicain centralBosniaand those
who have joined the streamof Yugoslav workers who leave every year for
work in Austriaand Germany.These trendswill eventuallyaffectthe annual
livestock migrationsfrom Herzegovina, but at the moment the chances of
industrial employment are poorer there than in Bosnia, as are also the
possibilitiesof expanding agriculturalproduction.
LOCAL LIVESTOCKMOVEMENTS

There has been considerablediscussionin geographicalliteratureabout

the terms appliedto livestock movements of the types discussedabove. The
term "nomadism"has been used by many geographersto describeannual
movements of whole familieswith theirlivestock; the term "transhumance"
hasbeen usedto describemovementsin which only herderstake part,leaving
their families in the permanent settlements.27A further refinement to the
definition of transhumanceis the idea that movement must take place
between two regions of different climate.28Beuermann, a recent commentator on forms of annuallivestock migrations,holds with both definitions. He seestranshumanceas causedby the contrastbetween the mountains
and the plains, with summer drynessforcing a movement to the mountains
and snow on the mountains forcing a return to the plains; hired herders
accompanythe livestock. In nomadism a family group moves with its livestock on regularor periodic wanderingsfrom pastureto pastureand has no
regularagricultureor permanentsettlement.29
I do not agree with these interpretations.In the firstplace, transhumance
may be practicedfor other reasonsthan the purely climatic, as Carrierhas
26 Radovan Pavic and Nikola

Strazicic:Ekonomska geografijaJugoslavije(Zagreb, 1964), map on

p. 101.
27 This
interpretationof "nomadism"and "transhumance"was popularizedby Frenchwriters, such
as Augustin Bernardand N. Lacroix:L'evolution du nomadisme en Algerie, Annalesde Giogr., Vol. 15,
1906, pp. 152-165, reference on p. 164; and Philippe Arbos: The Geography of PastoralLife, Geogr.
Rev., Vol. 13, 1923, pp. 559-575. Scholars of other nationalitieshave generally followed the French
definitions; for example, E. Estyn Evans: Transhumancein Europe, Geography,Vol. 25, 1940, pp.
172-180.
28 Andre
Fribourg: La transhumanceen Espagne, Annalesde Geogr.,Vol. 19, 1910, pp. 231-244;
referenceon p. 231, footnote i.
29 Arnold Beuermann: Formen der Femweidewirtschaft(Transhumance-Almwirtschaft-NomaVol. 32, 1960, pp. 277-290; referenceon pp. 278-279.
dismus), Verhandl.desDeutschenGeographentages,

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

251

pointed out.30Second, whether the whole family or only the herdersgo with
the livestock is immaterialto the definition of transhumance,as De Vooys
has indicated.3'Transhumance,in my opinion, is the periodic movement,

Winterpasture
AI

Springand fall pasture

,.C .~.)
= =X2

--~~~~~-----~-

Arable land

e--

Permanent village

'

e"*

[
/..

(^&&^/.:-'@"'

":

,,,,, ..''..""

i'.'^'/

--------

Summerpasture

--

Summersettlement

Winterhuts
Movement by families

Movementby herders

GEOGR.REV.,APR., 1968

FIG. 11-Diagram to illustrate different kinds of transhumance:A, ascending transhumance;B,

oscillating or double transhumance;C, transhumanceof the Podvelezje-Bjelasnicatype.

with livestock, of family groups or herders between summer and winter

pastures,with no winter stalling of livestock and little or no provision of
fodder.At some stagethe people returnto theirpermanentsettlements,where
they may or may not have some form of agriculture.Nomadism is the movement of family groups or tribes with their livestock between summer and
winter pastures.The people have no fixed settlementsand no permanent
agriculture;they make no provision for winter stalling or fodder for their
livestock. Within the areasof their summerand winter pasturesthey tend to
move around.32
If these criteriaare accepted, then the annualmovements by the inhabitants of the Podvelezje can be classifiedas an "ascendingtranshumance."
30E. H. Carrier:Water and Grass:A Study in the PastoralEconomy of SouthernEurope (London,
1932), p. 7.
3' A. C. de Vooys: Griekenland(Meppel, Netherlands,1962), p. 107.
32 For clear definitions of
pastoral migrations and movements see Hans Boesch: Nomadismus,
Transhumanzund Alpwirtschaft,Die Alpen, Vol. 27, 1951, pp. 202-207, especially the diagramson p.
205; and the diagramsby S. Berezowski: Problemy geograficznepasterstwawedrownego [Geographical
Problems of Migrant Pastoralism],in PasterstwoTatr Polskich i Podhala[see footnote 4 above], Vol. 1,
p. 81.

252

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

The factthatthe winterpasturesdo not lie in the immediateneighborhood

addsan elementof "oscillating"
or "double"transof the fixed settlements
would mean that the
humance.However,true oscillatingtranshumance
fixed settlementswere aboutequidistantbetweenthe summerand winter
pastures,whichis not the casewith the Podvelezje(Fig.11).
thenatureof theannualmoveSomeauthorshavenot alwaysunderstood
mentsof Bjelasnica.Carrierrefersto the pasturingof flocks"on the highlandsnear Serajevo"by shepherdsfrom the Velez Range.She statesthat
butlessthansixtyyearsago
"thisnomadismis now limitedto theshepherds,
it includeda muchmore extensivesystemof migration,"with the whole
no permanentdwellings
populationon the move, sincethe peoplepossessed
Thisnomadismcouldnot be consideredabandengagedin no agriculture.
of
the
solutebecausethe direction
wanderingswas governedby the season
andthe traditional
rightof use.33Carrier,writingin 1932,thussuggeststhat
annualmovementsby familygroupsceasedin the Velezregionabout1870,
whichis certainlynot truealmostonehundredyearslater,andthatthepeople
then had no permanentvillages,which also is not true. Neither Cvijic,
Dedijer,or Kanaetgives any indicationthat the settlementsof the Velez
regionaremorerecentthan1870.Infact,KanaetsuggeststhatthePodvelezje
timethroughtheMiddleAges.34
hada numerouspopulationfromprehistoric
Thereis littledoubt,however,thatthemigrationroutebetweentheNeretva
wasoriginallyusedby nomadicVlahherderswithout
ValleyandBjelasnica
andthatat somestagein theirhistorythey selected
permanentsettlements,
the Podvelezjeas a suitablelocationfor suchsettlements.
the centralmountainregionof Herzegovinaas
characterizes
Beuermann
Most geogan areaof Alpine-typepastoraleconomy,or Almwirtschaft.35
as a system
or Alpwirtschqft
raphersagreewiththedefinitionof Almwirtschaft
and
fed
on fodder.
the
winter
in
stalls
are
livestock
the
in which
during
kept
In the springthey aretakeninto the mountains,often at firstto an intermediatepasturewherehaymakingalsotakesplace,andlater,whenthesnows
have melted, to the high mountainpastures.The distancesbetweenthe
pasturesandthe permanentvillagein the valleyareusuallyshort,andcattle
ratherthansheeparethecommonestlivestock.In general,only a few family
Beuermannpoints
membersor hiredherderstakepartin the movements.36
is differentfrom
mountains
the
of
out thattheAlmwirtschaft
Herzegovinian
33 Carrier,op. cit. [see footnote 30 above], p. 142. Carriertends to use the term "nomadism"loosely.
34Kanaet,op. cit. [see footnote lo above], p. 162.

35Beuermann,op. cit. [see footnote 29 above], p. 282.

36 See, for example, Boesch, op. cit. [see footnote 32 above], pp. 204-205.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

253

that of the Alps, since the settlementson the summerpasturesare not simply
inhabitedby families and somedairy huts but summer villages (Almdorfer),
times with a little cultivation of potatoes and vegetables and haymaking.
These summersettlementsarea maximum of two or threedays'journey with
the herdsfrom the permanentvillages in the valleys.37
Although he does not specificallysay so, Beuermannis certainlydescribing summer settlements on such mountains as Vran, Bjelasnica,Visocica,
Treskavica,and Zelengora.He is thusnot describinga type of Almwirtschaft.
In Herzegovinathe livestock are not stalledin winter but pastured,and little
hay is availablefor them. Although the movement between winter and summer pasturestakes place in stages, the Alpine intermediatepasture,with its
haymaking and stallsfor livestock, is unknown. The distancesbetween the
permanent settlements and the summer pasturesare too great for Herzegovinian livestockmovements to be consideredpartof Almwirtschaft,which
is in generala more close-knit and intensiveform of herding.
The short-distance movements from the Bosnian valleys north of
Bjelasnicato summerpasturessuchas those aroundMrtvanjearemuch closer
to constituting an Almwirtschaftthan the movements from Herzegovina.
Intensificationof agriculturein the areahas not only reducedthe relianceof
the peasantson large flocks of sheep but has also reduced the necessity of
finding winter pastures,becauseof the increasedproductionof fodder crops.
This does not mean that sheep or other livestock are folded in the fields, as is
common in many areasin Europe where sheep in particularare integrated
with agriculture.Summer pastures are still necessary,but the grass in the
valley meadows can be allowed to grow undisturbedand be cut in summer
for hay. The livestock that do not go to the winter pasturesare kept in the
permanentvillages, shelteredin huts. This type of herding thus lies somewhere between ascending transhumanceand almwirtschaftand has characteristicsof both.38
GOVERNMENT POLICY AND SHEEPHERDING

One reasonwhy transhumancestill continueson such a surprisinglylarge

scale in Yugoslavia is the generallack of interferenceby the government in
matters of livestock ownership. Although both the 1945 Law on Agrarian
37 Beuermann,

op. cit. [see footnote 29 above], p. 282.

In view of the many variations in annual pastoral migrations in Europe, some scholars have
avoided too detailed or too definite a classification;for example, Paul Veyret: Gdographiede l'elevage
(Paris,1951), p. 179, andJulesBlache: L'homme et la montagne (Paris,1933),pp. 17-18. I feel, however,
that for comparativepurposesa meaningfulclassificationmust be developed.
38

254

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

Reform and Resettlementand the 1953 law pertainingto the public ownership of land and the allocationof land to agriculturalorganizationslimited
land privatelyowned to a maximum of ten hectares(fifteenhectaresin areas
of poor-qualityland or in mountainregions),no limit was set on the number
of livestock that could be owned by an individualor a group. Also the pressure to collectivize livestock herds has been lifted since 1953. In 1952, out of a
total of 1.67 million sheep in Bosnia and Herzegovina,74.0 percentwere in
private flocks, 23.6 percentin cooperatives,and 2.4 percenton state farms.39
By 1964, out of a total sheep population of 2.01 million, 96.7 percent were in

private flocks and only 1.0 percent in cooperativesand 2.3 percent on state
farms.40

It is the generalconsensusof expertsin Yugoslaviathat collectivizationof

sheepdoesnot producesatisfactoryresults.Although cooperativefarmsin the
Sarajevoarea have been operating successfullywith dairy cows, the profit
margin on the saleof sheepcheeseis so low that only relativelyself-sufficient
family groups can maintainsheep with any success.4IFor this reasonlittle or
no attempt is made to induce cooperationin the ownershipof sheep. State
farms, however, have been more active in sheepherdingthan the cooperatives; in fact, the number of sheep on statefarmsand other state agricultural
organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina increased from 40,491 in 1952
(there was a drop in 1953 to 29,340) to 45,528 in 1964.42
GvozNo

POLJE STATE FARM

In some parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina state farms have taken over
areasof mountain pasturepreviously used by transhumantshepherds.One
suchareais Gvozno Poljeon Mount Treskavica(6850feet),abouttwenty miles
due south of Sarajevo.Gvozno is a typicalkarsticpolje-a level-floored basin
with a northwest-southeastDinaric trend. It is about three miles in length
and one mile at its widest and has an areaof about 2100 acres.The northern
part is crossedby lines of low moraines, but the southern part is level. A
stream,the Studenica,flows into the polje from the north and vanishesinto
39Based on figures in Statisticki Godisnjak N. R. B. i H. 1945-1953, Sarajevo, 1954, p. 218.
40 Based on
figures in Statistieki Godisnjak SFRJ 1965, Belgrade, 1965, pp. 412, 418, and 420. Before
1953 the main cooperative organization was the Peasant Work Cooperative, organized along the lines of
the Soviet kolkhoz. Since 1953 the General Agricultural Cooperative has predominated. Originally
mainly a marketing and consumer cooperative, it has now expanded its functions in an attempt to encourage cooperative efforts among the peasants.
4I Conversation with Professor Dusan Maksimovi6, University of Sarajevo, August, 1966.
42
StatistickiGodi3njakSFRJ 1965 [see footnote 40 above], p. 419; StatistickiGodisnjakN. R. B. i H.
1945-1953 [see footnote 39 above], p. 218.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

255

a ponor,or deep hole, at its south end. Drinking water for human beings and
livestockis no problem, since a zone of springs,popularlythought to number
365, surroundsthe mountainat thejunction of the lower andmiddle Triassic.
Gvozno Polje is about 4300 feet above sea level and has a typical mountain climate. The averageJanuarytemperatureis about 27.5?F(-2.5?C), the
average July temperature about 63?F (17.2?C). However, a minimum of
-11?F (-23.8?C) was recorded in January, 1954, and a maximum of go.8?F
(32.6?C)in August, 1952. In spiteof the summeraverage,temperaturesbelow

freezinghave occurredin every month exceptJune andJuly, and the average

frost-free period is about ninety days. Precipitationis variable, averaging
about forty-three inches (1100 mm), with a maximum in the period from
October through December, reflecting the Mediterraneaninfluence. Snow
may lie as deep as three feet until the end of April.43
Although these conditionsare marginalfor crop growth, the rich alluvial
soils of the southernpart of the polje help make agriculturefeasible.Spring
barley, oats, early potatoes, buckwheat,lettuce, spinach,onions, and several
varietiesof grasshave been grown with some success.Thus Gvozno Polje has
a greaterpotentialas an areaof settlementthan, for example, the areaaround
Krosnjeon Bjelasnica.44
BeforeWorldWar II Gvozno Polje was used as a summer pasture by
transhumantgroups from villages near Stolac, about fifteen miles south of
the Velez region and a four-day journey with livestock. The main settlement was Klanac, describedby Popovic in 1933.45 This settlement is now
abandoned,and its ruinscan be seen againstthe face of the cliffsat the northeastcornerof the polje. Evidenceof even earliersettlementis providedby the
small Bogomil necropolis at the south end.46There is no doubt that the
possibility of carrying on some agricultureand livestock herding plus the
43 Climatic informationis adaptedfrom statisticsgiven in an unpublishedreport of the Department
of Agriculture and Forestry of the University of Sarajevo,"Programinvesticione izgradnjei projekat
organizacijeplaninskogdobra'Gvozno' [Programof InvestmentDevelopment and Plan for the Organization of the 'Gvozno' Mountain Estate]"(Sarajevo,1956), pp. 3-8. Although Gvozno Polje has no meteorological station, there is one at Kalinovik, about four miles to the south at about 3600 feet above sea
level. Weather observationsmade at the Gvozno statefarm since the war have also enableda reasonably
accurateassessmentof the local climate.
44 At some temporary settlementson Bjelasnica-for example, Sisan Do and Pod Lovnicom-oats,
barley, and potatoes are grown, but only on a small scale.
45Jovo Popovic, Ljetni stanovi (mahale) na planini Treskavici [Summer Settlements on Mount
Treskavica],GlasnikZemaljskogMuzeja u Bosnii Hercegovini,Vol. 45, 1933, p. 186.
46 The
Bogomils were a hereticalChristiansect who lived in Bosnia in the thirteenthcentury to the
fifteenthand who were convertedto Islamduring the Turkishoccupation.Many of their cemeteriesseem
to be located on old livestock migration routes.

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THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

of waterenableda largerpopulationto usethepoljethanwasthe

availability
casein most otherlocationsin the centralmountainsof BosniaandHerzegovina.The herdersandtheirfamiliesfromthe Stolacregionhadan agreement with the villagersin the region aroundKalinovikwherebythese
villagerswouldplow partsof the poljeat the beginningof May,so thaton
arrivalthe herderscouldsow barleyandpotatoes,usinganimalmanureas
fertilizer.When the barleywasharvested,the herderswouldgive the straw
to the villagersin paymentfor the plowingandtakethe grainhome when
In the
they returned.The potatoeswere eatenor were soldin Kalinovik.47
interwaryearsmostof GvoznoPoljewasthelegalpropertyof somevillagers
from Vlaholje,48nearKalinovik,to whom the governmentof Yugoslaviahad

givenfivehectares(12.5acres)of landeachin thepolieasa rewardforservices

on the Salonikafront.49The villagersof Vlaholjealso usedthe polje as a
grazingandwateringplace.
in Yugoslavia,
In 1946,when the firststatefarmswerebeingestablished
at
Gvozno Polje was includedin a state-farmdistrictwith headquarters
Kalinovikand receivedthe title of the Miro PoparaStateFarm.Its main
purposewas to improvelivestockraisingin the regionandto supplygoodfor several
qualitystockfor breeding.Thisfirststatefarmwasnot successful,
werepoor:only a tracklinkedthe poljewith the
reasons.Communications
to Sarajevo,so thatmotorvehiclescouldnot be
Kalinovik
from
highway
used to bringin fertilizerand fodderor take out milk. As the farm was
of cattleinto a traditional
with theintroduction
sheepherding
experimenting
area,the local peasantswere suspicious.The grassvegetationof the polje
whichnot onlyprovidedpoorgrazingbut
consistedmainlyof Nardus
stricta,
alsoyieldedhay of low quality.Finally,therewasno traditionor experience
of a statefarmoperatingin a mountainarea,and
to guidethe management
the
in the early1950's poljewas turnedover to the Universityof Sarajevo
estate.
as an experimental
The universityexperimentstation added some Tiroleancattle and
with raisingpigs on whey
sheepto itsstockandexperimented
Wiirttemberg
and experiments
and potatoes.Oatsandpotatoeswere sowedsuccessfully,
47Borivoje Z. Milojevi6: Treskavica,GlasnikZemaljskogMuzejau Bosnii Hercegovini,
Vol. 46, 1934,
pp. 65-71; referenceon p. 71.
48The name Vlaholje indicates that this was originally a settlement of the Vlahs. A neighboring
village is called Romani. These two villages, in the relatively fertile valley of the Zagorje between the
Treskavicaand Lelija Ranges, were probably temporary Vlah katuni on the lower pasturesthat later
became permanentvillages.
49"Programinvesticioneizgradnje.. ." [see footnote 43 above], p. 1.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

257

with variousmeadowgrasseswerecarriedout.50New buildingsfor housing

the livestockwere constructed.Relationswith the local peasantswere improved,andpeasantsfrom Vlaholjewere employedas permanentworkers,
othersseasonally
to cuthay.Last,a roadwasbuiltlinkingGvoznoPoljewith
the mainhighway.
In the early 1960's GvoznoPolje againbecamea statefarm,partof a
atButmir,aboutfivemilessouthwestof
complexof three,withheadquarters
Butmir
is
a
Sarajevo.
mainly dairyfarm,supplyingmilk to Sarajevo,but it
also produces"babybeef" from a herd of Bosniancattlecrossbredwith
andTiroleancattle.Thethirdfarmis atKasindo,
Hereford,Aberdeen-Angus,
in a valleyaboutfive milessouthof Sarajevo.It is usedfor fatteningcattle,
and aboutthirtyto forty headarekept thereat one time. GvoznoPoljeis
usedasa homefor calvesandfor cowsbeforemating;whenmated,theyreturnto Butmir.The cattlearemovedbetweenthe threefarmsby truck.Becauseof the substantial
shedsat GvoznoPoljeandthe availability
of fodder,
both local and imported,livestockcan be kept the whole year; generally
about150headof cattlearethereat onetime.AlthoughtheButmircomplex
mustpayits own way, it stillhasanexperimental
role,andthe Universityof
maintains
an
in
interest
its
About
a thousandsheepin
Sarajevo
operations.
two flocksarekepton the GvoznoPoljefarmfor experimental
purposesby
the university.
The successof the Butmircomplexliesin the combineduseof mountain
pasturesandlowlandfarms.Statefarmsthatoperateexclusivelyin mountain
areasfacedifficultproblems.The greatestis thelackof good roads.Without
thelarge-scale
adequatetransportation
productionof dairyor meatproducts
is impossible.Movementof livestockby truckalso preventsweight loss,
whichis considerable
on long drives.s'In particular,
the availability
of truck
or rail transportation
for cattlepermitsthe use of more remotemountain
pastures,sincecattlecannotstandlong trekson the hoof in mountainareas
as well as sheep.
Thesecondmajorproblemis fodder.Hayon mountainstatefarmsis often
in quantity.Mostof it hasto be cut by hand,
poorin qualityandinadequate
5? Accounts of the resultsof severalexperimentscarriedout at Gvozno Polje are containedin various
numbers of Radovipoljoprivredno-sumarskog
fakultetaUniverzitetau Sarajevu.
5' Movements fartherthan a hundred kilometers, which require three or four days, cause sheep to
lose o1-15 percentof their weight, which generallytakesmore than two months of grazing on mountain
pasturesto make up. See Nikola Zdanovski and Branko Bajcetic: Planinskipasnjacina krsu Bosne i
Hercegovine [MountainPastureson the Karstof Bosnia and Herzegovina], in Krs Bosne i Hercegovine
[The Karstof Bosnia and Herzegovina] (Zagreb, 1957), pp. 97-100; referenceon p. 98.

258

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

since the shortnessof the grass(especiallyNardusstricta)and the roughnessof

the terrainmake the use of mechanicalcuttersdifficult.Foddercrops grown
under marginalconditions do not make a good substitutefor grass,and, in
general, the lack of arable land, the peasants'ignorance of modern techniques, and the low level of productivity result in a poor fodder base.
Additionalproblemsare causedby overgrazingand lack of water.
It is difficultto attractworkersto statefarmsin many areas.In the Sarajevo
region many young people from the villages would ratherwork in industry
or seek jobs in Germany and Austria. Living quartersare often poor on
mountain state farms, and there are few diversions.With the standardof
living in Yugoslaviaimproving,farm workers are demandinghigher wages.
Thereis alsoa shortageof livestockspecialistson statefarms,but an expanded
educationalprogram should help to fill the gaps. Along with work by
specialistson the improvementof livestock breedsmust go improvement of
the processing of dairy products. In too many cases cheese and butter are
made by primitive techniquesand are inadequatelystored, and losses by
spoilage are high.52
THE FUTURE OF SHEEPHERDING IN YUGOSLAVIA

If state farms have had considerablesuccesswith raisingbeef and dairy

cattle, they have had no successwith sheep and are selling their sheep to
peasantswho wish to enlargetheirflocks.The risein the numberof sheepon
state farmsin Bosnia and Herzegovinais now being reversed.
The reasonsfor this are similar to those for the lack of successin the
collectivizationof the flocks. The family unit can operatemore successfully
than the cooperative or the state farm becauseit can accept a lower profit
margin on the sale of the products and because the herding itself can be
carriedon at virtually no cost. On state farms, on the other hand, herders
demand substantialwages and fringe benefits.
If statefarmscould marketwool and mutton insteadof cheesethey might
make a profit, but this has proved difficultunder presentconditions. Crossbreeding with merinos has not in general been successfulin Yugoslavia;
milk yields drop, and there have been problems of acclimatization.As milk
52
Many of these and other problemswere discussedwith Mr. Doka Markovic, directorof Butmir
State Farm, and Ing. Mugdim Karahasanovic,livestock specialistwith the Sarajevocombine, August,
1966. The problemsof statefarmsare also discussedin MiloradR. Lecic: Iz ekonomike planinskihdobara
[From the Economy of Mountain Estates] (Belgrade, 1956), passim, and "Kooperacijau planinskom
stocarstvuN. R. Srbije[Cooperationin Mountain Livestock Raising in Serbia]"(Belgrade, 1961), pp.
39-40.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

259

is practicallythe sole productof economic importanceto the privateowners,

they have resistedmerinization,and a few state farms with merinizedherds
arenot going to be enough to placewool productionon a commercialbasis.53
Moreover, the native breed of sheep has a wool yield about a third less than
merinos, and much of the wool producedby peasantfamiliesis used locally
for such articlesas clothing and blankets.For Yugoslaviato compete on the
internationalwool market would mean a major reorientationof its entire
sheep-raisingeconomy. Even if the peasantscould be inducedto improve the
wool-bearing quality of their flocks, their knowledge of wool production,
and the facilitiesavailablefor sorting and marketingwool in ruralareas,are
primitive.

The production of mutton is also at a low level in Yugoslavia and has

been decreasingin recentyears. In spite of this, exports of mutton increased
from 1960 to 1964. The quantities exported, however, have been erratic over

the last ten years,and the number of sheep and lambs exported for slaughter
has droppedenormously.54Again, improvement in the quality, and increase
in the quantity, of mutton from the sheep of the privatepeasantowners requireimprovementin the native breeds,with a consequentreductionin milk
yield. In Bosnia and Herzegovina most peasants,in the Muslim areas in
particular,keep a number of rams to be sold for meat in Sarajevoand other
towns for the great Muslim sacrificialfeast (Kurban-Bayram).Many of the
animalsare old when they are slaughtered,and the quality of the mutton is
in generalpoor.
Even the production of sheep's cheese is of little significancefor the
development of Yugoslavia's dairy industry. Although cheese in various
forms is an important part of the diet in many parts of the country, the
quality varies. For example, the Travnik cheese from Mount Vlasic has a
reputationin Bosniafor flavor;the cheesefrom Bjelasnicais consideredpoor.
The only Yugoslav cheese with an international reputation is kackavalj
(cacciocavallo),a hard, sharp-flavoredcheese from western Macedonia,but
exports of this cheese have fallen since 1954 by more than one-half.55To
compete successfullywith other cheeses on the internationalmarket, Yugoslav producers will have to improve the quality of their products and
modernize their processingmethods.
53 At presentabout 30 percent of the wool bought in Yugoslavia comes from state and cooperative
farms (Toma Paunovic: Ovcarstvo [Sheep Raising],JugoslovenskiPregled,Vol. o1, 1966, pp. 143-146;
referenceon p. 144).

54 Ibid., p. 145.
55 Ibid.

260

THE GEOGRAPHICALREVIEW

The future of sheepherdingin Yugoslavia is difficultto forecast. If the

necessaryimprovementsin the quality of one or anotherof the major sheep
productscan be achieved,sheepherdingis assuredof a relativelystablefuture.
Lossof manpowerdue to the attractionsof industrycould be offsetby a more
intensiveform of sheepherding,basedon greaterproductionof fodder crops
and the integrationof sheep with arablefarming. But if improvements are
not forthcoming,sheepherdingwill undoubtedlydeclineas more productive
forms of agricultureare developed. Already this trend can be seen in the
figures for the past decade. Although the numbers of sheep in Bosnia and
Herzegovina have remained remarkablysteady since the 1930's, in other
regionsof Yugoslaviathey have droppedconsiderably,especiallyin Serbia,56
the Vojvodina, Croatia, and Slovenia, where intensificationof agriculture
and development of industryhave provided alternativesbetter than sheepherding.It is in regionssuchasHerzegovina,Montenegro,Kosovo, Metohija,
and parts of Macedonia,where conditionsfor agricultureare marginaland
little industryexists,that sheepherdingis likely to continuefor many yearsto
come.
The substitutionof cattle for sheep in the karst areasof Yugoslavia is
hardlyfeasible,except in such areasas Gvozno Polje, where the water supply
and other factorsare relativelyfavorable.Even in theJulianAlps of Slovenia,
where most of the pasturesare usedfor cattlein the mannerof the traditional
Alpine Almwirtschaft,only the lower meadows can be so used; the upper
pasturesaresuitableonly for sheep,which arekept in rathersmallnumbers.57
It is unlikely that the peasantsof Herzegovina,lacking the traditionalAlpine
culture of the Slovenes, would be able to make a rapid transitionto cattle
raising,even if their environmentwere more favorable.
Marginalmountain pasturescould perhapsbe put to more efficientuse
by the controlled reintroductionof goats. The idea behind the banning of
the goat in 1954 was the reforestationof the Karst,but the resultshave been
far from satisfactory.If the number of goats was controlled and they were
kept on summer pasturessome distancefrom the forestedareasthey would
make a valuableadditionto the economy of the mountainpeoples. Not only
do goats give a higheryield of milk per animal,but theirskinscan be utilized
for variouspurposes,among them the storing of cheese.58
s6 In Serbiathe number of sheep fell by a million and a half between 1954 and 1965. In Yugoslavia
as a whole the number in 1965 was 9.43 million, as comparedwith 12.11 million in 1954. See Statistiiki
GodisnjakSFRJ 1965 [see footnote 40 above], p. 154.
57 Anton Melik: PlaninevJulijskih Alpah [Pasturagesin the JulianAlps] (Ljubljana,1950), p. 292 (in
Frenchsummary).
58 ProfessorTvrtko Kanaet, of the University of Sarajevo,supportsthis point of view.

TRANSHUMANCE IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

261

A more intensiveform of livestockraisingwith controlledgrazingto

avoiddegradation
of pastures
andtheprovisionof morewinterfodder,along
with continuedextensivegrazingon marginalpastures,is beingencouraged
Cooperatives.
Amongother
throughthemediumof theGeneralAgricultural
formsof aid,thesecooperatives
assisttheprivatepeasantin obtaininganimals
forbreeding,in processingdairyproducts,andin theproperuseof pastures.59
If enough specialistscan be trainedto advisethe cooperatives,and if the
will notjeopardize
peasantscanbe convincedthatjoiningthesecooperatives
theirownershipof landor flocks,thisapproachto theproblemsof mountain
livestockraisingmay havesomesuccess.
Last,butby no meansleast,theprovisionof moreandbetterroadsin the
mountainregionswould revolutionizethe movementof livestockbetween
the summerandwinterpastures.Movementof livestockby truckhasbeen
triedin Macedonia,with good results.Any attemptto offsetthe weightloss
of sheepor to introducecattleon a largescaleon themountainpasturesmust
rely on the developmentof trucktransportation.
Fromthetimeof theIllyriansto theeraof thestatefarmthemountainsof
BosniaandHerzegovina
havebeenin continuoususeasareasof pasturage
and
haveplayedanimportantpartin the economyof theregion.Whatevermay
be the ultimatefateof sheepherding
asa majorbranchof theruraleconomy,
thesemountainsstillhaveconsiderable
potential,whichshouldbe utilizedfor
manyyearsto come.
59 Milislav Lutovac: Nase planinsko stocarstvo u novim uslovima [Our Mountain Stock Raising
under New Conditions], ZbornikVI: kongresa
geografovF. L. R.J. v Ljubljani1961(unnumberedpages).