KnowledgeandPracticeStandardsforTeachersofReading

InternationalDyslexiaAssociation

ExecutiveSummary

ReadingDifficulties,IncludingDyslexia,AreVeryCommon
Readingdifficultiesarethemostcommoncauseofacademicfailureandunderachievement.Learningto
readandwriteisnotnaturaloreasyformanyifnotmoststudents,especiallythosewithdyslexiaandrelated
languageproblems.TheNationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressconsistentlyfindsthatabout36%ofall
fourthgradersreadataleveldescribedasbelowbasic.Between15and20%ofyoungstudentsaredoomedto
academicfailurebecauseofreadingandlanguageprocessingweaknesses,unlessthoseweaknessesare
recognizedearlyandtreatedskillfully.Another2030%areatriskforinadequatereadingandwriting
development,dependingonhowandhowwelltheyaretaught.Mostoftheseatriskstudentsareineligible
forspecialeducationservicesandaredependentontheinstructiongivenintheregularclassroomorother
supplementaryservices.However,ofthosestudentswhoarereferredtospecialeducationservicesinpublic
schools,approximately85%arehavingseveredifficultieswithlanguage,reading,andwriting.Clearly,
responsibilityforteachingreadingandwritingmustbesharedbyclassroomteachers,readingspecialists,and
specialeducationpersonnel.

EffectiveInstructionIsKey
Althoughdyslexiaandrelatedreadingandlanguageproblemsmayoriginatewithneurobiological
differences,theyaremainlytreatedwithskilledteaching.Informedandeffectiveclassroominstruction,
especiallyintheearlygrades,canpreventoratleasteffectivelyaddressandlimittheseverityofreadingand
writingproblems.Potentialreadingfailurecanberecognizedasearlyaspreschoolandkindergarten,ifnot
sooner.Alargebodyofresearchevidenceshowsthatwithappropriate,intensiveinstruction,allbutthemost
severereadingdisabilitiescanbeamelioratedintheearlygradesandstudentscangetontracktowardacademic
success.Forthosestudentswithpersistentdyslexiawhoneedspecializedinstructionoutsideoftheregular
class,competentinterventionfromaspecialistcanlessentheimpactofthedisorderandhelpthestudent
overcomeandmanagethemostdebilitatingsymptoms.

Whatisthenatureofeffectiveinstructionforstudentsatrisk?Themethodssupportedbyresearchare
thosethatareexplicit,systematic,cumulative,andmultisensory,inthattheyintegratelistening,speaking,
reading,andwriting.Thecontentofeffectiveinstructionemphasizesthestructureoflanguage,includingthe
speechsoundsystem(phonology),thewritingsystem(orthography),thestructureofsentences(syntax),the
meaningfulpartsofwords(morphology),meaningrelationshipsamongwordsandtheirreferents(semantics),
andtheorganizationofspokenandwrittendiscourse.Thestrategiesemphasizeplanning,organization,
attentiontotask,criticalthinking,andselfmanagement.Whileallsuchaspectsofteachingareessentialfor
studentswithdyslexia,thesestrategiesalsoenhancethepotentialofallstudents.

AreTeachersPrepared?
Teachinglanguage,reading,andwritingeffectively,especiallytostudentsexperiencingdifficulty,
requiresconsiderableknowledgeandskill.Regrettably,thelicensingandprofessionaldevelopmentpractices
currentlyendorsedbymanystatesareinsufficientforthepreparationandsupportofteachersandspecialists.
Researchersarefindingthatthosewithreadingspecialistandspecialeducationlicensesoftenknownomore
aboutresearchbased,effectivepracticesthanthosewithgeneraleducationteachinglicenses.Themajorityof
practitionersatalllevelshavenotbeenpreparedinsufficientdepthtopreventreadingproblems,torecognize
earlysignsofrisk,ortoteachstudentswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdisabilitiessuccessfully.Inquiriesinto
teacherpreparationinreadinghaverevealedapervasiveabsenceofrichcontentandacademicrigorinmany
coursesthatleadtocertificationofteachersandspecialists.Analysesofteacherlicensingtestsshowthat
typically,veryfewarealignedwithcurrentresearchoneffectiveinstructionforstudentsatrisk.Whentestsare
alignedwithscientificresearch,fartoomanyteachercandidatesareunabletopassthem.Toaddressthesegaps
andpromotemorerigorous,meaningful,andeffectiveteacherpreparationandprofessionaldevelopment,IDA
hasadoptedthissetofknowledgeandpracticestandards.

StandardsforPractice
IDAsKnowledgeandPracticeStandardsforTeachersofReadingprovideacontentframeworkfor
coursesandcoursesequences.Inaddition,theydelineateproficiencyrequirementsforpracticalapplicationof
thiscontent(e.g.,interpretationofassessments,deliveryofdifferentiatedinstruction,andsuccessful
interventionwithachildoradultwithareadingdisability).Thefirstsectionspecifieswhatallteachersofreading
shouldknowandbeabletodo,aswellasethicalstandardsfortheprofession.Thesecondsectionoffers
guidelinesfortheadditionalpracticalteachingskillsnecessaryforteachingstudentswithdyslexiaandrelated
difficulties.Thestandardsareorganizedandpresentedinthefollowingorder:

SECTIONI:KnowledgeandPracticeStandards
1. FoundationConceptsaboutOralandWrittenLanguageLearning
2. KnowledgeoftheStructureofLanguage
3. KnowledgeofDyslexiaandOtherLearningDisorders
4. InterpretationandAdministrationofAssessmentsforPlanningInstruction
5. StructuredLanguageTeaching:
1. Phonology
2. PhonicsandWordStudy
3. Fluent,AutomaticReadingofText
4. Vocabulary
5. TextComprehension
6. Handwriting,Spelling,WrittenExpression
6. EthicalStandardsfortheProfession


SECTIONII:GuidelinesPertainingtoSupervisedPracticeofTeachersofStudentswith
DocumentedReadingDisabilitiesorDyslexiaWhoWorkinSchool,Clinical,orPrivate
PracticeSettings
A. LevelIexpectationsforteachers.
B. LevelIIexpectationsforspecialists.

GuidanceandSupportforTeachers
Insummary,learningtoteachreading,language,andwritingisacomplexundertaking.Thecompetence
andexpertiseofteacherscanbenourishedwithtrainingthatemphasizesthestudyofreadingdevelopment,
language,andindividualdifferences.Inaddition,teachersneedsupervisedpracticeopportunitiestobe
successful,especiallyiftheyareresponsibleforstudentswithdyslexiaandotherreadingdifficulties.Ifteachers
arebetterprepared,theimpactofreadingdifficulties,includingdyslexia,willbelessenedandmanymore
studentswillreceivetheinstructionandsupportthattheyrequiretoreachtheirpotential.Weowethemno
less.

KnowledgeandPracticeStandardsfor
TeachersofReading

InternationalDyslexiaAssociation,
ProfessionalStandardsandPracticesCommittee
2010

LouisaMoats,CommitteeChair
SuzanneCarreker
RosalieDavis
PhyllisMeisel
LouiseSpearSwerling
BarbaraWilson

INTRODUCTION

PurposeofTheseStandards

TheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation(IDA)offersthesestandardstoguidethepreparation,
certification,andprofessionaldevelopmentofthosewhoteachreadingandrelatedliteracyskillsinclassroom,
remedial,andclinicalsettings.Thetermteacherisusedthroughoutthisdocumenttorefertoanypersonwhose
responsibilitiesincludereadinginstruction.Thestandardsaimtospecifywhatanyindividualresponsiblefor
teachingreadingshouldknowandbeabletodosothatreadingdifficulties,includingdyslexia,maybe
prevented,alleviated,orremediated.Inaddition,thestandardsseektodifferentiateclassroomteachersfrom
therapistsorspecialistswhoarequalifiedtoworkwiththemostchallengingstudents.
Althoughprogramsthatcertifyorsupportteachers,clinicians,orspecialistsdifferintheirpreparation
methodologies,teachingapproaches,andorganizationalpurposes,theyshouldascribetoacommonsetof
professionalstandardsforthebenefitofthestudentstheyserve.Compliancewiththesestandardsshould
assurethepublicthatindividualswhoteachinpublicandprivateschools,aswellasthosewhoteachinclinics,
arepreparedtoimplementscientificallybasedandclinicallyprovenpractices.

Background:WhyTheseStandardsAreNecessary
Readingdifficultiesarethemostcommoncauseofacademicfailureandunderachievement.The
NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgressconsistentlyfindsthatabout36%ofallfourthgradersreadata
leveldescribedasbelowbasic.Between15and20%ofyoungstudentsdemonstratesignificantweaknesses
withlanguageprocesses,includingbutnotlimitedtophonologicalprocessing,thataretherootcauseofdyslexia
andrelatedlearningdifficulties.Ofthosewhoarereferredtospecialeducationservicesinpublicschools,
approximately85%arereferredbecauseoftheirproblemswithlanguage,reading,and/orwriting.Informedand
effectiveclassroominstruction,especiallyintheearlygrades,canpreventandrelievetheseverityofmanyof
theseproblems.Forthosestudentswithdyslexiawhoneedspecializedinstructionoutsideoftheregularclass,
competentinterventionfromaspecialistcanlessentheimpactofthedisorderandhelpthestudentovercome
themostdebilitatingsymptoms.
Teachingreadingeffectively,especiallytostudentsexperiencingdifficulty,requiresconsiderable
knowledgeandskill.Regrettably,currentlicensingandprofessionaldevelopmentpracticesendorsedbymany
statesareinsufficientforthepreparationandsupportofteachersandspecialists.Researchersarefindingthat
thosewithreadingspecialistandspecialeducationlicensesoftenknownomoreaboutresearchbased,effective
practicesthanthosewithageneraleducationteachinglicense.Themajorityofpractitionersatalllevelshave
notbeenpreparedinsufficientdepthtorecognizeearlysignsofrisk,topreventreadingproblems,ortoteach
studentswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdisabilitiessuccessfully.Inquiriesintoteacherpreparationinreading
havearevealedapervasiveabsenceofsubstantivecontentandacademicrigorinmanycoursesthatleadto
certificationofteachersandspecialists.Analysesofteacherlicensingtestsshowthattypically,veryfeware
alignedwithcurrentresearchoneffectiveinstructionforstudentsatrisk.Toaddressthesegaps,IDAhas
adoptedthesestandardsforknowledge,practice,andethicalconduct.

ResearchbasedAssumptionsaboutDyslexiaandOtherReadingDifficulties

Thesestandardsarebroadlyconstructedtoaddresstheknowledgeandskillbaseforteachingreadingin
preventive,intervention,andremedialsettings.Underlyingthestandardsareassumptionsaboutthenature,
prevalence,manifestations,andtreatmentsfordyslexiathataresupportedbyresearchandbyaccepted
diagnosticguidelines.Theseassumptionscharacterizedyslexiainrelationtootherreadingproblemsand
learningdifficulties,asfollows:
Dyslexiaisalanguagebaseddisorderoflearningtoreadandwriteoriginatingfromacoreorbasic
problemwithphonologicalprocessingintrinsictotheindividual.Itsprimarysymptomsareinaccurate
and/orslowprintedwordrecognitionandpoorspellingproblemsthatinturnaffectreadingfluency
andcomprehensionandwrittenexpression.Othertypesofreadingdisabilitiesincludespecific
difficultieswithreadingcomprehensionand/orspeedofprocessing(readingfluency).Theseproblems
mayexistinrelativeisolationormayoverlapextensivelyinindividualswithreadingdifficulties.
Dyslexiaoftenexistsinindividualswithaptitudes,talents,andabilitiesthatenablethemtobe
successfulinmanydomains.
Dyslexiaoftencoexistswithotherdevelopmentaldifficultiesanddisabilities,includingproblemswith
attention,memory,andexecutivefunction.
Dyslexiaexistsonacontinuum.Manystudentswithmilderformsofdyslexiaareneverofficially
diagnosedandarenoteligibleforspecialeducationservices.Theydeserveappropriateinstructionin
theregularclassroomandthroughotherinterventionprograms.
Appropriaterecognitionandtreatmentofdyslexiaistheresponsibilityofalleducatorsandsupport
personnelinaschoolsystem,notjustthereadingorspecialeducationteacher.
Althoughearlyinterventionisthemosteffectiveapproach,individualswithdyslexiaandotherreading
difficultiescanbehelpedatanyage.

HowtoUseTheseStandards
Thestandardsoutlinethe1)contentknowledgenecessarytoteachreadingandwritingtostudentswith
dyslexiaorrelateddisordersorwhoareatriskforreadingdifficulty;2)practicesofeffectiveinstruction;and3)
ethicalconductexpectedofprofessionaleducatorsandclinicians.Regularclassroomteachersshouldalsohave
thefoundationalknowledgeoflanguage,literacydevelopment,andindividualdifferencesbecausetheyshare
responsibilityforpreventingandamelioratingreadingproblems.

Thestandardsmaybeusedforseveralpurposes,includingbutnotlimitedto:
coursedesignwithinteachercertificationprograms;
practicumrequirementswithincertificationprograms;
criteriaformembershipinIDAscoalitionoforganizationsthatprovidetrainingandsupervisionof
teachers,tutors,andspecialists(notethatadditionalrequirementsformembershiparetobe
determined);
criteriaforthepreparationofthoseprofessionalsreceivingreferralsthroughIDAoffices;and
acontentframeworkforthedevelopmentoflicensingorcertificationexaminations.

HowtoReadtheStandards
TheStandardsincludetwomajorsections.SectionIaddressesfoundationconcepts,knowledgeof
languagestructure,knowledgeofdyslexiaandotherlearningdisorders,administrationandinterpretationof
assessments,theprinciplesofstructuredlanguageteaching,andethicalstandardsfortheprofession.SectionII
addressesskillstobedemonstratedinsupervisedpractice.InSectionI,StandardsA,B,C,andEarepresentedin
twocolumns.Thecolumnontheleftreferstocontentknowledgethatcanbelearnedandtestedindependent
ofobservedteachingcompetency.Thecolumnontherightdelineatesthepracticalskillsofteachingthat
dependonorthataredrivenbycontentknowledge.TheexceptiontothisformatisStandardD.Itincludesa
thirdcolumnontherightthatspecifiesingreaterdetailwhattheteacherorspecialistshouldbeabletodo.

Manyofthestandardsarefollowedbythedesignationof(Level1)or(Level2).Thesedesignations
indicatewhetherthestandardshouldbemetbynoviceteachersintraining(Level1)orbyspecialistswithmore
experienceandgreaterexpertise(Level2).InSectionII,therecommendedstandardsforpreparationofteachers
andspecialistsaredistinguishedbythesetwolevels.

References
Bos,C.,Mather,N.,Dickson,S.,Podhajski,B.,&Chard,D.(2001).Perceptionsandknowledgeofpreserviceand
inserviceeducatorsaboutearlyreadinginstruction.AnnalsofDyslexia,51,97120.
Cunningham,A.E.,Perry,K.E.,Stanovich,K.E.,&Stanovich,P.J.(2004).DisciplinaryknowledgeofK3teachers
andtheirknowledgecalibrationinthedomainofearlyliteracy.AnnalsofDyslexia,54,139167.
Joshi,R.M.,Binks,E.,Hougen,M.,OckerDean,E.,Graham,L.,&Smith,D.(2009).Teachersknowledgeofbasic
linguisticskills:Wheredoesitcomefrom?InS.Rosenfield&V.Berninger(Eds.),Handbookon
implementingevidencebasedacademicinterventions(pp.851877).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.
McCutchen,D.,Harry,D.R.,Cunningham,A.E.,Cox,S.,Sidman,S.,&Covill,A.E.(2002).Readingteachers
knowledgeofchildrensliteratureandEnglishphonology.AnnalsofDyslexia,52,207228.
Moats,L.C.(1994).Themissingfoundationinteachereducation:Knowledgeofthestructureofspokenand
writtenlanguage.AnnalsofDyslexia,44,81102.
Moats,L.C.,&Foorman,B.R.(2003).Measuringteacherscontentknowledgeoflanguageandreading.Annals
ofDyslexia,53,2345.
Piasta,S.B.,Connor,C.M.,Fishman,B.J.,&Morrison,F.J.(2009).Teachersknowledgeofliteracyconcepts,
classroompractices,andstudentreadinggrowth.ScientificStudiesofReading,13(3),224248.
Smartt,S.M.,&Reschly,D.J.(2007).Barrierstothepreparationofhighlyqualifiedteachersinreading.
Washington,DC:NationalComprehensiveCenterforTeacherQuality.
SpearSwerling,L.(2008).Responsetointerventionandteacherpreparation.InE.Grigorenko(Ed.),Educating
individualswithdisabilities:IDEA2004andbeyond(pp.273293).NewYork:Springer.
SpearSwerling,L.,Brucker,P.,&Alfano,M.(2005).Teachersliteracyrelatedknowledgeandselfperceptionsin
relationtopreparationandexperience.AnnalsofDyslexia,55,266293.
Walsh,K.,Glaser,D.,&Wilcox,D.D.(2006).Whateducationschoolsarentteachingaboutreadingandwhat
elementaryteachersarentlearning.Washington,DC:NationalCouncilonTeacherQuality.

SECTIONI:KNOWLEDGEANDPRACTICESTANDARDS

A.FoundationConceptsaboutOralandWrittenLearning

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandandexplainthelanguageprocessing
requirementsofproficientreadingandwriting
Phonological(speechsound)processing
Orthographic(print)processing
Semantic(meaning)processing
Syntactic(sentencelevel)processing
Discourse(connectedtextlevel)processing

2. Understandandexplainotheraspectsofcognition
andbehaviorthataffectreadingandwriting
Attention
Executivefunction
Memory
Processingspeed
Graphomotorcontrol

Application
1. a.Explainthedomainsoflanguageandtheir
importancetoproficientreadingandwriting
(Level1).
b.Explainascientificallyvalidmodelofthe
languageprocessesunderlyingreadingand
writing(Level2).

2. a.Recognizethatreadingdifficultiescoexistwith
othercognitiveandbehavioralproblems(Level
1).
b.Explainascientificallyvalidmodelofother
cognitiveinfluencesonreadingandwriting,and
explainmajorresearchfindingsregardingthe
contributionoflinguisticandcognitivefactorsto
thepredictionofliteracyoutcomes(Level2).

3. Identify(Level1)orexplain(Level2)majorresearch
3. Defineandidentifyenvironmental,cultural,and
findingsregardingthecontributionof
socialfactorsthatcontributetoliteracy
environmentalfactorstoliteracyoutcomes.
development(e.g.,languagespokenathome,
languageandliteracyexperiences,culturalvalues).

4. Matchexamplesofstudentresponsesandlearning
4. Knowandidentifyphasesinthetypical
behaviortophasesinlanguageandliteracy
developmentalprogressionof
development(Level1).
Orallanguage(semantic,syntactic,

pragmatic)

Phonologicalskill
Printedwordrecognition
Spelling
Readingfluency
Readingcomprehension
Writtenexpression

5. Explainhowaweaknessineachcomponentskillof
5. Understandandexplaintheknowncausal
orallanguage,reading,andwritingmayaffect
relationshipsamongphonologicalskill,phonic
otherrelatedskillsandprocessesacrosstime(Level
decoding,spelling,accurateandautomaticword
recognition,textreadingfluency,background
2).
knowledge,verbalreasoningskill,vocabulary,

readingcomprehension,andwriting.

ContentKnowledge
6. Knowandexplainhowtherelationshipsamongthe
majorcomponentsofliteracydevelopmentchange
withreadingdevelopment(i.e.,changesinoral
language,includingphonologicalawareness;
phonicsandwordrecognition;spelling;readingand
writingfluency;vocabulary;reading
comprehensionskillsandstrategies;written
expression).

7. Knowreasonablegoalsandexpectationsfor
learnersatvariousstagesofreadingandwriting
development.

Application
6. Identifythemostsalientinstructionalneedsof
studentswhoareatdifferentpointsofreadingand
writingdevelopment(Level2).

7. Givencasestudymaterial,explainwhyastudent
is/isnotmeetinggoalsandexpectationsinreading
orwritingforhisorherage/grade(Level1).

ExplanatoryNotes
Anextensiveresearchbaseexistsontheabilitiesthatareimportantinlearningtoreadandwrite,includinghow
theseabilitiesinteractwitheachother,howtheyareinfluencedbyexperience,andhowtheychangeacross
development.Teachersknowledgeofthisresearchbaseisanessentialfoundationforthecompetenciesand
skillsdescribedinsubsequentsectionsofthisdocument.

References
Level1
Adams,M.(1990).Beginningtoread:Learningandthinkingaboutprint.Cambridge,MA:MITPress.
Bickart,T.(1998).Summaryreportofpreventingreadingdifficultiesinyoungchildren(NationalAcademyof
Sciences).Washington,DC:U.S.DepartmentofEducation.
Hart,B.,&Risley,T.R.(1995).MeaningfuldifferencesintheeverydayexperienceofyoungAmericanchildren.
Baltimore:Brookes.
NationalReadingPanel.(2000).Teachingchildrentoread:Anevidencebasedassessmentofthescientific
researchliteratureonreadinganditsimplicationsforreadinginstruction.Washington,DC:National
InstitutesofHealth.
Shaywitz,S.(2003).Overcomingdyslexia:Anewandcompletesciencebasedprogramforreadingproblemsat
anylevel.NewYork:Knopf.
Snow,C.,Griffin,P.,&Burns,S.(2006).Knowledgetosupporttheteachingofreading.SanFrancisco:Jossey
Bass.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Sternberg,R.J.(2001).Whatscienceoffersteachersofreading.LearningDisabilities
Research&Practice,16,5157.

Level2
Adams,M.J.(1998).Thethreecueingsystem.InF.Lehr&J.Osborn(Eds.),Literacyforall:Issuesinteachingand
learning(pp.7399).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Crawford,E.C.,&Torgesen,J.K.(2006,July).Teachingallchildrentoread:PracticesfromReadingFirstschools
withstronginterventionoutcomes.PresentedattheFloridaPrincipalsLeadershipConference,Orlando.
Retrievablefromhttp://www.fcrr.org/science/sciencePresentationscrawford.ht
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1997).Earlyreadingacquisitionanditsrelationtoreadingexperienceand
abilitytenyearslater.DevelopmentalPsychology,33,934945.
Denton,C.A.,Fletcher,J.M.,Anthony,J.L.,&Francis,D.J.(2006).Anevaluationofintensiveinterventionfor
studentswithpersistentreadingdifficulties.JournalofLearningDisabilities,39,447466.
Denton,C.,Foorman,B.,&Mathes,P.(2003).SchoolsthatBeattheOdds:Implicationsforreadinginstruction.

RemedialandSpecialEducation,24,258261.
Denton,C.,Vaughn,S.,&Fletcher,J.(2003).Bringingresearchbasedpracticeinreadinginterventiontoscale.
LearningDisabilitiesResearchandPractice,18,201211.
Fletcher,J.M.,Lyon,G.R.,Fuchs,L.S.,&Barnes,M.A.(2007).Learningdisabilities:Fromidentificationto
intervention.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Genesee,F.,Paradis,J.,&Crago,M.(2004).Duallanguagedevelopment&disorders:Ahandbookon
bilingualism&secondlanguagelearning.Baltimore:Brookes.
McCardle,P.,&Chhabra,V.(2004).Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch.Baltimore:Brookes.
Rayner,K.,&Pollatsek,A.(1989)ThePsychologyofReadingHillsdale,NJ:Erlbaum.SpearSwerling,L.(2004).A
roadmapforunderstandingreadingdisabilityandotherreadingproblems:Origins,intervention,and
prevention.InR.Ruddell&N.Unrau(Eds.),Theoreticalmodelsandprocessesofreading:Vol.5.Newark,
DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.
Stanovich,K.E.(2000).Progressinunderstandingreading:Scientificfoundationsandnewfrontiers.NewYork:
GuilfordPress.
Stone,A.C.,Silliman,E.R.,Ehren,B.J.,&Apel,K.(Eds.).(2004).Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:
Developmentanddisorders.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Vellutino,F.R.,Tunmer,W.E.,Jaccard,J.J.,&Chen,R.(2007).Componentsofreadingability:Multivariate
evidenceforaconvergentskillsmodelofreadingdevelopment.ScientificStudiesofReading,11(1),332.

B.KnowledgeoftheStructureofLanguage

ContentKnowledge
Phonology(TheSpeechSoundSystem)
1. Identify,pronounce,classify,andcomparethe
consonantandvowelphonemesofEnglish.

Orthography(TheSpellingSystem)
2. Understandthebroadoutlineofhistorical
influencesonEnglishspellingpatterns,especially
AngloSaxon,Latin(Romance),andGreek.

3. Definegraphemeasafunctionalcorrespondence
unitorrepresentationofaphoneme.

4. Recognizeandexplaincommonorthographicrules
andpatternsinEnglish.

5. Knowthedifferencebetweenhighfrequencyand
irregularwords.

6. Identify,explain,andcategorizesixbasicsyllable
typesinEnglishspelling.

Morphology
7. Identifyandcategorizecommonmorphemesin
English,includingAngloSaxoncompounds,
inflectionalsuffixes,andderivationalsuffixes;Latin
basedprefixes,roots,andderivationalsuffixes;and
Greekbasedcombiningforms.

Semantics
8. Understandandidentifyexamplesofmeaningful
wordrelationshipsorsemanticorganization.

Application

1. a. Identifysimilarorcontrastingfeaturesamong
phonemes
(Level1).
b. Reconstructtheconsonantandvowel
phonemeinventoriesandidentifythefeature
differencesbetweenandamongphonemes
(Level2).

2. Recognizetypicalwordsfromthehistoricallayers
ofEnglish(AngloSaxon,Latin/Romance,Greek)
(Level1).

3. Accuratelymapgraphemestophonemesinany
Englishword(Level1).

4. Sortwordsbyorthographicchoicepattern;
analyzewordsbysuffixendingpatternsandapply
suffixendingrules.

5. Identifyprintedwordsthataretheexceptionto
regularpatternsandspellingprinciples;sorthigh
frequencywordsintoregularandexceptionwords
(Level1).

6. Sort,pronounce,andcombineregularwritten
syllablesandapplythemostproductivesyllable
divisionprinciples(Level1).

7. a. Recognizethemostcommonprefixes,roots,
suffixes,andcombiningformsinEnglishcontent
words,andanalyzewordsatboththesyllable
andmorphemelevels(Level1).
b.Recognizeadvancedmorphemes(e.g.,
chameleonprefixes)(Level2).

8. Matchoridentifyexamplesofwordassociations,
antonyms,synonyms,multiplemeaningsanduses,
semanticoverlap,andsemanticfeatureanalysis
(Level1).

Syntax
9. Defineanddistinguishamongphrases,dependent
clauses,andindependentclausesinsentence
structure.

10. Identifythepartsofspeechandthegrammatical
roleofawordinasentence.

DiscourseOrganization
11. Explainthemajordifferencesbetweennarrative
andexpositorydiscourse.

12. Identifyandconstructexpositoryparagraphsof
varyinglogicalstructures(e.g.,classification,
reason,sequence).

13. Identifycohesivedevicesintextandinferential
gapsinthesurfacelanguageoftext.

9. Constructanddeconstructsimple,complex,and
compoundsentences(Level1).

10. a.Identifythebasicpartsofspeechandclassify
wordsbytheirgrammaticalroleinasentence
(Level1).

b.Identifyadvancedgrammaticalconcepts(e.g.,
infinitives,gerunds)(Level2).

11. Classifytextbygenre;identifyfeaturesthatare
characteristicofeachgenre,andidentifygraphic
organizersthatcharacterizetypicalstructures
(Level1).

12. Identifymainideasentences,connectingwords,
andtopicsthatfiteachtypeofexpository
paragraphorganization(Level2).

13. Analyzetextforthepurposeofidentifyingthe
inferencesthatstudentsmustmaketo
comprehend(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Formalknowledgeaboutthestructureoflanguagerecognizing,forexample,whetherwordsarephonetically
regularorirregular;commonmorphemesinwords;andcommonsentencestructuresinEnglishisnotan
automaticconsequenceofhighlevelsofadultliteracy.However,withoutthiskindofknowledge,teachersmay
havedifficultyinterpretingassessmentscorrectlyormayprovideunintentionallyconfusinginstructionto
students.Forinstance,strugglingreadersarelikelytobeconfusediftheyareencouragedtosoundoutaword
thatisphoneticallyirregular(e.g.,some),orifirregularwords,suchascomeandhave,areusedasexamplesofa
syllabletypesuchassilente.Similarly,toteachspellingandwritingeffectively,teachersneedaknowledge
baseaboutlanguagestructure,includingsentenceanddiscoursestructure.Researchsuggeststhatacquiringan
understandingoflanguagestructureoftenrequiresexplicitteachingofthisinformationandmorethan
superficialcoverageinteacherpreparationandprofessionaldevelopment.

References
Level1
Grace,K.(2006).Phonicsandspellingthroughphonemegraphememapping.Longmont,CO:SoprisWest.
Moats,L.C.(2009).Languageessentialsforteachersofreadingandspelling(LETRS).Longmont,CO:SoprisWest.

Level2
Brady,S.,Gillis,M.,Smith,T.,Lavalette,M.,LissBronstein,L.,Lowe,E.,etal.(2009).Firstgradeteachers'
knowledgeofphonologicalawarenessandcodeconcepts:Examininggainsfromanintensiveformof
professionaldevelopment.ReadingandWriting:AnInterdisciplinaryJournal,22,375510.
Henry,M.(2003).Unlockingliteracy.Baltimore:Brookes.
McCutchen,D.,Abbott,R.D.,&Green,L.B.(2002).Beginningliteracy:Linksamongteacherknowledge,teacher
practice,andstudentlearning.JournalofLearningDisabilities,35,6986.

Moats,L.C.(2000).Speechtoprint:Languageessentialsforteachers.Baltimore:Brookes.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Brucker,P.(2004).Preparingnoviceteacherstodevelopbasicreadingandspellingskillsin
children.AnnalsofDyslexia,54,332364.
SpearSwerling,L.,&Brucker,P.(2006).Teachereducationstudentsreadingabilitiesandtheirknowledge
aboutwordstructure.TeacherEducationandSpecialEducation,29,113123.

C.KnowledgeofDyslexiaandOtherLearningDisorders

ContentKnowledge
Application
1. Understandthemostcommonintrinsicdifferences 1. a.Recognizescientificallyaccepted
characteristicsofindividualswithpoorword
betweengoodandpoorreaders(i.e.,cognitive,
recognition(e.g.,overdependenceoncontext
neurobiological,andlinguistic).
toaidwordrecognition;inaccuratenonword

reading)(Level1).

b.Identifystudentlearningbehaviorsandtest
profilestypicalofstudentswithdyslexiaand
relatedlearningdifficulties.(Level2).

2. Explainthereasoningorevidencebehindthe
2. RecognizethetenetsoftheNICHD/IDAdefinition
mainpointsinthedefinition(Level1).
ofdyslexia.

3. Recognizethatdyslexiaandotherreading
3. Recognizelevelsofinstructionalintensity,
difficultiesexistonacontinuumofseverity.
duration,andscopeappropriateformild,

moderate,andseverereadingdisabilities(Level
1).

4. Matchsymptomsofthemajorsubgroupsofpoor
4. Identifythedistinguishingcharacteristicsof
readersasestablishedbyresearch,including
dyslexiaandrelatedreadingandlearning
disabilities(includingdevelopmentallanguage
thosewithdyslexia,andidentifytypicalcasestudy
comprehensiondisorder,attentiondeficit
profilesofthoseindividuals(Level2).
hyperactivitydisorder,disordersofwritten

expressionordysgraphia,mathematicslearning

disorder,nonverballearningdisorders,etc.).

5. Identifypredictablewaysthatsymptomsmight
5. Identifyhowsymptomsofreadingdifficultymay
changeasstudentsmovethroughthegrades
changeovertimeinresponsetodevelopmentand
(Level2).
instruction.

6. Understandfederalandstatelawsthatpertainto 6. a.Explainthemostfundamentalprovisionsof
federalandstatelawspertainingtotherights
learningdisabilities,especiallyreadingdisabilities
ofstudentswithdisabilities,especially
anddyslexia.
studentsrightstoafree,appropriatepublic
education,anindividualizededucationalplan,
servicesintheleastrestrictiveenvironment,
anddueprocess(Level1).

b.Appropriatelyimplementfederalandstate
lawsinidentifyingandservingstudentswith
learningdisabilities,readingdisabilities,and
dyslexia(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Toidentifychildrenwithdyslexiaandotherlearningdisabilities,teachersmustunderstandandrecognizethe
keysymptomsofthesedisorders,aswellashowthedisordersdifferfromeachother.Inordertoplan
instructionanddetectolderstudentswithlearningdisabilitieswhomayhavebeenoverlookedintheearly
grades,teachersalsoshouldunderstandhowstudentsdifficultiesmaychangeovertime,basedon
developmentalpatterns,experience,andinstruction,aswellasonincreasesinexpectationsacrossgrades.

References
Level1
Aaron,P.G.,Joshi,R.M.,Gooden,R.,&Bentum,K.(2008).Diagnosisandtreatmentofreadingdisabilitiesbased
onthecomponentmodelofreading:AnalternativetothediscrepancymodelofLD.JournalofLearning
Disabilities,41,6784.
Hudson,R.R.,High,L.,&AlOtaiba,S.(2007).Dyslexiaandthebrain:Whatdoescurrentresearchtellus?The
ReadingTeacher,60(6),506515.
Lyon,R.,Shaywitz,S.,&Shaywitz,B.(2003).Adefinitionofdyslexia.AnnalsofDyslexia,53,114.
Moats,L.C.,&Dakin,K.(2007).Basicfactsaboutdyslexia.Baltimore:TheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation.

Level2
Catts,H.W.,Hogan,T.P.,&Adlof,S.M.(2005).Developmentalchangesinreadingandreadingdisabilities.InH.
W.Catts&A.Kamhi(Eds.),Theconnectionsbetweenlanguageandreadingdisabilities(pp.2540).
Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Leach,J.M.,Scarborough,H.S.,&Rescorla,L.(2003).Lateemergingreadingdisabilities.JournalofEducational
Psychology,95,211224.
Ehri,L.,&Snowling,M.(2004).Developmentalvariationinwordrecognition.InA.C.Stone,E.R.Silliman,B.J.
Ehren,&K.Apel(Eds.),Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:Developmentanddisorders(pp.443460).New
York:GuilfordPress.
Hulme,C.,&Snowling,M.(2009)Developmentaldisordersoflanguage,learning,andcognition.Oxford,
England:WileyBlackwell.
Pennington,B.(2009).Diagnosinglearningdisorders(2nded.).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Olson,R.K.(2004).SSSR,environment,andgenes.ScientificStudiesofReading,8(2),111124.
Rayner,K.,Foorman,B.F.,Perfetti,C.A.,Pesetsky,D.,&Seidenberg,M.S.(2002).Howshouldreadingbe
taught?ScientificAmerican,286(3),8491.
Vadasy,P.F.,Sanders,E.A.,Peyton,J.A.,&Jenkins,J.R.(2002).Timingandintensityoftutoring:Acloserlookat
theconditionsforeffectiveearlyliteracytutoring.LearningDisabilitiesResearch&Practice,17,227241.
Wolf,M.(2007).Proustandthesquid:Thestoryandscienceofthereadingbrain.NewYork:HarperCollins.
Wolf,M.,&Bowers,P.G.(1999).Thedoubledeficithypothesisforthedevelopmentaldyslexias.Journalof
EducationalPsychology,91,415438.

D.InterpretationandAdministrationofAssessmentsforPlanningInstruction

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandthedifferences
amongscreening,diagnostic,
outcome,andprogress
monitoringassessments.

2. Understandbasicprinciplesof
testconstruction,including
reliability,validity,andnorm
referencing,andknowthe
mostwellvalidatedscreening
testsdesignedtoidentify
studentsatriskforreading
difficulties.

3. Understandtheprinciplesof
progressmonitoringandthe
useofgraphstoindicate
progress.

4. Knowtherangeofskills
typicallyassessedbydiagnostic
surveysofphonologicalskills,
decodingskills,oralreading
skills,spelling,andwriting.

5. Recognizethecontentand
purposesofthemostcommon
diagnostictestsusedby
psychologistsandeducational
evaluators.

6. Interpretmeasuresofreading
comprehensionandwritten
expressioninrelationtoan
individualchildscomponent
profile.

Application
1. Matcheachtypeof
assessmentanditspurpose
(Level1).

ObservableCompetenciesfor
TeachingStudentswithDyslexia
andRelatedDifficulties
1. Administerscreeningsand
progressmonitoring
assessments(Level1)

2. Matchexamplesoftechnically
adequate,wellvalidated
screening,diagnostic,
outcome,andprogress
monitoringassessments(Level
1).

2. Explainwhyindividualstudents
areorarenotatriskinreading
basedontheirperformanceon
screeningassessments(Level
1).

3. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpretprogress
monitoringgraphstodecide
whetherornotastudentis
makingadequateprogress
(Level1).

4. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpretsubtest
scoresfromdiagnosticsurveys
todescribeastudents
patternsofstrengthsand
weaknessesandinstructional
needs(Level2).

5. Findandinterpretappropriate
printandelectronicresources
forevaluatingtests(Level1).

3. Displayprogressmonitoring
dataingraphsthatare
understandabletostudents
andparents(Level1).

6. Usingcasestudydata,
accuratelyinterpreta
studentsperformanceon
readingcomprehensionor
writtenexpressionmeasures
andmakeappropriate
instructional
recommendations.

4. Administereducational
diagnosticassessmentsusing
standardizedprocedures(Level
2).

5. Writereportsthatclearlyand
accuratelysummarizea
studentscurrentskillsin
importantcomponentareasof
readingandreading
comprehension(Level2).

6. Writeappropriate,specific
recommendationsfor
instructionandeducational
programmingbasedon
assessmentdata(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Teachersabilitytoadministerandinterpretassessmentsaccuratelyisessentialbothtoearlyidentificationof
studentslearningproblemsandtoplanningeffectiveinstruction.Appropriateassessmentsenableteachersto
recognizeearlysignsthatachildmaybeatriskfordyslexiaorotherlearningdisabilities,andtheassessments
permitteacherstotargetinstructiontomeetindividualstudentsneeds.Teachersshouldunderstandthatthere
aredifferenttypesofassessmentsfordifferentpurposes(e.g.,briefbutfrequentassessmentstomonitor
progressversusmorelengthy,comprehensiveassessmentstoprovidedetaileddiagnosticinformation),aswell
asrecognizewhichtypeofassessmentiscalledforinaparticularsituation.Teachersneedtoknowwhereto
findunbiasedinformationabouttheadequacyofpublishedtests,andtointerpretthisinformationcorrectly,
theyrequireanunderstandingofbasicprinciplesoftestconstructionandconceptssuchasreliabilityand
validity.Theyalsoshouldunderstandhowanindividualstudentscomponentprofilemayinfluencehisorher
performanceonaparticulartest,especiallyonbroadmeasuresofreadingcomprehensionandwritten
expression.Forexample,achildwithveryslowreadingislikelytoperformbetteronanuntimedmeasureof
readingcomprehensionthanonastringentlytimedmeasure;achildwithwritingproblemsmayperform
especiallypoorlyonareadingcomprehensiontestthatrequireslengthywrittenresponsestoopenended
questions.

References
Level1
Hasbrouck,J.,&Haager,D.(Eds.).(2007).Monitoringchildrensprogressinacademiclearning.Perspectiveson
LanguageandLiteracy33(2).
Lyon,G.R.,Shaywitz,S.,&Shaywitz,B.(2003).Adefinitionofdyslexia.AnnalsofDyslexia,53,114.
Torgesen,J.K.(2004).Avoidingthedevastatingdownwardspiral:Theevidencethatearlyinterventionprevents
readingfailure.AmericanEducator,28(3),69,1213,1719,4547.

Level2
Cutting,L.E.,&Scarborough,H.S.(2006).Predictionofreadingcomprehension:Relativecontributionsofword
recognition,languageproficiency,andothercognitiveskillscandependonhowcomprehensionis
measured.ScientificStudiesofReading,10,277299.
Deno,S.L.(2003).Developmentsincurriculumbasedmeasurement.JournalofSpecialEducation,37,184192.
Fletcher,J.M.,Lyon,G.R.,Fuchs,L.S.,&Barnes,M.A.(2007).Learningdisabilities:Fromidentificationto
intervention.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Fuchs,L.(2004).Thepast,present,andfutureofcurriculumbasedmeasurementresearch.SchoolPsychology
Review,33,188192.
Good,R.H.,Simmons,D.C.,&Kameenui,E.J.(2001).Theimportanceanddecisionmakingutilityofa
continuumoffluencybasedindicatorsoffoundationalreadingskillsforthirdgradehighstakesoutcomes.
ScientificStudiesofReading,5,257288.
Hogan,T.P.,Catts,H.W.,&Little,T.D.(2005).Therelationshipbetweenphonologicalawarenessandreading:
Implicationsfortheassessmentofphonologicalawareness.Language,Speech,andHearingServicesin
Schools,36,285293.
Jenkins,J.R.,Johnson,E.,&Hileman,J.(2004).Whenisreadingalsowriting:Sourcesofindividualdifferenceson
thenewreadingperformanceassessments.ScientificStudiesofReading,8,125152.
Keenan,J.M.,Betjemann,R.S.,&Olson,R.K.(2008).Readingcomprehensiontestsvaryintheskillstheyassess:
Differentialdependenceondecodingandoralcomprehension.ScientificStudiesofReading,12,281300.
Pennington,B.(2009).Diagnosinglearningdisorders(2nded.).NewYork:GuilfordPress.

E1.StructuredLanguageTeaching:Phonology

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudents
withDyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
Identifythegeneralandspecificgoalsof
1. Explicitlystatethegoalofanyphonological
phonologicalskillinstruction.
awarenessteachingactivity(Level1).

2. a. Selectandimplementactivitiesthatmatcha
Knowtheprogressionofphonologicalskill
studentsdevelopmentallevelofphonological
development(i.e.,rhyme,syllable,onsetrime,
skill(Level1).
phonemedifferentiation).
b. Designandjustifytheimplementationof
activitiesthatmatchastudents
developmentallevelofphonologicalskill
(Level2).

Identifythedifferencesamongvariousphonological 3. Demonstrateinstructionalactivitiesthatidentify,
match,blend,segment,substitute,anddelete
manipulations,includingidentifying,matching,
sounds(Level1).
blending,segmenting,substituting,anddeleting
sounds.

4. a. Successfullyproducevowelandconsonant
Understandtheprinciplesofphonologicalskill
phonemes(Level1).
instruction:brief,multisensory,conceptual,and
b. Teacharticulatoryfeaturesofphonemesand
auditoryverbal.
words;useminimallycontrastingpairsof

soundsandwordsininstruction;support
instructionwithmanipulativematerialsand
movement(Level2).

5. a.Directstudentsattentiontospeechsounds
Understandthereciprocalrelationshipsamong
duringreading,spelling,andvocabulary
phonologicalprocessing,reading,spelling,and
instructionusingamirror,discussionof
vocabulary.
articulatoryfeatures,andsoonasscriptedor

prompted(Level1).
b.Directstudentsattentiontospeechsounds
duringreading,spelling,andvocabulary
instructionwithoutscriptingorprompting
(Level2).

6. Explicitlycontrastfirstandsecondlanguage
Understandthephonologicalfeaturesofasecond
phonologicalsystems,asappropriate,to
language,suchasSpanish,andhowtheyinterfere
anticipatewhichsoundsmaybemostchallenging
withEnglishpronunciationandphonics.
forthesecondlanguagelearner(Level2).

ContentKnowledge

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

ExplanatoryNotes
Phonologicalawareness,basicprintconcepts,andknowledgeoflettersoundsarefoundationalareasofliteracy.
Withoutearly,researchbasedintervention,childrenwhostruggleintheseareasarelikelytocontinuetohave
readingdifficulties.Furthermore,poorphonologicalawarenessisacoreweaknessindyslexia.Ampleresearch
existstoinformteachingofphonologicalawareness,includingresearchonthephonologicalskillstoemphasize
ininstruction,appropriatesequencingofinstruction,andintegratinginstructioninphonologicalawarenesswith
instructioninalphabetknowledge.Teacherswhounderstandhowtoteachthesefoundationalskillseffectively
canpreventoramelioratemanychildrensreadingproblems,includingthoseofstudentswithdyslexia.

References
Level1
Adams,M.,Foorman,B.R.,Lundberg,I.,&Beeler,T.(Spring/Summer,1998).Theelusivephoneme:Why
phonemicawarenessissoimportantandhowtohelpchildrendevelopit.AmericanEducator,22(1&2),18
29.

Level2
Brady,S.&Shankweiler,D.(Eds.).(1991).Phonologicalprocessesinliteracy:AtributetoIsabelleY.Liberman.
Hillsdale,NJ:LawrenceErlbaumAssociates
Gillon,G.(2004).Phonologicalawareness:Fromresearchtopractice.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Neuman,S.B.,&Dickinson,D.K.(2002).Handbookofearlyliteracyresearch.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Scarborough,H.S.(1998).Earlyidentificationofchildrenatriskforreadingdisabilities:Phonologicalawareness
andsomeotherpromisingpredictors.InB.K.Shapiro,P.J.Accardo,&A.J.Capute(Eds.),Specificreading
disability:Aviewofthespectrum(pp.75119).Timonium,MD:YorkPress.
Scarborough,H.S.,&Brady,S.A.(2002).Towardacommonterminologyfortalkingaboutspeechandreading:A
glossaryofthephonwordsandsomerelatedterms.JournalofLiteracyResearch,34,299334.

E2.StructuredLanguageTeaching:PhonicsandWordRecognition

ContentKnowledge

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudents
withDyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Planlessonswithacumulativeprogressionof
wordrecognitionskillsthatbuildoneonanother
(Level1).

2. Explicitlyandeffectivelyteach(e.g.,information
taughtiscorrect,studentsareattentive,teacher
checksforunderstanding,teacherscaffolds
studentslearning)conceptsofwordrecognition
andphonics;applyconceptstoreadingsingle
words,phrases,andconnectedtext(Level1).

3. Demonstratethesimultaneoususeoftwoor
threelearningmodalities(toincludelistening,
speaking,movement,touch,reading,and/or
writing)toincreaseengagementandenhance
memory(Level1).

1. Knoworrecognizehowtoorderphonicsconcepts
fromeasiertomoredifficult.

2. Understandprinciplesofexplicitanddirect
teaching:model,lead,giveguidedpractice,and
review.

3. Statetherationaleformultisensoryand
multimodaltechniques.

4. Knowtheroutinesofacompletelessonformat,
fromtheintroductionofawordrecognition
concepttofluentapplicationinmeaningful
readingandwriting.

5. Understandresearchbasedadaptationsof
instructionforstudentswithweaknessesin
workingmemory,attention,executivefunction,or
processingspeed.

4. Planandeffectivelyteachallstepsinadecoding
lesson,includingsinglewordreadingand
connectedtextthatisreadfluently,accurately,
andwithappropriateintonationandexpression
(Level1).

5. Adaptthepace,format,content,strategy,or
emphasisofinstructionaccordingtostudents
patternofresponse(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Thedevelopmentofaccurateworddecodingskillsthatis,theabilitytoreadunfamiliarwordsbyapplying
phonicsknowledgeisanessentialfoundationforreadingcomprehensioninallstudents.Decodingskillsoften
areacentralweaknessforstudentswithlearningdisabilitiesinreading,especiallythosewithdyslexia.Teachers
abilitiestoprovideexplicit,systematic,appropriatelysequencedinstructioninphonicsisindispensabletomeet
theneedsofthispopulation,aswellastohelppreventreadingproblemsinallbeginningreaders.Teachers
shouldalsounderstandtheusefulnessofmultisensory,multimodaltechniquesinfocusingstudentsattention
onprintedwords,engagingstudents,andenhancingmemory.

References
Level1
Birsh,J.(Ed.).(2005).Multisensoryteachingofbasiclanguageskills(2nded.).Baltimore:Brookes.
Moats,L.C.(1998).Teachingdecoding.AmericanEducator,22(1&2),4249,9596.

Level2
Blachman,B.A.,Schatschneider,C.,Fletcher,J.M.,Francis,D.J.,Clonan,S.,Shaywitz,B.,etal.(2004).Effectsof
intensivereadingremediationforsecondandthirdgraders.JournalofEducationalPsychology,96,444461.
Calhoon,M.B.(2005).Effectsofapeermediatedphonologicalskillandreadingcomprehensionprogramon
readingskillacquisitionformiddleschoolstudentswithreadingdisabilities.JournalofLearningDisabilities,
38(5),424433.
Catone,W.V.,&Brady,S.(2005).Theinadequacyofindividualeducationalprogramgoalsforhighschool
studentswithwordlevelreadingdifficulties.AnnalsofDyslexia,55(1),5378.
Christensen,C.A.,&Bowey,J.A.(2005).Theefficacyoforthographicrime,graphemephoneme
correspondence,andimplicitphonicsapproachestoteachingdecodingskills.ScientificStudiesofReading,9,
327349.
Ehri,L.C.(2004).Teachingphonemicawarenessandphonics:Anexplanationofthenationalreadingpanel
metaanalysis.InP.McCardle&V.Chhabra(Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.153186).
Baltimore:Brookes.
Joseph,L.M.,&Schisler,R.(2009).Shouldadolescentsgobacktothebasics?:Areviewofteachingwordreading
skillstomiddleandhighschoolstudents.RemedialandSpecialEducation30(3),131147.
Lovett,M.W.,Barron,R.W.,&Benson,N.J.(2003).Effectiveremediationofwordidentificationanddecoding
difficultiesinschoolagechildrenwithreadingdisabilities.InH.L.Swanson,K.R.Harris,&S.Graham(Eds.),
HandbookofLearningDisabilities(pp.273292).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Mathes,P.G.,Denton,C.A.,Fletcher,J.M.,Anthony,J.L.,Francis,D.J.,&Schatschneider,C.(2005).Theeffects
oftheoreticallydifferentinstructionandstudentcharacteristicsontheskillsofstrugglingreaders.Reading
ResearchQuarterly,40,148182.
McCandliss,B.,Beck,I.L.,Sandak,R.,&Perfetti,C.(2003).Focusingattentionondecodingforchildrenwithpoor
readingskills:Designandpreliminarytestsofthewordbuildingintervention.ScientificStudiesofReading,7,
75104.
Torgesen,J.K.(2004).Lessonslearnedfromresearchoninterventionsforstudentswhohavedifficultylearning
toread.InP.McCardle&V.Chhabra(Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.355381).
Baltimore:Brookes.

E3.StructuredLanguageTeaching:Fluent,AutomaticReadingofText

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandtheroleoffluencyinword
recognition,oralreading,silentreading,
comprehensionofwrittendiscourse,and
motivationtoread.

2. Understandreadingfluencyasastageofnormal
readingdevelopment;astheprimarysymptomof
somereadingdisorders;andasaconsequenceof
practiceandinstruction.
3. Defineandidentifyexamplesoftextata
studentsfrustration,instructional,and
independentreadinglevel.

4. Knowsourcesofactivitiesforbuildingfluencyin
componentreadingskills.

5. Knowwhichinstructionalactivitiesand
approachesaremostlikelytoimprovefluency
outcomes.

6. Understandtechniquestoenhancestudent
motivationtoread.

7. Understandappropriateusesofassistive
technologyforstudentswithseriouslimitationsin
readingfluency.

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Assessstudentsfluencyrateanddetermine
reasonableexpectationsforreadingfluencyat
variousstagesofreadingdevelopment,using
researchbasedguidelinesandappropriatestate
andlocalstandardsandbenchmarks(Level1).

2. Determinewhichstudentsneedafluency
orientedapproachtoinstruction,usingscreening,
diagnostic,andprogressmonitoringassessments
(Level2).

3. Matchstudentswithappropriatetextsas
informedbyfluencyratetopromoteample
independentoralandsilentreading(Level1).
4. Designlessonplansthatincorporatefluency
buildingactivitiesintoinstructionatsubwordand
wordlevels(Level1).

5. Designlessonplanswithavarietyoftechniques
tobuildreadingfluency,suchasrepeated
readingsofpassages,alternateoralreadingwitha
partner,readingwithatape,orrereadingthe
samepassageuptothreetimes.(Level1).

6. Identifystudentinterestsandneedstomotivate
independentreading(Level1).
7.Makeappropriaterecommendationsforuseof
assistivetechnologyingeneraleducationclasses
forstudentswithdifferentreadingprofiles(e.g.,
dyslexiaversuslanguagedisabilities)(Level2).

ExplanatoryNotes
Readingfluencyistheabilitytoreadtexteffortlesslyandquicklyaswellasaccurately.Fluencydevelopsamong
typicalreadersintheprimarygrades.Becausefluencyisausefulpredictorofoverallreadingcompetence,
especiallyinelementaryagedstudents,avarietyoffluencytaskshavebeendevelopedforuseinscreeningand
progressmonitoringmeasures.Furthermore,poorreadingfluencyisaverycommonsymptomofdyslexiaand
otherreadingdisabilities;problemswithreadingfluencycanlingerevenwhenstudentsaccuracyinword
decodinghasbeenimprovedthrougheffectivephonicsintervention.Althoughfluencydifficultiesmay
sometimesbeassociatedwithprocessingweaknesses,considerableresearchsupportstheroleofpractice,wide
exposuretoprintedwords,andfocusedinstructioninthedevelopmentandremediationoffluency.Toaddress
studentsfluencyneeds,teachersmusthavearangeofcompetencies,includingtheabilitytointerpretfluency
basedmeasuresappropriately,toplacestudentsinappropriatetypesandlevelsoftextsforreadinginstruction,

tostimulatestudentsindependentreading,andtoprovidesystematicfluencyinterventionsforstudentswho
requirethem.Assistivetechnology(e.g.,texttospeechsoftware)isoftenemployedtohelpstudentswith
seriousfluencydifficultiesfunctioningeneraleducationsettings.Therefore,teachers,andparticularly
specialists,requireknowledgeabouttheappropriateusesofthistechnology.

References
Level1
Carreker,S.(2005).Teachingreading:Accuratedecodingandfluency.InJ.Birsh(Ed.),Multisensoryteachingofbasic
languageskills(2nded.,pp.213255).Baltimore:Brookes.
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1998).Whatreadingdoesforthemind.AmericanEducator,22(1&2),815.
Hasbrouck,J.E.,&Tindal,G.A.(2006).OralReadingFluencynorms:Avaluableassessmenttoolforreading
teachers.TheReadingTeacher,59(7),636644.
Hudson,R.F.,Lane,H.B.,&Pullen,P.C.(2005).Readingfluencyassessmentandinstruction:What,why,and
how?TheReadingTeacher,58,702714.
Kuhn,M.(2004/2005).Helpingstudentsbecomeaccurate,expressivereading:Fluencyinstructionforsmallgroups.
TheReadingTeacher,58(4),338345.
Meyer,M.(Winter,2002)Repeatedreading:Anoldstandardisrevisitedandrenovated.Perspectives(The
InternationalDyslexiaAssociationQuarterlyNewsletter),1518.
Meyer,M.S.,&Felton,R.H.(1999).Repeatedreadingtoenhancefluency:Oldapproachesandnewdirections.
AnnalsofDyslexia,49,293306.
Pikulski,J.J.,&Chard,D.J.(2005).Fluency:Bridgebetweendecodingandcomprehension.TheReadingTeacher,58,
510519.
Samuels,S.J.(1997).Themethodofrepeatedreadings.TheReadingTeacher,50,7681.
Level2
Chard,D.,Vaughn,S.,&Tyler,B.(2002)Asynthesisofresearchoneffectiveinterventionsforbuildingfluencywith
elementarystudentswithlearningdisabilities.JournalofLearningDisabilities,35,386406.
Connor,C.M.,Morrison,F.J.,&Katch,L.E.(2004).Beyondthereadingwars:Exploringtheeffectofchild
instructioninteractionsongrowthinearlyreading.ScientificStudiesofReading,8,305336.
Ehri,L.C.(1997).Sightwordlearninginnormalreadersanddyslexics.InB.Blachman(Ed.),Foundationsof
readingacquisitionanddyslexia(pp.163189).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Fuchs,L.S.,Fuchs,D.,Hamlett,C.L.,Walz,L.,&Germann,G.(1993).Formativeevaluationofacademicprogress:
Howmuchgrowthshouldweexpect?SchoolPsychologyReview,22,2748.
Fuchs,L.S.,Fuchs,D.,Hosp,M.K.,&Jenkins,J.(2001).Oralreadingfluencyasanindicatorofreadingcompetence:
Atheoretical,empirical,andhistoricalanalysis.ScientificStudiesofReading,5(3),239256.
Good,R.H.,Simmons,D.C.,&Kameenui,E.J.(2001).Theimportanceanddecisionmakingutilityofacontinuumof
fluencybasedindicatorsoffoundationalreadingskillsforthirdgradehighstakesoutcomes.ScientificStudies
ofReading,5(3),257288.
Hamilton,C.,&Shinn,M.R.(2003).Characteristicsofwordcallers:Aninvestigationoftheaccuracyofteachers
judgmentsofreadingcomprehensionandoralreadingskills.SchoolPsychologyReview,32(2),228240.
Hosp,M.K.,Hosp,J.L.,&Howell,K.W.(2007).TheABCsofCBM:Apracticalguidetocurriculumbased
measurement.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Katzir,T.,Kim,Y.,Wolf,M.,OBrien,B.,Kennedy,B.,Lovett,M.,etal.(2006).Readingfluency:Thewholeismore
thantheparts.AnnalsofDyslexia,56(1),5182.
NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,2002.Fourthgradestudentsreadingaloud:NAEP2002specialstudyof
oralreading.Washington,DC:NationalAssessmentofEducationalProgress,UnitedStatesDepartment
ofEducation,InstituteforEducationSciences.
Samuels,S.J.,&Flor,R.F.(1997).Theimportanceofautomaticityfordevelopingexpertiseinreading.Reading
andWritingQuarterly:OvercomingLearningDifficulties,13,107121.
Speece,D.L.,&Ritchey,K.D.(2005).Alongitudinalstudyofthedevelopmentoforalreadingfluencyinyoung
childrenatriskforreadingfailure.JournalofLearningDisabilities,38(5),387399.

Stahl,S.A.,&Heubach,K.(2005).Fluencyorientedreadinginstruction.Journalofliteracyresearch,37,2560.
Therrien,W.J.,Wickstrom,K.,&Jones,K.(2006).Effectofacombinedrepeatedreadingandquestion
generationinterventiononreadingachievement.LearningDisabilitiesResearch&Practice,21(2),8997.
Torgesen,J.,Alexander,A.W.,Wagner,R.,Rashotte,C.A.,Voeller,K.,Conway,T.,etal.(2001).Intensive
remedialinstructionforchildrenwithseverereadingdisabilities:Immediateandlongtermoutcomes
fromtwoinstructionalapproaches.JournalofLearningDisabilities,34,3358.

E4.StructuredLanguageTeaching:Vocabulary

ContentKnowledge
1. Understandtheroleofvocabularydevelopment
andvocabularyknowledgeincomprehension.

2. Understandtheroleandcharacteristicsofdirect
andindirect(contextual)methodsofvocabulary
instruction.

3. Knowvariedtechniquesforvocabularyinstruction
before,during,andafterreading.

4. Understandthatwordknowledgeismultifaceted.

5. Understandthesourcesofwidedifferencesin
studentsvocabularies.

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
1. Teachwordmeaningsdirectlyusingcontextual
examples,structural(morpheme)analysis,
antonymsandsynonyms,definitions,
connotations,multiplemeanings,andsemantic
featureanalysis(Levels1and2).

2. Lessonplanningreflects:
A. Selectionofmaterialforreadaloudsand
independentreadingthatwillexpand
studentsvocabulary.
B. Identificationofwordsnecessaryfordirect
teachingthatshouldbeknownbeforethe
passageisread.
C. Repeatedencounterswithnewwordsand
multipleopportunitiestousenewwords
orallyandinwriting.
D. Recurringpracticeandopportunitiestouse
newwordsinwritingandspeaking.

ExplanatoryNotes
Vocabulary,orknowledgeofwordmeanings,playsakeyroleinreadingcomprehension.Knowledgeofwordsis
multifaceted,rangingfrompartialrecognitionofthemeaningofawordtodeepknowledgeandtheabilityto
usethewordeffectivelyinspeechorwriting.Researchsupportsbothexplicit,systematicteachingofword
meaningsandindirectmethodsofinstructionsuchasthoseinvolvinginferringmeaningsofwordsfrom
sentencecontextorfromwordparts(e.g.,commonrootsandaffixes).Teachersshouldknowhowtodevelop
studentsvocabularyknowledgethroughbothdirectandindirectmethods.Theyalsoshouldunderstandthe
importanceofwideexposuretowords,bothorallyandthroughreading,instudentsvocabularydevelopment.
Forexample,althoughoralvocabularyknowledgefrequentlyisastrengthforstudentswithdyslexia,overtime,
lowvolumeofreadingmaytendtoreducethesestudentsexposuretorichvocabularyrelativetotheirtypical
peers;explicitteachingofwordmeaningsandencouragementofwideindependentreadinginappropriatetexts
aretwowaystohelpincreasethisexposure.

References
Level1
Diamond,L.,&Gutlohn,L.(2006).Vocabularyhandbook.Berkeley,CA:ConsortiumonReadingExcellence.
Ebbers,S.(2006).Vocabularythroughmorphemes.Longmont,CO:SoprisWest.
Beck,I.L.,McKeown,M.G.,&Kucan,L.(2002).Bringingwordstolife:Robustvocabularyinstruction.NewYork:
GuilfordPress.
Biemiller,A.(1999).Languageandreadingsuccess.InJ.Chall(Ed.),Fromreadingresearchtopractice,Aseries
forteachers.Cambridge,MA:BrooklineBooks.
Biemiller,A.(2005).Sizeandsequenceinvocabularydevelopment:Implicationsforchoosingwordsforprimary
gradeinstruction.InE.H.HiebertandM.L.Kamil(Eds.),Teachingandlearningvocabulary:Bringing
researchtopractice.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.

Hirsch,E.D.(2006).Theknowledgedeficit:ClosingtheshockingeducationgapforAmericanchildren.Boston:
HoughtonMifflin.

Level2
Carlisle,J.,&Rice,M.S.(2003).Readingcomprehension:Researchbasedprinciplesandpractices.Baltimore:
YorkPress.
Dickinson,D.K.,&Smith,M.W.(1994).Longtermeffectsofpreschoolteachers'bookreadingsonlowincome
children'svocabularyandstorycomprehension.ReadingResearchQuarterly,29,104123.
Graves,M.(2006).TheVocabularybook:Learningandinstruction.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,Columbia
University.
Hirsch,E.D.(2001).Overcomingthelanguagegap.AmericanEducator,25(2),4,67.
Kamil,M.(2004).Vocabularyandcomprehensioninstruction:SummaryandimplicationsoftheNationalReading
Panelfindings.InP.McCardleandV.Chhabra(Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.213
234).
Metsala,J.L.(1999)Youngchildren'sphonologicalawarenessandnonwordrepetitionasafunctionof
vocabularydevelopment.JournalofEducationalPsychology,91,319.
Paynter,D.E.,Bodrova,E.,&Doty,J.K.(2005).Fortheloveofwords:Vocabularyinstructionthatworks,Grades
K6.SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.
Simpson,J.A.(Ed.).(1989).TheOxfordEnglishDictionary(2ndEdition,Vol.VII).Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Stahl,S.A.,&Nagy,W.E.(2006)Teachingwordmeanings.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Tannenbaum,K.R.,Torgesen,J.T.,&Wagner,R.K.(2006).Relationshipsbetweenwordknowledgeandreading
comprehensionin3rdgradechildren.ScientificStudiesofReading,10,381398.

E5.StructuredLanguageTeaching:TextComprehension

ContentKnowledge

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties

1. Befamiliarwithteachingstrategiesthatare
appropriatebefore,during,andafterreadingand
thatpromotereflectivereading.

1. a. Statepurposeforreading,elicitorprovide
backgroundknowledge,andexplorekey
vocabulary(Level1).
b. Queryduringtextreadingtofosterattention
todetail,inferencemaking,andmentalmodel
construction(Level1).
c. Usegraphicorganizers,notetakingstrategies,
retellingandsummarizing,andcrosstext
comparisons(Level1).

2. Contrastthecharacteristicsofmajortextgenres,
includingnarration,exposition,and
argumentation.

3. Understandthesimilaritiesanddifferences
betweenwrittencompositionandtext
comprehension,andtheusefulnessofwritingin
buildingcomprehension.

4. Identifyinanytextthephrases,clauses,
sentences,paragraphsandacademiclanguage
thatcouldbeasourceofmiscomprehension.

2. Lessonplansreflectarangeofgenres,with
emphasisonnarrativeandexpositorytexts(Level
1).

3. Model,practice,andsharewrittenresponsesto
text;fosterexplicitconnectionsbetweennew
learningandwhatwasalreadyknown(Level1).

4. Anticipateconfusionsandteachcomprehensionof
figurativelanguage,complexsentenceforms,
cohesivedevices,andunfamiliarfeaturesoftext
(Level2).

5. Planlessonstofostercomprehensionofthe
5. Understandlevelsofcomprehensionincluding
surfacecode(thelanguage),thetextbase(the
thesurfacecode,textbase,andmentalmodel
underlyingideas),andamentalmodel(thelarger
(situationmodel).
contextfortheideas)(Level2).

6. Adjusttheemphasisoflessonstoaccommodate
6. Understandfactorsthatcontributetodeep
learnersstrengthsandweaknessesandpaceof
comprehension,includingbackground
learning(Level2).
knowledge,vocabulary,verbalreasoningability,
knowledgeofliterarystructuresandconventions,
anduseofskillsandstrategiesforclosereading
oftext.

ExplanatoryNotes
Goodreadingcomprehensionistheultimategoalofreadinginstruction.Readingcomprehensiondependsnot
onlyuponthecomponentabilitiesdiscussedinprevioussections,butalsouponotherfactors,suchas
backgroundknowledgeandknowledgeoftextstructure.Inordertoplaneffectiveinstructionandintervention
inreadingcomprehension,teachersmustunderstandthearrayofabilitiesthatcontributetoreading
comprehensionanduseassessmentstohelppinpointstudentsweaknesses.Forinstance,atypicalstudentwith
dyslexia,whosereadingcomprehensionproblemsareassociatedmainlywithpoordecodinganddysfluent
reading,willneeddifferentemphasesininterventionthanwillapoorcomprehenderwhoseproblemsrevolve

aroundbroadweaknessesinvocabularyandoralcomprehension.Inaddition,teachersmustbeabletomodel
andteachresearchbasedcomprehensionstrategies,suchassummarizationandtheuseofgraphicorganizers,
aswellasusemethodsthatpromotereflectivereadingandengagement.Oralcomprehensionandreading
comprehensionhaveareciprocalrelationship;goodoralcomprehensionfacilitatesreadingcomprehension,but
widereadingalsocontributestothedevelopmentoforalcomprehension,especiallyinolderstudents.Teachers
shouldunderstandtherelationshipsamongorallanguage,readingcomprehension,andwrittenexpression,and
theyshouldbeabletouseappropriatewritingactivitiestobuildstudentscomprehension.

References
Level1
Beck,I.L.,&McKeown,M.G.(2006).Improvingcomprehensionwithquestioningtheauthor:Afreshand
expandedviewofapowerfulapproach.NewYork:Scholastic.
Beck,I.,McKeown,M.,Hamilton,R.,&Kucan,L.(1998).Gettingatthemeaning.AmericanEducator,22,6685.
Caccamise,D.,&Snyder,L.(Eds.).(2009).Readingcomprehension:Issuesandinstructionalapplications.
PerspectivesonLanguageandLiteracy,35(2).
Cunningham,A.E.,&Stanovich,K.E.(1998).Whatreadingdoesforthemind.AmericanEducator,22,815.
Rosenshine,B.,&Meister,C.(1994).Reciprocalteaching:Areviewoftheresearch.ReviewofEducational
Research,64,479530.
Willingham,D.T.(2006).Howknowledgehelps:Itspeedsandstrengthensreadingcomprehension,learning,and
thinking.AmericanEducator,30(1),3037.
Willingham,D.T.(200607).Theusefulnessofbriefinstructioninreadingcomprehensionstrategies.American
Educator,30(4),3945.

Level2
Barnes,M.A.,Johnston,A.M.,&Dennis,M.(2007).Comprehensioninaneurodevelopmentaldisorder,Spina
BifidaMyelomeningocele.InK.Cain&J.V.Oakhill(Eds.),Childrenscomprehensionproblemsinoraland
writtenlanguage:Acognitiveperspective(pp.193217).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Cain,K.,&Oakhill,J.V.(2007).Readingcomprehensiondifficulties:Correlates,causes,andconsequences.InK.
Cain&J.V.Oakhill(Eds.),Childrenscomprehensionproblemsinoralandwrittenlanguage:Acognitive
perspective(pp.81103)NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Carlisle,J.R.,&Rice,M.S.(2002).Improvingreadingcomprehension:Researchbasedprinciplesandpractices.
Baltimore:YorkPress.
Catts,H.W.,Fey,M.E.,Zhang,X.,&Tomblin,J.A.(1999).Languagebasisofreadingandlanguagedisabilities:
Evidencefromalongitudinalinvestigation.ScientificStudiesofReading,3,331361.
Fuchs,D.,Fuchs,L.S.,Mathes,P.B.,&Simmons,D.C.(1997).Peerassistedlearningstrategies:Making
classroomsmoreresponsivetodiversity.AmericanEducationalResearchJournal,34,174206.
Gattardo,A.,Stanovich,K.,&Siegel,L.(1996).Therelationshipsbetweenphonologicalsensitivity,syntactic
processing,andverbalworkingmemoryinthereadingperformanceofthirdgradechildren.Journalof
ExperimentalChildPsychology,63,563582.
Gersten,R.,Fuchs,L.S.,Williams,J.P.,&Baker,S.(2001).Teachingreadingcomprehensionstrategiesto
studentswithlearningdisabilities:Areviewofresearch.ReviewofEducationalResearch,71,279320.
Graesser,A.C.(2008).Anintroductiontostrategicreadingcomprehension.InD.S.McNamara(Ed.),Reading
comprehensionstrategies:Theories,interventionandtechnologies(pp.326).NewYork:Erlbaum.
Hirsch,E.D.(2006).Buildingknowledge:Thecaseforbringingcontentintothelanguageartsblockandfora
knowledgerichcurriculumcoreforallchildren.AmericanEducator,30(1),821,2829,5051.
Kamil,M.(2004).Vocabularyandcomprehensioninstruction:SummaryandimplicationsoftheNationalReading
Panelfindings.InP.McCardle&V.Chhabra(Eds.),Thevoiceofevidenceinreadingresearch(pp.213234).
Baltimore:Brookes.
Kintsch,E.(2005).Comprehensiontheoryasaguideforthedesignofthoughtfulquestions.Topicsinlanguage
disorders,25(1),pp.5164.

Pressley,M.(2000).Whatshouldcomprehensioninstructionbetheinstructionof?InM.Kamil,P.B.Mosenthal,
P.D.Pearson,&R.Barr(Eds.),HandbookofReadingResearch(Vol.3).Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
RANDReadingStudyGroup.(2002).Readingforunderstanding:Towardaresearchanddevelopmentprogramin
readingcomprehension.SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation.
(http://www.rand.org.multi/achievementforall/reading/readreport.html.)
Scarborough,H.(2001).Connectingearlylanguageandliteracytolaterreading(dis)abilities:Evidence,theory,
andpractice.InS.B.Neuman&D.K.Dickinson(Eds.),HandbookofEarlyLiteracyResearch(pp.97110).
NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Scott,C.(2004).Syntacticcontributionstoliteracydevelopment.InC.Stone,E.Stillman,B.Ehren,&K.Apel
(Eds.).HandbookofLanguage&Literacy(pp.340362).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Shankweiler,D.,Lundquist,E.,Katz,L.,Stuebing,K.K.,Fletcher,J.M.,Brady,S.,etal.(1999).Comprehension
anddecoding:Patternsofassociationinchildrenwithreadingdifficulties.ScientificStudiesofReading,31,
2435,6994.
Stahl,K.A.D.(2004).Proof,practice,andpromise:Comprehensionstrategyinstructionintheprimarygrades.The
ReadingTeacher,57,598609.
Sweet,A.P.,&Snow,C.E.(2003).Rethinkingreadingcomprehension.NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Vaughn,S.,&Klingner,J.K.(1999).Teachingreadingcomprehensionthroughcollaborativestrategicreading.
InterventioninSchoolandClinic,34,284292.
Westby,C.(2004).Alanguageperspectiveonexecutivefunctioning,metacognition,andselfregulationin
reading.InC.A.Stone,E.R.Silliman,B.J.Ehren,&K.Apel(Eds.),Handbookoflanguageandliteracy:
Developmentanddisorders(pp.398427).NewYork:GuilfordPress.
Williams,J.P.(2006).Stories,studies,andsuggestionsaboutreading.Scientificstudiesofreading,10(2),121
142.

E6.StructuredLanguageTeaching:Handwriting,Spelling,andWrittenExpression

ObservableCompetenciesforTeachingStudentswith
DyslexiaandRelatedDifficulties
Handwriting
Handwriting
1. Knowresearchbasedprinciplesforteachingletter 1. Usemultisensorytechniquestoteachletter
namingandletterformationinmanuscriptand
namingandletterformation,bothmanuscriptand
cursiveforms(Level1).
cursive.

2. Knowtechniquesforteachinghandwritingfluency. 2. Implementstrategiestobuildfluencyinletter

formation,andcopyingandtranscriptionof

writtenlanguage(Level1).

Spelling
Spelling
1. Explicitlyandeffectivelyteach(e.g.,information
1. Recognizeandexplaintherelationshipbetween
taughtiscorrect,studentsareattentive,teacher
transcriptionskillsandwrittenexpression.

checksforunderstanding,teacherscaffolds

studentslearning)conceptsrelatedtospelling

(e.g.,aruleforaddingsuffixestobasewords)

(Level1).

2. Identifystudentslevelsofspellingdevelopment
2. Selectmaterialsand/orcreatelessonsthataddress
andorthographicknowledge.
studentsskilllevels(Level1).

3. Recognizeandexplaintheinfluencesof
3. Analyzeastudentsspellingerrorstodetermine
phonological,orthographic,andmorphemic
hisorherinstructionalneeds(e.g.,development
knowledgeonspelling.
ofphonologicalskillsversuslearningspellingrules

versusapplicationoforthographicormorphemic
knowledgeinspelling)(Level2).

WrittenExpression
WrittenExpression
1. Understandthemajorcomponentsandprocesses 1. Integratebasicskillinstructionwithcompositionin
ofwrittenexpressionandhowtheyinteract(e.g.,
writinglessons.
basicwriting/transcriptionskillsversustext

generation).

2. Knowgradeanddevelopmentalexpectationsfor
2. a. Selectanddesignactivitiestoteachimportant
studentswritinginthefollowingareas:mechanics
componentsofwriting,includingmechanics/
andconventionsofwriting,composition,revision,
conventionsofwriting,composition,and
andeditingprocesses.
revisionandeditingprocesses.

b.Analyzestudentswritingtodeterminespecific

instructionalneeds.

c. Providespecific,constructivefeedbackto

studentstargetedtostudentsmostcritical

needsinwriting.

d.Teachresearchbasedwritingstrategiessuchas

thoseforplanning,revising,andeditingtext.

ContentKnowledge

3. Understandappropriateusesofassistive
technologyinwrittenexpression.

e. Teachwriting(discourse)knowledge,suchas
theimportanceofwritingfortheintended
audience,useofformalversusinformal
language,andvariousschemasforwriting(e.g.,
reportsversusnarrativesversusarguments).

3. Makeappropriatewrittenrecommendationsfor
theuseofassistivetechnologyinwriting.

ExplanatoryNotes
Justasteachersneedtounderstandthecomponentabilitiesthatcontributetoreadingcomprehension,they
alsoneedacomponentialviewofwrittenexpression.Importantcomponentabilitiesinwritingincludebasic
writing(transcription)skillssuchashandwriting,keyboarding,spelling,capitalization,punctuation,and
grammaticalsentencestructure;textgeneration(composition)processesthatinvolvetranslatingideasinto
language,suchasappropriatewordchoice,writingclearsentences,anddevelopinganideaacrossmultiple
sentencesandparagraphs;andplanning,revisionandeditingprocesses.Effectiveinstructionandinterventionin
writtenexpressiondependonpinpointinganindividualstudentsspecificweaknessesinthesedifferent
componentareasofwriting,aswellasonteachersabilitiestoprovideexplicit,systematicteachingineacharea.
Teachersmustalsobeabletoteachresearchbasedstrategiesinwrittenexpression,suchasthoseinvolving
strategiesforplanningandrevisingcompositions,andtheyshouldunderstandtheutilityofmultisensory
methodsinbothhandwritingandspellinginstruction.Assistivetechnologycanbeespeciallyhelpfulforstudents
withwritingdifficulties.Teachersshouldrecognizetheappropriateusesoftechnologyinwriting(e.g.,spell
checkerscanbevaluablebutdonotreplacespellinginstructionandhavelimitedutilityforstudentswhose
misspellingsarenotrecognizable).Specialistsshouldhaveevengreaterlevelsofknowledgeabouttechnology.

References
Level1
Berninger,V.,&Wolf,B.(2009)Teachingstudentswithdyslexiaanddysgraphia.Baltimore:Brookes.
Graham,S.,McArthur,C.A.,&Fitzgerald,J.(Eds.).(2007).Bestpracticesinwritinginstruction.NewYork:
GuilfordPress.
Joshi,M.,Treiman,R.,Carreker,S.,&Moats,L.C.(2008/2009)Howwordscasttheirspell:Spellingisanintegral
partoflearningthelanguage,notamatterofmemorization.AmericanEducator,32(4),616,4243.
Moats,L.C.(Winter2005/06).Howspellingsupportsreading:Andwhyitismoreregularandpredictablethan
youthink.AmericanEducator,1222,4243.

Level2
Berninger,V.W.,Abbott,R.D.,Jones,J.,Gould,L.,AndersonYoungstrom,M.,Shimada,S.,etal.(2006).Early
developmentoflanguagebyhand:Composing,reading,listening,andspeakingconnections;threeletter
writingmodes;andfastmappinginspelling.DevelopmentalNeuropsychology,29,6192.
Berninger,V.W.,&Amtmann,D.(2003).Preventingwrittenexpressiondisabilitiesthroughearlyandcontinuing
assessmentandinterventionforhandwritingand/orspellingproblems:Researchintopractice.InH.L.
Swanson,K.R.Harris,&S.Graham(Eds.),HandbookofLearningDisabilities(pp.345363).NewYork:
GuilfordPress.
Cassar,M.,Treiman,R.,Moats,L.,Pollo,T.C.,&Kessler,B.(2005).Howdothespellingsofchildrenwithdyslexia
comparewiththoseofnondyslexicchildren?ReadingandWriting,18,2749.
Edwards,L.(2003).Writinginstructioninkindergarten:Examininganemergingareaofresearchforchildrenwith
writingandreadingdifficulties.JournalofLearningDisabilities,36,136.

Englert,C.S.,Wu,X.,&Zhao,Y.(2005).Cognitivetoolsforwriting:Scaffoldingtheperformanceofstudents
throughtechnology.LearningDisabilitiesResearch&Practice,20,184198.
Gersten,R.,&Baker,S.(2001).Teachingexpressivewritingtostudentswithlearningdisabilities:Ameta
analysis.ElementarySchoolJournal,101,251272.
Graham,S.,&Perin,D.(2007).Writingnext:Effectivestrategiestoimprovewritingofadolescentsinmiddleand
highschoolsAreporttoCarnegieCorporationofNewYork.Washington,DC:AllianceforExcellent
Education.
Troia,G.(Ed.).(2009)Instructionandassessmentforstrugglingwriters:Evidencebasedpractices.NewYork:
GuilfordPress.

F.FollowEthicalStandardsfortheProfession

EthicalPrinciplesforServiceProviders,ConferenceExhibitors,andAdvertisers

Theseprinciplesaretobeusedbyemployees,boardmembers,andbranchofficersoftheInternational
DyslexiaAssociation(IDA)indecidingwhethermembers,conferenceexhibitors,conferenceorworkshop
presenters,and/oradvertisersinIDApublicationsareservingthebestinterestofthepublic.Theseprinciplesare
intendedtosafeguardandpromotethewellbeingofindividualswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdifficulties,
topromotethedisseminationofreliableandhelpfulinformation,andtoensurethatstandardsofbestpractice
areupheldbytheorganizationanditsactivities.

Practitioners,publishers,presenters,exhibitors,advertisers,andanyotherswhoprovideservicesto
individualswithdyslexiaandrelateddifficulties:

1.
strivetodonoharmandtoactinthebestinterestsofthoseindividuals;
2.
maintainthepublictrustbyprovidingaccurateinformationaboutcurrentlyacceptedand
scientificallysupportedbestpracticesinthefield;
3.
avoidmisrepresentationoftheefficacyofeducationalorothertreatmentsortheproofforor
againstthosetreatments;
4.
respectobjectivitybyreportingassessmentandtreatmentresultsaccurately,honestly,and
truthfully;
5.
avoidmakingunfoundedclaimsofanykindregardingthetraining,experience,credentials,
affiliations,anddegreesofthoseprovidingservices;
6.
respectthetrainingrequirementsofestablishedcredentialingandaccreditation
organizationssupportedbyIDA;
7.
engageinfaircompetition;
8.
avoidconflictsofinterestwhenpossibleandacknowledgeconflictsofinterestwhenthey
occur;
9.
supportjusttreatmentofindividualswithdyslexiaandrelatedlearningdifficulties;
10.
respectconfidentialityofstudentsorclients;and
11.
respecttheintellectualpropertyofothers.

SECTIONII:GUIDELINESPERTAININGTOSUPERVISEDPRACTICEOFTEACHERS
OFSTUDENTSWITHDOCUMENTEDREADINGDISABILITIESORDYSLEXIA
WHOWORKINSCHOOL,CLINICAL,ORPRIVATEPRACTICESETTINGS1

Trainingprogramsforindividualswhoarelearningtoworkwithchallengingstudentsoftendistinguishlevelsof
expertisebytheskillsandexperienceoftheindividualandtheamountofsupervisedpracticerequiredfor
certification.Theselevelsarelabeleddifferentlybyvariousprogramsandaredistinguishedherebythe
designationofLevelIandLevelII.

C. LevelIindividualsarepractitionerswithbasicknowledgewho:
1. demonstrateproficiencytoinstructindividualswithadocumentedreadingdisabilityor
dyslexia;
2. implementanappropriateprogramwithfidelity;and
3. formulateandimplementanappropriatelessonplan.
D. LevelIIindividualsarespecialistswithadvancedknowledgewho:
1. mayworkinprivatepracticesettings,clinics,orschools;
2. demonstrateproficiencyinassessmentandinstructionofstudentswithdocumentedreading
disabilitiesordyslexia;
3. implementandadaptresearchbasedprogramstomeettheneedsofindividuals.
ToattainLevelIstatus,anindividualmust:
passanapprovedbasicknowledgeproficiencyexam;
completeaonetoonepracticumwithastudentorsmallgroupofonetothreewellmatchedstudents
whohaveadocumentedreadingdisability.Arecognized,certifiedinstructor*providesconsistent
oversightandobservationsofinstructiondeliveredtothesamestudent(s)overtime,andthepracticum
continuesuntilexpectedproficiencyisreached.**
demonstrate(overtime)instructionalproficiencyinallLevel1areasoutlinedonIDAKnowledgeand
PracticeStandards,SectionIthatisresponsivetostudentneeds.
Documentsignificantstudentprogresswithformalandinformalassessmentsasaresultofthe
instruction.
ToattainLevelIIstatus,anindividualmust:
Passanapprovedadvancedknowledgeproficiencyexam
Completea1:1practicumwithastudentorsmallgroupofwellmatchedstudents(13)whohavea
documentedreadingdisability.Arecognized,certifiedinstructor*providesconsistentoversightand
observationsofinstructiondeliveredtothesamestudent(s)overtime,andthepracticumcontinues
untilexpectedproficiencyisreached.**
Demonstrate(overtime)diagnosticinstructionalproficiencyinallLevel1and2areasoutlinedonIDA
Standardsdocument,SectionI.
Providesuccessfulinstructiontoseveralindividualswithdyslexiawhodemonstratevaryingneedsand
documentsignificantstudentprogresswithformalandinformalassessmentsasaresultofthe
instruction.
Completeanapprovededucationalassessmentofastudentwithdyslexiaand/orlanguagebased
readingdisability,includingstudenthistoryandcomprehensiverecommendations.

(Tier3inanRTIsystem;studentswhomaybeeligibleforspecialeducationorintensiveintervention;studentsreferred
forclinicalservicesbecauseoflearningdifficulties;orstudentswhoqualifyfordyslexiainterventionserviceswhere
available.)


*Arecognizedorcertifiedinstructorisanindividualwhohasmetalloftherequirementsofthelevelthey
supervisebutwhohasadditionalcontentknowledgeandexperienceinimplementingandobserving
instructionforstudentswithdyslexiaandotherreadingdifficultiesinvariedsettings.Arecognizedinstructor
hasbeenrecommendedbyorcertifiedbyanapprovedtrainermentorshipprogramthatmeetsthese
standards.ThetrainermentorshipprogramhasbeenreviewedbyandapprovedbytheIDAStandardsand
PracticesCommittee.

**Documentationofproficiencymustbe1)completedbyarecognized/certifiedinstructorproviding
oversightinthespecifiedprogram;2)completedduringfull(notpartial)lessonobservations;and3)must
occuratvariousintervalsthroughouttheinstructionalperiodwithstudent.

2010,byTheInternationalDyslexiaAssociation(IDA).
Allrightsreserved.
IDAencouragesthereproductionanddistributionofthisdocument.
Ifportionsofthetextarecited,appropriatereferencemustbemade.
Thisdocumentmaynotbereprintedforthepurposeofresale.