XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Eggs and egg products: Consumers

attitudes, perceptions and behaviours
International Egg Commission, 89
Charterhouse Street, London, England
Vincent@internationalegg.com

Introduction

The egg as a global food

Global production: According to the FAO (FAO,
2010a), the egg production has grown by 12.2
million tonnes or 22% between 2001 and 2009.
Compared to other animal protein sources, only the
production of meat chickens has grown at a faster
rate (37.2%) over the same period. These numbers
emphasize the importance of eggs as a global food.
In terms of egg production, the countries with the
largest increase were China (+ 5.7 million tonnes),
India (+ 1.1 million tonnes) and Mxico (+0.556
million tonnes).
Global consumption: In parallel with
production, egg consumption has also increased

Table 1 - Comparison of per capita egg

consumption in FAO member countries between
the periods 1990-1992 and 2003-2005, expressed
in %.
Range of increase or decrease
(%) observed over 1990-1992
and 2003-2005

Number of
countries

100 %

17

50 to 99%

23

20 to 49%

32

2 to 19%

28

< -2% to 2%<

- 2% to 10%

18

- 11% to 20%

22

- 21% to 30%

13

> -30%

13

V. Guyonnet

n a global basis, eggs are one of the

most recognized and accepted foods by
consumers. It is a very versatile food which
can be consumed on its own or used as
an ingredient for cooking and baking. An egg is
also a food that has a natural good shelf-life and is
extremely nutritious. However, the consumption of
eggs varies tremendously from country to country
with some consumers enjoying an egg a day while
others limit their intake. What are the reasons for
these differences? What do people really think
when buying eggs or what do they simply think
when you mention the word egg? We propose
to review some of the current knowledge on the
attitudes, perceptions and behaviours of consumers
towards eggs and egg products.

tremendously in many countries. Using the FAO

database (FAO, 2010b) to compare the egg
consumption between the periods 1990-1992
and 2003-2005 (the latest available data), we can
observe that the egg consumption increased in 100
countries (at a rate ranging from 2% in Benin and
Nigeria to 346% in Myanmar), was stagnant in 6
countries (at a rate ranging from >-2% to <2%)
and declined in 66 countries (at a rate ranging from
-2% in the United Kingdom and France to -66%
in Eritrea) (Table 1). In 2005, the top 5 countries
in terms of egg consumption were: Denmark and
Japan (53 g / person / day), Paraguay, Netherlands
and Mexico (49 g / person / day). Considering the
average egg size of 50 grams, the FAO database
(FAO, 2010b) was used to group countries in terms
of weekly egg consumption ( 4 eggs, 2-4< eggs,
1 - 2< eggs and < 1 egg).

Adapted from FAO (2010a).

The results presented in Table 2 show that for

the period 2003-2005, more countries had a per
capita consumption of at least 2 eggs per week than
for the period 1990-1992. For the same 2 periods
analyzed, it is unfortunately to note that there were
Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

XXIV
12 countries where egg consumption was less than
1 egg / month, 7 of which remained the same for
these two periods.

Table 2 - Comparison of per capita egg

consumption in FAO member countries between
the periods 1990-1992 and 2003-2005, expressed
in the number of eggs consumed weekly.
Weekly egg
consumption
per capita*

Period 19901992
Number of
countries

Period 20032005
Number of
countries

4 eggs

34

31

2 to 4< eggs

44

60

1 to 2< eggs

28

28

< 1 egg

66

56

V. Guyonnet

* Calculation of egg consumption based on a 50-gram

egg. dapted from FAO (2010a).

Considering the tremendous increases in the

global egg production and consumption, it is
interesting to review the attitudes, perceptions and
behaviours of consumers towards eggs and egg
products. Very few scientific papers have studied
this aspect of egg consumption and much of the
information available is generated by national
organizations dealing with the production and
commercialization of eggs. Most of the data
presented in this paper are based on recent surveys
conducted in the following countries: Australia 1,225 adults, online survey in May 2011 (Australian
Egg Corporation Limited, 2011), Canada 1,180
women, online survey in July 2011 (Egg Farmers
of Canada, 2011), The Netherlands 1,125
households, online survey in 2009 (Product Board
for Poultry and Eggs/GfK, 2009) and the USA - 1,015
adults, online survey in October 2011 (American Egg
Board, 2011). Data regarding consumers from these
4 countries should be related to the 4 references
cited above unless specified otherwise.

Attitudes,
perceptions
and behaviours towards
regular eggs
The term regular eggs will be applied to eggs
produced by hens fed a standard diet and housed in
a conventional cage system, which constitutes the

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

main egg production system in the world.

Choice of species: The information presented
in this paper will address only the case of eggs
produced by laying hens. However, it is important to
note that in certain parts of the world like China and
South-East Asia, there is also a large consumption of
eggs produced by ducks and quails. In China alone,
duck egg production is estimated at 3.5 million
tonnes, the equivalent of the production of eggs
from laying hens in Brazil, France, Germany and
Italy combined (IEC, 2011; Yang, 2011). Eggs from
various avian species are also found in upscale retail
stores around the world or ethnic markets but
they do not really represent the main type of eggs
bought by consumers.
Shell colour: The case of brown versus white
eggs is interesting as it likely relates more to cultural
preferences and traditions than any other reason.
Based on the annual survey conducted by the
International Egg Commission in 38 countries (IEC,
2011), the preference for egg shell colour varies
from almost 100% brown to 100% white (Table
3).
Time for egg consumption: As anticipated,
eggs are dominantly consumed for breakfast in
Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and the USA.
In both Canada and the USA, eggs are not the
preferred food for breakfast during weekdays
(behind cereals and bagel/toast in Canada and
behind cereals in the USA). However, eggs rank first
for breakfast on week-ends. This concept of eggs
as a special Sunday breakfast food is also true for
the Netherlands. In Australia, the consumption of
eggs seems to be more evenly spread across meals
(breakfast 55%, lunch 43%, dinner 50% and snack
20%). In fact, 70% of the consumers disagree to
the statement Eggs are only for breakfast. Several
countries are now encouraging egg consumption
by promoting eggs as an option for healthy snacks
during the day (IEC, 2011).
Frequency of egg consumption: As pointed
out previously, the per capita consumption of eggs
in most countries varied between 2 to 4 eggs per
week. Increases in egg consumption have been a
slow process in most of the industrialized western
countries over the past 20 years (IEC, 2011). In
Canada, 15% of the respondents reported to eat
more eggs than a few years ago, mostly based
on their opinion that eggs were a good source
of proteins (18%), healthy and nutritious (17%)
and easy, convenient to cook (15%); conversely,
30% of the respondents claimed to eat less eggs,

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Table 3 - Brown versus white egg shell ratio in selected

countries (2010).

home, with health reasons always a far distant

second choice (Skala, 1965b).

Country

% Brown eggs

% White eggs

Argentina

45

55

Australia

98

Brazil

24

76

Canada

10

90

China

75

25

Czech republic

100

Finland

95

France

96

Hungary

100

India

92

Main usage of eggs: Back in 1965, Skala

(1965b) reported in the USA that scrambled
eggs (96%), fried eggs (94%) and hard boiled
eggs (93%) were the most common ways to
prepare eggs. In 2011, the recent survey in the
USA showed again that scrambled eggs are the
main egg dish (89%), followed by omelette
(66%) and fried eggs (66%). Scrambled eggs are
also the most common way of preparing eggs
in Australia (74%). In Canada, scrambled eggs
are the most common egg dish on week-days
(27%) while second (33%) to fried eggs (35%)
on week-ends.

Iran

100

Ireland

100

Italy

93

Japan

36

74

95

The Netherlands

59

41

99.7

0.3

Peru

95

Portugal

100

South Africa

25

75

Spain

90

10

Turkey

30

70

United Kingdom

99

United States

93

Nigeria

IEC (2011)

due to cholesterol concerns (22%), fewer people

at home (15%) or changed to different foods
(15%). In Australia, respondents reported eating
3.8 eggs during a week, with 49% of the people
eating between 2-4 eggs, 20% 1 egg or less and
30% 5 eggs and more. The mean number of eggs
consumed over the previous 7 days was 4.3 eggs for
men and 3.3 eggs for women, a trend which has
been consistent over the past 4 years. Their main
reasons for eating more eggs were: tasty (92%),
make an easy meal (90%) and versatile (84%).
The main reasons given by Australians for not
consuming more eggs were: already eat as many
as I can (36%), concerns about cholesterol (35%)
and general health reasons (30%). This is in contrast
with an older study in the USA where the number of
people in a household was the key driver determining
the increase or decrease in egg consumption at

V. Guyonnet

Mexico

Overall perceptions about eggs: When

presented with a series of statements about
eggs, Australian consumers agreed most that
eggs were tasty (92%), constituted a quick
meal (90%), were versatile (84%) and a good
source of protein (82%). Similar perceptions
were reported by Martinez-Michel et al. (2011)
in Canada. Consumers from the Netherlands
agreed mostly with the following statements:
always available (79%), versatile (63%) and
cheap (56%). US consumers agreed in majority
on statements about source of protein (86%),
high quality proteins in eggs (84%) and good
value (82%).
Eggs buying decisions: Consumers in
Australia and The Netherlands buy eggs mostly
every other week (37% and 34%, respectively)
or weekly (24% and 28%, respectively). Buying
decisions in Australia are based on price (54%),
freshness and remaining shelf-life of the eggs
(31%) and overall quality (28%). Slightly more
than half of the respondents (51%) did not have a
favourite brand of eggs. In the Netherlands, ranking
the buying decisions from 1 (not important) to 5
(very important), eggs not damaged ranked with
the highest score (4.29), followed by availability
of free-range eggs (3.97), freshness (3.83) and
price (3.13); again, brand was not really considered
important (1.89). This ranking of buying decisions is
fairly similar to that in the UK as described by Fearne
and Lavelle (1996). In Canada, when compared to
specialty eggs, 53% of the consumers responded
that they buy regular eggs because they are cheap
and 18% by habit and familiarity with these eggs.
About 1 consumer out of 7 reported to have
switched the type of eggs purchased over the past
year, with health reasons and need for increased
consumption of omega-3 listed as the top reason
Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

XXIV

V. Guyonnet

(38%), followed by price and special deals (25%).

In the USA, the buying decisions most frequently
reported were good value (75%), safe to eat (73%),
good source of high quality proteins (72%) and
better for you than processed foods (68%).
Eggs and food safety: With a recall of eggs due
to Salmonella in 2010 in the USA, it is interesting to
look at the perception of US consumers about eggs
and safety. When presented with the statement
Eggs are safe to eat, 80% agreed (79% men and
81% women) and consumers ranked this attribute
as number 6 out of 19 other statements about eggs.
In terms of buying decisions, 73% of the consumers
listed safe to eat as important in their buying
decision, right after price and at equal level as good
source of protein. Overall, US consumers continue
to perceive eggs as a safe food to eat. Likewise in
Australia, food safety and risk of Salmonella was
mentioned only by 6% of the respondents when
asked the reasons for not consuming more eggs.
Food safety was only ranked 6th in their list of reasons,
far behind high cholesterol (40%) and I forget to
use them (27%). Conversely, in the Netherlands,
46% agreed with the statement that eggs can be
contaminated with Salmonella. When suggested
that eating eggs increases the risk of Salmonella
poisoning, 21% agreed with the statement, 39%
disagreed and 39% remained neutral, showing not
a clear decision in the mind of Dutch consumers in
terms of eggs and food safety.
Eggs and health: In spite of slight variations in
overall nutritional content of eggs from country to
country (mostly related to the variations in diet fed
to the hens), eggs are widely recognized as naturally
rich in proteins and a number of vitamins and
minerals. The egg is often referred to as one of the
original and natural functional foods. Nutritional
claims allowed for regular eggs (standard diet fed
to the hens) (Table 4) vary from country to country
mostly due to regulations (Guyonnet, 2011).
Consumers generally do recognize these benefits in
eggs. In Australia, 95% of the respondents agreed
that eggs are part of a healthy diet, 93% that eggs
were a great source of proteins and 84% that eggs
were high in vitamins and minerals. Consuming
eggs do not increase the risk of heart disease was
a statement agreed by 71% of the respondents
and 36% attributing a large to moderate effect of
egg consumption on bad cholesterol. In Canada,
85% agreed that eggs are an excellent source of
protein and 16% agreed with the statement I am
concerned about cholesterol. In the Netherlands,
45% disagreed that more than 2 eggs per week is
bad for ones health, 23% agreed that eggs have no

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

effect on cholesterol while 41% remained neutral

on this issue, showing not a clear picture in the mind
of the Dutch consumers on this issue. In the USA,
respondents agreed that eggs are a good source
of high quality proteins (84%), naturally nutrientrich (77%) and lower in cholesterol than originally
thought (64%). Health is certainly a very interesting
factor in the mind of consumers as it is very often
listed as the main reason for consuming more eggs
and the main reason for consuming fewer eggs!
There is still some level of confusion in the mind of
consumers, often fueled by some lasting uncertainty
about eggs within the health community (Pelletier
et al., 2002; Scarborough et al., 2007; Ward, 2009
and Griffin, 2011).

Attitudes,
perception
and behaviours towards
specialty eggs
In this section, specialty eggs will be defined as
eggs produced by hens either fed a specific ration
designed to enhance the levels of nutrients in the
eggs or by hens housed in production systems
offered as more animal-friendly and alternatives to
cage systems.
Nutrient-enriched eggs or functional eggs:
As previously mentioned, the egg is often referred
to as one of the original and natural functional
foods. Numerous studies have demonstrated that
variations in rations fed laying hens can greatly
impact the level of nutrients such as vitamins,
minerals, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) and lutein (see reviews in Schiavone and
Barroeta, 2011; Siri and Meluzzi, 2011). Multiple
nutritional enhancements of eggs can easily be
achieved commercially (Bourre, 2005), using the
most natural way - feeding the hens as the means
to enrich eggs in nutrients. Little has been published
on attitudes and perceptions of consumers towards
functional eggs. Therefore, we will consider the
attitudes of consumers toward functional foods
in general and note specific characteristics for
functional eggs.
Consumers general acceptance of
functional foods: Consumers do not see
functional foods as one homogeneous
product category and different attitudes
affect their interest in using functional foods
(Urala and Lhteenmki, 2007). Bech-Larsen
and Scholderer (2007), studying consumers

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

Table 4 - Nutritional and other claims allowed for regular eggs in the USA, Canada, Australia, the EU and
Japan (Adapted from Guyonnet, 2011).
Country

Nutritional claim rules

USA (2)

good source, contains or

provides if 10%-19% DV
high, rich in or excellent
source of if > 20% DV

Nutritional claims for regular

egg per 100 g edible portion
good
source
for
iron,
phosphorus,
folate,
niacin,
pantothenic acid and vitamin D
high for selenium, riboflavin and
vitamin B12

Canada (3)

source if 5-14% DV good source for calcium, iron,

source if 15-24% DV magnesium, zinc, copper, niacin,
excellent source if >25%
vitamin A, thiamin, vitamin B6,
vitamin E
good source for phosphorus,
folate, pantothenic acid and
vitamin D
excellent source for selenium,
riboflavin, vitamin B12 and biotin

Australia (4)

source if 10%-24% DV source for iron, phosphorus,

good source if >25% DV
vitamin A, folate, vitamin D and
vitamin E
good source for selenium,
niacin, pantothenic acid, riboflavin
and vitamin B12

source if >15%
high if >30% RDA

Japan (6)

contains or enhanced
specific amount for each
nutrient;
High specific amount for
each nutrient

Folate health claim which states:

a) That increased maternal
folate consumption in at least
the month before and 3 months
following conception may reduce
the risk of fetal neural tube
defects; and
b) The recommendation that
women consumer a minimum
of 400 micrograms folate per
day in at least the month and at
least the first 3 months following
conception

V. Guyonnet

Europe (5)

Other claim(s) allowed

RDA source for phosphorus, vitamin

A, folate, niacin, pantothenic acid
and vitamin D
high for selenium, riboflavin,
vitamin B12 and biotin
contains for zinc, iron, copper,
pantothenic acid, vitamin D and
folate
high for biotin, vitamin A,
vitamin B2 and vitamin B12

Function claims:
Vitamin A helps to maintain
vision in the dark, and helps
to maintain skin and mucosa
healthy / Warning indication:
increase intake of this product
will not result in curing diseases
nor promoting health. Please
comply with the advisable daily
intake. Women within the third
months of pregnancy or women
considering to be pregnant
should be careful of over
consumption
Vitamin B2 helps to maintain
skin and mucosa healthy /
Warning indication: increase
intake of this product will not
result in curing diseases nor
promoting health. Please comply
with the advisable daily intake.

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

XXIV

V. Guyonnet

in Finland, Denmark and the USA noted that

their acceptance of functional foods depended
on their perception of the nutritional qualities
of the base-product. The same observation
was made in the Netherlands (Van Kleef
et al., 2005) and Australia (Williams et al.,
2008). As seen previously, the general good
impression of eggs and health is a positive
factor for the acceptance of functional eggs.
Another positive factor for eggs is that
functional eggs look similar to regular eggs
and therefore are more likely to be accepted
by older people, one of the fastest growing
target segments for functional foods (Saher
et al., 2004; Bowman, 2005).
Role of price: As seen in a number of
national surveys, price is always at the top of
the consumers mind in their buying decision.
In the USA, most respondents (69%)
reported that low in price was the most
important factor in their buying decision for
foods, ahead of high in nutrients (58%).
In a selected group of US consumers viewing
nutrition as very important, Bowman (2005)
also reported that price was important to
40% of them, further demonstrating that
price is truly at the top of the consumers
mind. Price was also the key decision factor in
Australia for 54% of respondents, far above
the interest in health benefits brought by
nutritionally-enhanced eggs (11%).
Role of knowledge and disbelief of
information provided: Overall, consumers
have little knowledge about nutrition and the
benefits delivered by functional foods. They
are also very sceptical about the information
provided, especially by food manufacturers
or producers (Verbeke, 2008; Sro et al.,
2008; Landstrm et al., 2009). Consumers
education programs can have some impact
on the consumers intention to consume
more functional foods (52 - 79% depending
on the type of foods) as demonstrated in
the USA by Pelletier et al. (2002). However,
proper education programs are complex,
requiring interactions between consumers
and the food industry, the retailers, the
health sector and governments (McConnon
et al., 2002).
Role of claims: Studies in Belgium (Verbeke
et al., 2009), Finland, Denmark and the USA
(Bech-Larsen and Scholderer, 2007), Australia
(Patch et al., 2005) and Canada (Hailu et al.,

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

2009) have shown a strong belief in health

claims for functional foods. Government
support of these claims was also a major
positive determinant in the acceptance of
functional foods. However, as reported in the
USA where health claims have been allowed
for some time, communication of these
benefits has limited success and could have
in fact misled consumers (Hassler, 2008).
Role of health professionals: While health
professionals would have a great role to
play in assisting consumers in their buying
decisions, Landstrm et al. (2007) reported
that Swedish physicians and registered
nurses expressed scepticism and distrust
about functional foods. Lack of trust, interest
and proficiency in functional foods were
given as the explanation for their reluctance
to recommend functional foods to patients.
Eggs from alternative housing systems: The
issue of animal welfare is growing and is extremely
complex as it blends science with moral values
(Blokhuis et al., 2008; Napolitano et al., 2010). The
level of interest in animal welfare and alternative
housing systems for laying hens vary tremendously
around the world. Even in a more homogenous
setting like Europe, consumers showed some
interest in the topic but their levels of interest vary
by country, level of education and knowledge about
farming practices (European Commission, 2005).
We will review both data from national surveys as
well as some of the scientific literature available.
Awareness of consumers: The recent
survey in Canada showed that the awareness
of consumers about eggs from hens raised in
alternative systems is average: 49% for free
range eggs, 46% for organic eggs and 30%
for free-run eggs. While aware of these types
of eggs, Canadian consumers also would
rarely identify animal welfare as a hot topic
related to eggs in an unaided questionnaire.
Similarly, 54% of the responded in the USA
agreed with the statement I am not quite
sure where my eggs come from. In Europe,
the awareness about the origin of egg
purchased is much higher, with only 18% of
the consumers not paying attention to this
type of information and 10% not knowing
at all. The lack of consumer interest for the
production systems for eggs varies from 2%
to 28% across the 25 European countries
surveyed (European Commission, 2005).
In The Netherlands, 93% of the consumers

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

were aware and recognized the concept of

free-range eggs, far above the concept of
free-run (29%) and organic (23%).
Attributes and perceptions about eggs
produced in alternative systems: While
recent work demonstrated that there is little
difference in terms of quality (Hidalgo et
al., 2008) and nutritional values (Anderson,
2011) between eggs produced by hens kept
in cages or in alternative systems, consumers
will typically perceive foods produced under
higher welfare standards as more nutritious
and of higher quality (Hansstein, 2011).

Buying decisions of eggs from alternative

systems: In the Netherlands, consumers
listed animal-friendly product as the main
reason for purchasing organic eggs (60%)
or free-range eggs (53%); taste came as
the second most frequent choice (15%). In
Canada, consumers listed better treatment
/ conditions of hens (19%) slightly above
taste (17%) and more nutritious (15%) as
their main reasons for purchasing free run
or free range eggs. In the USA, consumers
presented with 16 statements related to
their overall buying decision for eggs ranked
the availability of free-range and cage-free
eggs as the least important factor.
Willingness to pay for enhanced welfare:
Willingness to pay (WTP) may be defined as
the interest of consumers to give up other
goods and services to improve the well-being
of other species. Willingness to pay for
farm animal welfare was reviewed recently
by Lagerkvist and Hess (2011). Their metaanalysis of 24 studies showed that WTP was
directly correlated to income and negatively
correlated with the age of consumers.
Interestingly, WTP was also negatively

V. Guyonnet

Buying patterns of eggs from alternative

systems: Data regarding buying patterns
and preferences for type of eggs must be
considered cautiously as consumers will often
say one thing and act differently. For instance,
60% of the Australian consumers claimed to
prefer eggs produced in alternative systems
while sales tracking data would indicate that
only about 42% of them do purchase these
eggs. In Canada, the same pattern is observed
with 11% of the consumers claiming to buy
eggs from alternative housing systems while
these eggs represent only 4% of the market.

correlated to legal regulations on animal

welfare. Such observation was previously
made by Carlsson et al. (2007) using in their
study the case of the ban of conventional
cages. The conclusion of their work was that
there was little difference in WTP for eggs
from free-range hens whether conventional
cages were banned or consumers were
given the freedom of choice with the cage
system still allowed. In the USA, Naald and
Cameron (2011) showed that the WTP
and premium rate were inversely related
to household size but directly correlated to
the levels of education and concerns about
current farming practices. On the opposite,
Zhao and Wu (2011) reported from a small
survey in China that although fewer Chinese
were familiar with the term animal welfare
(42% had never heard of the term), about
89% agreed that people should pay more to
improve animal welfare, with citizens from
lower income or level of education showing
more care for animal welfare. The largest
single source of data on WTP for eggs from
hens in alternative systems can be found in
the Eurobarometer 2005 report (European
Commission, 2005). Out of a total of
24,709 consumers from 25 countries, 34%
indicated no willingness to pay a premium
for eggs sourced from an animal welfare
friendly environment, with the proportion
varying from 15% to 57% depending on the
countries. Another 25% of the consumers
were willing to pay a premium of 5% and
21% to pay a premium of 10%. However, as
pointed out by Lagerkvist and Hess (2011),
while farm animal welfare is an emotional
issue for many people, it is simultaneously
something forgotten when shopping.

The case for egg products

For egg products, we will focus only on products
available in the retail sector, mainly liquid eggs and
hard boiled eggs.
Liquid egg products: Retail egg products have
been available in the USA for over 30 years. Most
of these products are egg white-based and were
initially designed as a response to the consumers
concerns about cholesterol. The US market is quite
developed and the number of store brands (also
called private labels) multiplied quickly over the
past 5 years. Canada, benefiting from its close
proximity to the US market, has also developed a
Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

XXIV
retail market for liquid egg products. After 15 years,
the consumers awareness of liquid egg products
in Canada is around 40%, almost at par with that
of organic shell eggs. Since the beginning of 2012,
Australian consumers have also access to liquid egg
products in the retail sector.

V. Guyonnet

While initially designed for health reasons, these

products are now all about ease and convenience
for consumers. Egg white-based products like
Simply Egg WhitesTM (Burnbrae Farms Ltd, Canada)
are products sought-after by consumers interested
in baking without separating the white from the
yolk, wasting the yolk or making a mess in the
kitchen! These products are also favoured by fitness
fanatics as an excellent source of quality proteins.
Other products, also egg white-based, incorporate
additional ingredients like green and red peppers,
cheese and bacon, making these products
ideal ready-to-cook omelettes for the younger
generations less willing to spend time preparing and
cooking meals.
Liquid egg products have also been enriched
with omega-3 PUFA, lutein, vitamins and minerals
and entered the huge market of functional foods
(Kassis et al., 2010). Some recent clinical work
demonstrated that the consumption of a liquid egg
product containing fish oil had a significant effect
on reducing cardiovascular risks (Rose and Holub,
2006). Compared to functional eggs, these liquid
eggs do face additional challenges as they are still a
new form of food and are not readily recognized or
accepted by consumers.
Hard boiled or cooked eggs: Cooked eggs (hard
boiled eggs) are also available in retail stores. In
China, vast shelves are filled with numerous brands
of hard boiled eggs mostly sold unpeeled. In the
Western world, the consumption of these products
has increased recently as more and more people
consume food away from home. Peeled hard boiled
eggs can now be found in retail and convenience
stores. A number of national organizations of egg
producers, like Camara Argentina de productores
avicolas (Argentina), are also actively promoting the
consumption of hard boiled eggs as a healthy snack
food, at par with an apple or a yogurt (IEC, 2011).

Conclusion
Over the past 10 years, global egg production
has grown at a fast pace in parallel with the demand
for more eggs and animal proteins. Consumers

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

enjoy eggs because they are tasty, safe to eat, easy

to prepare and relatively cheap compared to other
sources of animal proteins. While breakfast is the
dominant meal using eggs, consumers are starting
to enjoy more opportunities to consume eggs.
In the mind of consumers, the relationship egg
and health remains very complex. Consumers
recognized more and more the health benefits
provided by the amount and quality of proteins,
vitamins and minerals in the egg. Conversely, the
concern about cholesterol in spite of the lack of
scientific validity continues to restrict consumption
of eggs for some consumers. Specialty eggs and egg
products should develop more and more share of
the global market as these products address some
specific needs expressed by consumers. However,
price will likely continue to be the single most
prevalent buying decision criteria for eggs.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to recognize the following
individuals and organizations for providing some
valuable proprietary information for this paper: Kevin
Burkum, American Egg Board; James Kellaway and
Yelli Kruger from the Australian Egg Corporation
Limited; Tim Lambert and Sarah Caron from Egg
Farmers of Canada; Julian Madeley, The International
Egg Commission; and Ben Dellaert, Product Board for
Poultry and Eggs/GfK, The Netherlands.

References
AMERICAN EGG BOARD. (2011) Findings from the
2011 American Egg Board Tracking study, personal
communication.
AUSTRALIAN EGG CORPORATION LIMITED. (2011). Egg
tracking study, personal communication
ANDERSON, K.E. (2011) Comparison of fatty acid,
cholesterol, and vitamin A and E composition in eggs
from hens housed in conventional cage and range
production facilities. Poultry Science 90:1600-1608.
BECH-LARSEN, T. and SCHOLDERER, J. (2007) Functional
foods in Europe: consumer research, market
experiences and regulatory aspects. Trends in Food
Science & Technology 18:231-234.
BLOKHUIS, H.J., KEELING, L.J., GAVINELLI, A. and
SERRATOSA, J. (2008) Animal welfares impact on the
food chain. Trends in Food Science & Technology 19:
S79-S87
BOURRE, J.M. (2005). Loeuf natural multi-enrichi: des
apports levs en nutriments, notamment acides gras
omga-3, en vitamines, minraux et carotnoides.
Mdecine et Nutrition 41:116-134.
BOWMAN, S.A. (2005) Food shoppers nutrition attitudes
and relationship to dietary and lifestyle practices.
Nutrition Research 25: 281-293.

XXIV

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil

CARLSSON, F., FRYKBLOM, P. and LAGERKVIST, C.J.

(2007) Farm animal welfare Testing for market
failure. Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics
39:61-73

KASSIS, N., DRAKE, S.R., BEAMER, S.K., MATAK, K.E. and

JACZYNSKI, J. (2010). Development of nutraceutical
egg products with omega-3-rich oils. LWT Food
Science and Technology 43:777-783.

EGG FARMERS OF CANADA. (2011) 2011 Usage and

attitudes research results, personal communication.

KOELKEBECK, K.W., BELL, D.D., CAREY, J.B., ANDERSON,

K.E. and DARRE, M.J. (2001) Egg marketing in national
supermarkets: products, packaging, and prices - Part
3. Poultry Science 80:396-400.

EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2005) Attitudes of consumers

towards the welfare of farmed animals. Available
from: http://ec.europa.eu/food/animal/welfare/survey/
index_en.htm [Accessed 21 January 2012]
FAO. (2010a) FAO Statistical Yearbook 2010. Available
from:
http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/esspublications/ess-yearbook/ess-yearbook2010/
yearbook2010-production/en/ [Accessed 21 January
2012]
FAO. (2010b) Food security data and definitions. Food
consumption quantities by food items 13.09.2010.
Available from: http://www.fao.org/economic/ess/essfs/fs-data/ess-fadata/en/ [Accessed 8 January 2012]
FEARNE, A. and LAVELLE, D. (1996). Segmenting the UK
egg market: results of a survey of consumer attitudes
and perceptions. British Food Journal 98:7-12.
GRIFFIN, B. (2011). Eggs, dietary cholesterol and disease:
facts and folklore. In: VAN IMMERSEEL, F., NYS, Y.
& BAIN, M. (Eds) Improving the safety and quality of
eggs and egg products: Egg safety and nutritional
quality, Vol. 2, pp. 237-253 (Cambridge, Woodhead
Publishing).

HAILU, G., BOECKER, A., HENSON, S. and CRANFIELD,

J. (2009) Consumer valuation of functional foods
and nutraceuticals in Canada. A conjoint study using
probiotics. Appetite 52:257-265.
HANSSTEIN, F. (2011) Profiling the egg consumer:
attitudes, perceptions and behaviours. In: VAN
IMMERSEEL, F., NYS, Y. & BAIN, M. (Eds) Improving
the safety and quality of eggs and egg products: Egg
chemistry, production and consumption, Vol. 1, pp.
39-61 (Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing).
HASSLER, C. (2008) Health claims in the United States: an
aid to the public or a source of confusion. Journal of
Nutrition 138:1216S-1220S.
HIDALGO, A., ROSSI, M., CLERICI, F. and RATTI, S. (2008)
A market study on the quality characteristics of eggs
from different housing systems. Food Chemistry
106:1031-1038.

LANDSTRM, E., SIDENVALL, B., KOIVISTO HURSTI,

U.K. and MAGNUSSON, M. (2007) Health-care
professionals perceived trust in and willingness to
recommend functional foods: A qualitative study.
Appetite 48:241-247.
LANDSTRM, E., KOIVISTO HURSTI, U.K. and
MAGNUSSON, M. (2009) Functional foods compensate
for an unhealthy lifestyle. Some Swedish consumers
impressions and perceived need of functional foods.
Appetite 53:34-43.
MARTNEZ MICHEL, L., PUNTER, P.H. and WISMER, W.V.
(2011) Perceptual attributes of poultry and other meat
products: A repertory grid application. Meat Science
87:349-355
MCCONNON, A., CADE, J. and PEARMAN, A. (2002)
Stakeholder interactions and the development of
functional foods. Public Health Nutrition 5:469-477.
NAPOLITANO, F., GIROLAMI, A. and BRAGHIERI, A.
(2010) Consumer liking and willingness to pay for
high welfare animal-based products. Trends in Food
Science & Technology 21:537-543.
PATCH, C.S., TAPSELL, L.C. and WILLIAMS, P.G. (2005)
Overweight consumers salient beliefs on omega3-enriched functional foods in Australias Illawarra
region. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior
37:83-89.

V. Guyonnet

GUYONNET, V. (2011) Strategic planning for the

development of the egg nutraceutical industry.
In: VAN IMMERSEEL, F., NYS, Y. & BAIN, M. (Eds)
Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg
products: Egg safety and nutritional quality, Vol. 2,
pp. 374-399 (Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing).

LAGERKVIST, C.J. and HESS, S. (2011) A meta-analysis of

consumer willingness to pay for farm animal welfare.
European Review of Agricultural Economics 38:55-78.

PELLETIER, S., KUNDRAT, S. and HASSLER, C.M. (2002)

Effects of an educational program on intent to
consume functional foods. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association 102:1297-1300.
PRODUCT BOARD FOR POULTRY AND EGGS / GFK.
(2009) Raportage ei innovatie onderzoek, personal
communication
ROSE, E.L. and HOLUB, B.J. (2006) Effects of a liquid egg
product containing fish oil on selected cardiovascular
disease risk factors: A randomized crossover trial.
Food Research International 39:910-916.
SAHER, M., ARVOLA, A., LINDEMAN, M. and
LAHTEENMAKI, L. (2004). Impressions of functional
food consumers. Appetite 42:79-89.

INTERNATIONAL EGG COMMISSION IEC. (2011)

The global egg industry 2011: a statistical analysis.
Available from: http://marketdata.internationalegg.
com/2010/ [Accessed 28 January 2012]

SCARBOROUGH, P., RAYNER, M., STOCKLEY, L. and

BLACK, A. (2007) Nutrition professionals perception
of the healthiness of individual foods. Public Health
Nutrition 10:346-353.

JOHNSTON, N.P., JEFFERIES, L.K., RODRIGUEZ, B. AND

JOHNSTON, D.E. (2011) Acceptance of brown-shelled
eggs in a white-shelled egg market. Poultry Science
90:1074-1079

SCHIAVONE, A. and BARROETA, A.C (2011) Egg

enrichment with vitamins and trace minerals. In: VAN
IMMERSEEL, F., NYS, Y. & BAIN, M. (Eds) Improving
the safety and quality of eggs and egg product: Egg
Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

XXIV
safety and nutritional quality, Vol. 2, pp. 289-320
(Cambridge, Woodhead Publishing).
SIRI, F. and MELUZZI, A (2011) Modifying egg lipids for
human health. In: VAN IMMERSEEL, F., NYS, Y. &
BAIN, M. (Eds) Improving the safety and quality of
eggs and egg products: Egg safety and nutritional
quality, Vol. 2, pp. 272-288 (Cambridge, Woodhead
Publishing).
SRO, I., KPOLNA, E., KPOLNA, B. and LUGASI, A.
(2008) Functional food. Product development,
marketing and consumer acceptance A review.
Appetite 51:456-467.
SKALA, J.H. (1965a) Egg preferences of Wisconsin
consumers as related to standards for grading. Poultry
Science 44:1185-1192.
SKALA, J.H. (1965b) Purchasing habits and use of eggs by
Wisconsin consumers. Poultry Science 44:1193-1200.
URALA, N. and LHTEENMKI, L. (2007) Consumers
changing attitudes towards functional foods. Food
Quality and Preference 18:1-12.
VANDER NAALD, B. and CAMERON, T. (2011) Willingness
to pay for other species well-being. Ecological
Economics 70:1325-1335

V. Guyonnet

VAN KLEEF, E., VAN TRIJP, H.C. and LUNING, P. (2005)

Functional foods: health claim-food product
compatibility and the impact of health claim framing
on consumer evaluation. Appetite 44:299-308.
VERBEKE, W. (2008) Impact of communication on
consumers food choices. Proceedings of the Nutrition
Society 67:281-288.
VERBEKE, W., SCHOLDERER, J. and LHTEENMKI, L.
(2009) Consumer appeal of nutrition and health
claims in three existing product concepts. Appetite
52:684-692.
WARD, R. (2009) Talking with your patients about
dietary cholesterol, diet and nutrition: best practices
for family physicians. International Journal of Clinical
Practice 63:22-26.
WILLIAMS, P., RIDGES, L., BATTERHAM, M. RIPPER, B. and
HUNG, M.C. (2008) Australian consumer attitudes
to health claim food product compatibility for
functional foods. Food Policy 33:640-643.
YANG, N. (2011) Social economic aspects of egg
production in China. In: VAN IMMERSEEL, F., NYS,
Y. & BAIN, M. (Eds) Improving the safety and quality
of eggs and egg products: Egg chemistry, production
and consumption, Vol. 1, pp. 17-26 (Cambridge,
Woodhead Publishing).
ZHAO, Y.J. and WU, S. (2011) Willingness to pay: Animal
welfare and related influencing factors in China.
Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 14:150161.

10

Area: Commercial Egg Productions and Processing August 07

Worlds Poultry Congress 5 - 9

August - 2012 Salvador - Bahia - Brazil