SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF MINING AND ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

SLOPE STABILITY AND SLOPE FAILURE

Name

: Mashaba S.V.

Student No

: 14013984

Module Code

: MEG 3643

Lecturer

: Dr. F.A.Dacosta

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TABLE OF CONTENT
INTRODUCTION.2
CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE
2.1. WATER AND DRAINAGE.3-4
2.2. SOIL COMPOSITION4
2.3. STEEPENESS OF SLOPE..4
2.4. VEGETATION4
2.5. BEDDING PLANE..4-5
2.6. JOINTS AND FRACTURE5
2.7. SUDDEN SHOCKS..5
TYPES AND PATTERNS OF OPEN PIT SLOPE FAILURE5-7
RESTORATIVE MEASURES AND METHODS OF SLOPE STABILITIZATION
4.1. RESTORATIVE MEASURES..7
4.2. METHODS OF SLOPE STABILIZATION.
4.2.1. EXCAVATION AND REPAIR..7-8
4.2.2. CATCHMENT AND WIRE NETTING8-9
4.2.3. BENCHING..9-10
4.2.4. RESLOPING AND UNLOADING..10
4.2.5. COUNTER BERM.10-11
4.2.6. SCALING11
4.2.7. STEEL REINFORCEMENT11-12
4.2.8. SOIL NAILING12-13
4.2.9. SHORTCRETE.13-14
REFERENCES15

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1. INTRODUCTION
A slope failure is the phenomenon that a slope collapses abruptly due to weakened selfretainability of the earth under the influence of a rainfall or an earthquake.So in order to
determine where to start the slope failure reduction, need to understand the factors
resulting to slope failure.Remember each slope is different when coming to geology,soil
composition,vegetation and other factors.Below are the causes of slope failure.
2. CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE

FIGURE 1:THE COMMON CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE

2.1.

Water and Drainage

Since water is heavier than air,so during heavy rains when the soil becomes saturated and
water takes the place of air between the grains of soil, then the earth in slopes becomes a
lot heavier.
This becomes a problem when the earth is being held back by a retaining wall at its base.
Specifically, if the weight of the earth behind the retaining wall exceeds the retaining walls
structural capacity, the retaining wall will buckle and collapse releasing the earth behind it in
a catastrophic deluge.
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Water also reduces grain-to-grain contact which, in turn, reduces cohesiveness and the soils
angle of repose. Along with changes in the groundwater fluid pressure in slope rocks during
the rainy season, water saturation by itself already increases the probability of downslope
mass movement.
2.2.

Soil Composition

The composition of the slopes soil is a very important consideration when it comes to
mitigating slope failure. Different types of soils will have very different characteristics when
it comes to frictional resistance to erosion and cohesion among the grains. Loose soil or
sand, for example, has very low cohesion and will easily erode when saturated with water.
Soils that have a large amount of clay, on the other hand, tend to expand when exposed to
water; this makes them heavier and more prone to movement.
2.3.

Steepness of the Slope

It goes without saying that the steeper a slope is, the more unstable it will be. Its true for
making sand castles and its true for making hillside homes. The natural tendency of steep
slopes is to move some of its materials downwards until the natural angle of repose is
found. Any form of slope modification, whether it be through natural means such as a
stream undercutting the banks of a river or by workers removing a section of the slopes
base to build roads, will impact the stability of a slope.
2.4.

Vegetation

The amount and type of vegetation found in a slope is also proportional to the strength of
that slope. Vegetation, specifically its roots, holds the soil in place and makes it more
resistant to erosion. The bigger the size of vegetation, the more widespread its roots are
and the more it is able to hold the soil in place. The more vegetation there is, moreover, the
more stable the slope is likely to be. This is the reason why slopes that have had their
vegetation removed or razed by bush fires are prime candidates for slope failures during the
rainy season.
2.5.

Bedding Planes

A bedding plane is basically a surface that separates a layer of stratified rock or bed from
another. Think of it as butter spread between two slices of bread. Because of their nature,
exposed beds in a slope are also at a high risk of slope failure. This is risk is exacerbated if
there is a weak layer of rock sandwiched in the bed.
To illustrate, imagine placing a panel of glass on a slide and a block of wood on top of it. The
contact surfaces between the slide, the glass and the wood are bedding planes angled
downwards. Even though the frictional force keeping the block of wood on the glass is
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strong, the glass-slide connection is weak, and this causes the whole structure to erode
downwards.
2.6.

Joints & Fractures

Joints and fractures are natural cracks in the rocks forming a slope. These are caused by the
natural expansion of rocks due to cooling or the removal of overlying rocks due to erosion.
Because of these cracks, the cohesion between the rocks that make up the slope is greatly
reduced, increasing the likelihood of a landslide in the slope.

2.7.

Sudden Shocks(eg earthquake)

Lastly, sudden shocks like earthquakes, hurricanes, volcanic eruptions, the passage of heavy
trucks, blasting, and others may trigger the sudden mass movement of the soil in slopes.
2.

TYPES AND PATTERNS OF OPEN PIT SLOPE FAILURE.

Plane failure

FIGURE 2 :PLANE FAILURE

A rock slope undergoes this mode of failure when combinations of discontinuities in the
rock mass form blocks or wedges within the rock which are free to move. The pattern of the
discontinuities may be comprised of a single discontinuity or a pair of discontinuities that
intersect each other, or a combination of multiple discontinuities that are linked together to
form a failure mode rock. A planar failure of rock slope occurs when a mass of rock in a
slope slides down along a relatively planar failure surface. The failure surfaces are usually
structural discontinuities such as bedding planes, faults, joints or the interface between
bedrock and an overlying layer of weathered rock.

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Wedge Failure

Wedge failure of rock slope results when rock mass slides along two intersecting
discontinuities, both of which dip out of the cut slope at an oblique angle to the cut face,
thus forming a wedge-shaped block. Wedge failure can occur in rock mass with two or more
sets of discontinuities whose lines of intersection are approximately perpendicular to the
strike of the slope and dip towards the plane of the slope. This mode of failure requires that
the dip angle of at least one joint intersect is greater than the friction angle of the joint
surfaces and that the line of joint intersection intersects the plane of the slope.

FIGURE 3: WEDGING FAILURE

Toppling failure

Toppling failures occur when columns of rock, formed by steeply dipping discontinuities in
the rock rotates about an essentially fixed point at or near the base of the slope followed by
slippage between the layers. The center of gravity of the column or slab must fall outside
the dimension of its base in toppling failure. Jointed rock mass closely spaced and steeply
dipping discontinuity sets that dip away from the slope surface are necessary prerequisites
for toppling failure. The removal of overburden and the confining rock, as is the case in
mining excavations, can result in a partial relief of the constraining stresses within the rock
structure, resulting in a toppling failure. This type of slope failure may be further categorized
depend on the mode such as flexural toppling, block toppling, and block flexural toppling.

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FIGURE 4: REPRESENTING TOPPLING AND CIRCULAR/ROTATION FAILURE (BELOW)

Rotational Failure
In rotational slips the shape of the failure surface in section may be a circular arc or a noncircular curve. In general, circular slips are associated with homogeneous soil conditions and
non-circular slips with non-homogeneous conditions. Translational and compound slips
occur where the form of the failure surface is influenced by the presence of an adjacent
stratum of significantly different strength. Translational slips tend to occur where the
adjacent stratum is at a relatively shallow depth below the surface of the slope: the failure
surface tends to be plane and roughly parallel to the slope. Compound slips usually occurs
where the adjacent stratum is at greater depth, the failure surface consisting of curved and
plane sections.
The sliding of material along a curved surface called a rotational slide. These are of two
types: circular and non-circular. While failures of this type do not necessarily occur along a
purely circular arc, some form of curved failure surface is normally apparent. Circular shear
failures are influenced by the size and the mechanical properties of the particles in the soil
or the rock mass. Figure 13 illustrates a few typical modes of circular shear failure. This
failure can occur in rock structures that exhibit no plane of weakness, and may not be
associated with any underlying critical discontinuity.

3.1.MEASURES AND METHODS OF SLOPE STABILIZATION

MEASURES
Stabilization can be achieved through slope reinforcement by constructing structural
elements through the failure plane. Structural elements could consist of conventional piles
or drilled shafts, jet grout or soil mix columns, or reinforced rigid inclusions. In granular soils,
soil improvement could be performed to increase slope stability. Anchor block slope
stabilization is a technique that stabilizes slopes or existing retaining walls using anchored

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reaction blocks. The block layout pattern is typically in rows across the slope or wall. The
finished anchored reaction blocks resist the movement of the retained soil or wall.

3.1.1. Excavation & repair

Excavation is a common method for improving the stability of a slope by reducing the
magnitude of driving forces that contribute to movements. Unloading is a common
technique to reduce the driving forces within a sliding mass. The lightweight (low density)
fill materials can also be used to reduce the driving forces. This can also include removing
weight from upper part of the slope (head), removing all unstable or potentially unstable
materials, flattening and benching of the slopes (Figure 1). In general, rock removal is a
preferred method of stabilization because it eliminates the hazard, and no future
maintenance is required. However, this method is not effective where the rock is highly
degradable, such as shale. In such circumstances, exposure of a new face initiates a new
cycle of weathering and leads to instability. A more appropriate stabilization method for this
condition is protection of the face with shotcrete and rock bolts, or a tied-back wall.

Figure 5 : Stabilization by removal and repairing the unstable block

3.1.2. Catchment & Wire Netting
Most slopes contain small pieces of rock that could loosen in the future but do not require
extensive removal or reinforcement. Catchment can consist of engineered benches, ditches,
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wide shoulders, berms, steel barriers, nets fences and concrete walls (Figure 2). The type of
catchment to be used depends largely on site conditions, specifically the height and angle of
the slope and clearance between slope and the facility.
The catchment area must be accessed periodically to remove the loose debris, which would
otherwise defeat it purpose. For flatter slopes where rock falls tend to bounce and roll, a
barrier is needed to deflect rocks away from the facility. Key considerations in the design of
such barriers are height, location and strength.

Figure 6 : Catchment of rock and soil failing

3.1.3. Benching
Benching is a popular technique used on cut slopes in mining, or where a break in slope is
required to retain rockfall in road cuts. It is also useful in breaking up the span of a high rock
cut in order to make the slope appearance more natural (Figure 4). Bench heights vary from
about 3 to 5 m in highway corridor applications to over 30 m for highwalls in mines.
The purpose of benching a slope is to transform the behavior of one high slope into several
lower ones. Benching of slopes is also used to control erosion and establish vegetation. Each
bench should have drainage to convey runoff to a suitable discharge outlet. Benches are
also used along highway corridors as a means of intercepting rockfall before it reached the
roadway.

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FIGURE7 : Benching of slope

3.1.4. Re-sloping and unloading

Figure 8 : Reducing of driving weight

Where overburden or weathered rock present in the upper portion of a cut, it is often
necessary to cut this material at an angle flatter than the more competent rock below. The
design procedure for resloping and unloading starts with back analysis of the unstable slope.
At places a slide developed, it may be necessary to unload the crest by reducing the driving
force of the cut (Figure 5). This operation is usually carried out by excavators and bulldozers.

3.1.5. Counter berms

A counter berm is used to provide weight thereby increasing the shear strength at the toe
region of a slope. This is particularly useful for embankments over soft soil where the
ground at the toe can move upward and form a bulge (Figure 7 & 8). By locating a counter
berm where the upheaval is expected to occur, the resistance against sliding is also
increased. Unless careful investigation and thorough analysis is made, there is a danger that
the additional load imposed by the counter berm may increase the driving force rather than
providing the added resistance against sliding and lead to failure.

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FIGURE 9: Counterberm to provide weight at toe embarkment

3.1.6. Scaling
Scaling describes the removal of loose non detached rock, soil and vegetation on the face of
a slope using hand tools such as scaling bars, shovels and chain saws. Tree roots growing in
fractures on the rock face can further widening the fractures causing rock falls. Also,
movement of the trees by the wind produces leverage by the roots on loose blocks. The
general loosening of the rock on the face by tree roots also permits increased infiltration of
water which, in temperate climates, can freeze and expand and cause further opening of
the cracks. On steep slopes, workers are usually supported by ropes, anchored at the crest
of the slope. A suitable type of rope for these conditions is a steel-core, hemp rope that is
highly resistant to cut and abrasion. The scalers work their way down the face to ensure that
there is no loose rock above them.

Figure 10: Rock buttress used to control unstable slope

3.1.7. Steel reinforcement
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Steel reinforcement members in the form of rock bolts, cable bolts, resin-grouted thread
bars, or rock dowels are used to tie the rock mass together to increase its stability. Whereas
rock bolts are commonly used to reinforce the surface or near-surface rock of the
excavation, rock anchors are used for supporting deep seated instability modes in which
sliding or separation on a discontinuity is possible.
Steel reinforcement members can be either active or passive at the time of installation. An
active member is one that starts interacting immediately upon installation while a passive
member does not play a role in ground support until the rock mass moves and subsequently
loads the fixture. The main advantage of the active system over the passive system is that
no movement has to occur before the active system develops its full capacity. Thus,
deformation and possible tension cracking of the slope are minimized. Three common types
of ground inclusions are ground anchors, soil nails and rock bolts.
3.1.8. Soil Nailing
It is a soil reinforcement technique that places closely spaced metal bars or rods into soil to
increase the strength of the soil mass by resisting against tensile, shear, and bending
stresses imposed by slope movements. Soil nails are either installed in drilled bore holes or
secured with grout, or they are driven into the ground. The soil nails are generally attached
to concrete facing located at the surface of the structure (figure 23). The function of the
facing is to prevent erosion of the surface material surrounding the soil nails, rather than
providing structural support.

FIGURE 11:Soil nailing

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This is a method of in situ reinforcement utilising passive inclusions that get mobilized in
case of slope movement occurs. It can be used to retain excavations and stabilize slopes by
creating in situ reinforced soil retaining structures.
3.1.9. Shotcrete
Shotcrete is pnumaticaly applied fined grained mortar i.e. usually placed in a 20 to 100 mm
layer and is often reinforcement to improve tensile and shear strength. Zones and beds of
closely fractured or degradable rock may be protected by applying a layer of shotcrete to
the rock face. The shotcrete will control both the fall of small blocks of rock, and progressive
raveling that could eventually produce unstable overhangs. Primary function of shotcrete is
to provide surface protection. The two common methods of reinforcing are welded-wire
mesh, or steel or polypropylene fibres.
Shotcrete is applied either by wet or dry applications. For dry mix shotcrete, additives and
mortar are mixed onsite and pumped via compressed air to the nozzle, where the water is
added. The wet mix is premixed at a central plant to specifications and then transported to
the site in bulk.
An alternative to mesh reinforcement is to use steel or polypropylene fibers that are a
component of the shotcrete mix and form a reinforcement mat throughout the shotcrete
layer. The steel fibers are manufactured from high strength carbon steel with a length of
3038mm and diameter of 0.5 mm. The principal function of fibers is to significantly
increase the shear, tensile and post crack strengths of the shotcrete compared to non
reinforced shotcrete.
Steel fibers, when added to the mix, increase the tensile strength of the shotcrete by
providing numerous bonding surfaces within a small area. The fiber reinforcement also
reduces the risk that shrinkage cracks will develop during curing. In many cases, the
addition of fibers can replace wire mesh as reinforcement, thus reducing the overall cost.
The addition of drain holes through the shotcrete is essential to eliminate water pressure
behind the shotcrete. Small length of steel PVC pipe, inserted prior to shotcrete application
into joints in the rock face where seeps have been noted or where seeps may occur, will
provide partial drainage. Other drain holes should be created at regular intervals along the
slope face. It is widely used technique for not only stabilization of slope but also used in
underground excavations.

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FIGURE 12:Shortcrete

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REFERENCES

Hustrulid, W. A., McCarter, M. K. and Van Zyl, D. J. A. (Eds.) (2000) Slope Stability
in Surface Mining, Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.

Karzulovic A. and Read J. (2009) Rock mass model, in Guidelines for Open Pit Slope
Design, Eds. John Read and Peter Stacey, CSIRO Publishing.

Kirsten H A D (1983) Significance of the probability of failure in slope engineering.

The Civil Engineer in South Africa, Volume 25 No. (1).

Lorig, L., Stacey, P. And Read, J. (2009) Slope design methods, in in Guidelines for
Open Pit Slope Design, Eds. John Read and Peter Stacey, CSIRO Publishing.

Sullivan T D (2006) Pit slope design and risk a view of the current state of the art.
In Proceedings of International Symposium Stability of Rock Slopes in Open Pit Mining and
Civil Engineering, Cape Town. South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Johannesburg.

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