International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

doi: 10.14355/ijrsa.2014.0401.04

www.ijrsa.org

Spatial and Multi-Temporal Change Analysis

of the Niger Delta Coastline Using Remote
Sensing and Geographic Information System
(GIS)
Chituru D. Obowu*1, Tamunoene K. S. Abam*2
First-Second Institute of Geosciences and Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology
Port Harcourt, Nigeria
cdobowu@yahoo.com; 2groundscan@yahoo.com

*1

Abstract
The Niger Delta is one of the most dynamic deltas in the
world. It is experiencing relatively strong environmental
changes resulting from the complex interaction of natural
and human-induced processes that operate upon it. The
research focuses on the Niger Delta coastline change
detection and vulnerability assessment to coastline changes
using remote sensing and geographical information system.
The change detection involves, processing of multi-temporal
images (1972-2008), followed by image differencing, post
classification image overlaying, image fusion, image visual
interpretation and on-screen digitising. The result shows
that the image differencing and post-classification image
overlaying change detection techniques are useful to
monitor coastline change. The image visual interpretation
and on-screen digitising is the main quantitative method to
detect the Niger Delta coastline change. The coast line was
analyzed in sections starting and terminating a major river
mouths. Quantitative measurement and analysis showed
that for most of the coast line sections there have been period
of erosion and accretion over the 36 year study period. Only
very few sections show consistent erosion or accretion over
the years. The natural fluvial and marine factors and also
human activities played an important role on this development..
Keywords
Niger Delta; Coastal; Change Detection; Mangrove

Introduction
The Niger Delta being one of the most dynamic deltas
in the world is supporting one of the worlds most
extensive wetlands. It experiences a combination of
wave, tide and current action from the waters of the
Atlantic Ocean. This results in relatively significant
environmental changes resulting from the complex
interaction of natural and human induced processes
that operates on it. The natural processes include

phenomena such as changes in sea level rise,

subsidence and compaction, storm surges, coastal
flooding and erosion. Human induced factors include
artificial diversions of river path, channel dredging,
erection of harbour protecting structures, dam
construction, mining of beach sand and de-vegetation.
The Niger Delta coastline faces the high-energy
dynamic environment of the Atlantic Ocean. The
shape of the Nigerian coast is influenced by the
regular strong swell of the South Atlantic coming in
from a general S. 24 W. direction. This swell reaches
the coast at an oblique angle, creating strong long
shore currents. The strength of these currents diverts
the sediments brought into the sea by the rivers,
distributing them along the coast and preventing the
formation of a bird-foot-type delta. Tidal currents
created by tides accentuate swell, wave, and longshore
current activity. Apart from the scouring effect of the
tidal currents along the coast and in estuaries and
rivers, a physio-chemical effect is caused by the heavy
salt-water wedge, which, at high tide, pushes far
inland.
The resultant effect of the changing dynamics of the
above hydrological processes and human induced
factors on the Niger Delta coastline are changes in
coastline geomorphology. These forces mainly result
in erosion and deposition of sediments along the
coastline. These morphological changes are most
prominent at the major river mouths where the rivers
open into the sea. There are also a number of reported
shifts in shoreline position around coastal
communities. These changes have significant
consequences on the sustainability of the daily
livelihood of coastal communities and also on the
safety and integrity of oil and gas production facilities
with lace the Niger Delta coastline.
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International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

This paper presents an analysis in the changes that

have taken place in the coastline using remote sensing
and geographic information system technology and
also tries to understand the reasons for such changes.
Optical satellite imagery dating 1972 2008 were used
for this analysis in addition to SRTM digital elevation
model over the Niger Delta.
Niger Delta Coastline
The Niger Delta coastline area under consideration
extends for about 450 km in the east-west stretch. It is
geographic location that takes its origin from the Niger
Delta which is between Aboh at 5O33 49N, 6O31 38E
in the north and Palm point (4O16 22N, 6O05 27E) in
this south. The east-west limit is between Benin River
estuary (5O4411N, 5O3 49E) in the west and Imo
River estuary (4O2716N, 7O3527E) in the east (Ogba
et al, 2007). The Niger delta coastline of Nigeria, which
is the main study area, is bounded to the south by the
Atlantic Ocean. The area of study extends from the
coastline 20 km landwards along the full stretch of
coastline from Imo River to Benin River. The Niger
Delta comprises four principal drainage zones. The
interaction of the drainage processes with the
environment has resulted in the evolution of five subenvironments. These are dry flat land, dry land with
abundant swamp zones, fresh water swamps,
mangrove swamps and beaches and bars.

in terms of physical infrastructure and land loss, as

well as demographic inconveniences arising from sealevel rise are obvious.
1) General Hydrologic Setting
The hydrology of the Niger Delta is dependent
primarily on the River Niger. The River Niger
drains a large part of the West African sub region
and discharges sediment laden water into the
Atlantic Ocean through the Niger Delta. The delta
is fan shaped in geometry with an apex located
some 250 km from the Ocean at Onitsha. The River
Niger bifurcates into two main distributaries, the
Nun and Forcados rivers, some 100 km south of the
apex creating a coastline spanning of over 450 km.
Water and sediments from the delta empties into
the Atlantic Ocean through 11 major rivers namely:
Imo river, Bonny river, San Bathelomeo river, Brass
river, Nun river, Pennington river, Dodo river,
Ramos river, Forcados river, Escravos river and the
Benin river. These rivers which make up the main
drainage outlet have fairly large river mouths of
about 1.3 km to 5 km, opening into the Atlantic
Ocean.

FIG. 2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND PRINCIPAL SEDIMENTARY

ENVIRONMENTS IN THE NIGER DELTA
FIG. 1 GEOMORPHIC SUB-ENVIRONMENTS OF THE NIGER
DELTA

The coastline is generally protected from the ocean by

a chain of natural barrier. However, the narrow sandy
beach ridge of the barrier islands and the coastal beach
ridges are of relatively low elevation. This implies that
significant rise in sea level could inundate this zone,
which inhabits some of the settlements. Most parts of
the vegetated tidal flat (mangrove swamps) and
forests are even of lower elevation than the beach
ridges. The physical and socio-economic implications

42

2) Metocean Setting
The Niger delta is peculiar in that it experiences the
triple effect of tide, wave and current action, it is
however a wave dominated delta. Forces generated
by these three phenomena act on the coastline in
various ways leading to the generation of various
features and consequencies.
Waves: These transfer energy from one place to
another. Waves in the oceans are caused by wind
blowing over the surface of the water. The size of a
wave is determined by how far, how fast and how

International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

long the wind blows. A gentle breeze forms

patches of tiny ripples on the surface of the water.
Strong, steady winds over long distances create
large waves. The Niger Delta is a wave dominated
delta and its morphology is determined principally
from Atlantic wave action. Southwesterly winds
are the prevailing and predominant in strength
during the rainy season (April-September). The
coastal winds generally lie between 210-250 in
direction and have a mean velocity of about 10
knots. Winds from the fetch area (lat. 10S-20S and
long. 10E-20W) generally increase from East to
West with their strengths, lying between 6-18 kts.
The winds are weak in August while July and part
of September presented much stronger winds. The
corresponding wave heights generated at the front
edge of the fetch area were not less than 0.3 m and
not more than 2.8 m, with the period ranging
between 2.8 and 6.5 sec. Further investigations
revealed that it takes the lowest generated wave
about 5-8 days and the highest about 2-3 days to
reach the coast as swells. Also, from 1999 to 2001,
coastal swells were rarely more than 2 m in height.
However, during the high spring tide, swell height
could exceed 2.5 m and coincides with observed
ocean surges. The studies also show that higher
waves were more frequent in 2000 than 1999 and
2001(Olaniyan et al. 2002). These waves are
generally erosive in nature.
Currents: Currents are the horizontal, unidirectional flow of water. The currents affecting the
Nigerian coastline consist predominantly of
longshore currents generated by south-westerly
breaking waves. The transport or drift, of beach
sediments along a coastline, caused primarily by
the action of waves and tidal currents, is a major
factor in the long-term development of beaches.
Longshore currents along the barrier lagoon coast
in the west, have a west to east directional
component. The Mahin mud coast has little or no
long shore currents due to the fact that the south
westerly waves arrive parallel to the coast.
Longshore current along the north western Niger
Delta is north westerly. The eastern Niger delta
from Akassa Point to the Calabar estuary is
characterized by a west to east flowing long shore
current direction (Awosika et al 2010). Longshore
current is primary responsible for the distribution
of sediments along the coast.
Tides: This is the rise and fall of sea levels caused
by the combined effects of the gravitational forces

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exerted by the Moon and the Sun and the rotation

of the Earth. The tides occur with a period of
approximately 12 hours and 25 minutes, and with
an amplitude that is influenced by the alignment of
the sun and moon and the shape of the earth. The
Niger Delta coastal areas experience two high and
two low tides per day, with a tidal range which
varies across the Niger Delta and has average value
of 1.8 m. Tidal forces play a significant role in
shaping the coastline with respect to determination
of deposition or erosion is resultant or whether the
coastline is prograding or regressing. See figure 2
showing inland limit of tidal forces:

FIG. 3 NIGER DELTA SHOWING DRAINAGE PATTERN AND

LIMIT OF TIDAL INFLUENCE

Data and Methodology

In order to achieve the objectives of the research work,
the methodology employed involved mainly satellite
image processing and GIS analysis. This involves the
use of multi-temporal Landsat MSS(1972-1976),
Landsat TM(1986-1988), Spot 4(1998-2000) and
Landsat ETM(2007-2008) images to monitor coastline
change. Image classification, image differencing, post
classification combination overlaying, image fusion/
mosaicing, and image interpretation were applied. In
addition to the satellite image datasets SRTM 30
digital elevation model was also utilized to provide
insight into the morphology of the coastline.
The following methodology was applied to the four
epoch of satellite image datasets in order the perform
the change detection:

Image processing: Radiometric,

correction and georectification.

Geometric

Image processing: Spectral enhancement,

generation of colour composites, digital
elevation model extraction.

Image classification: Differentiation of land

43

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International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

cover types and water

Post Classification: Image fusion, Image

Differencing, change detection and Statistical
analysis.

GIS Analysis: Vectorization, Change mapping,

and quantification.

The 450 km coastline for each dataset were digitized

and extracted, and 34 transects running angularly to
the extracted coastline data designed. These transects
were used to qualitatively and quantitatively detect
and analyze the changes in coastline position for each
epoch of imagery acquisition.

morphology as derived from the STRM DEM. Finally

using geographic information system changes in land
cover along each transect line was extracted and
quantified.
Results
Significant geomophological changes: there are some
major changes in geomorphology such as the gradual
developments of spits and bars. There are also areas of
lagoonal formation along the beach fronts. See figures
below:

FIG. 5 SPIT AND ISLAND DEVELOPMENT AROUND

DODO RIVER

FIG. 6 SPIT DEVELOPMENT CLOSE TO RAMOS RIVER

FIG. 4 COASTLINE OF THE NIGER DELTA SHOWING SELECTED
TRANSECT LINES

The colour composites were generated using the

parameters below:

Significant land gain/loss: there are several areas of

well over 1 sqKm land gain due to accretion. Same
applies to land loss due to the erosive power of the
Atlantic ocean. See figures below:

TABLE 1 COLOUR COMPOSITES GENERATED FOR THE IMAGES USED

Image Type
Landsat MSS
Landsat TM
Spot 4
Landsat ETM
Landsat ETM+

Band
Combination
1,2,3
5,4,3
4,3,2
5,4,3
5,4,3

Colour
Composite
False Colour
Natural colour
Natural colour
Natural colour
Natural colour

Remarks
High Cloud
Excellent
Hazy
Fairly Cloudy
Cloudy

While the image classification used the following

TABLE 2 PARAMETERS USED FOR IMAGE CLASSIFICATION FOR IMAGES
USED

Image

No. of
Iterations

% Unchanged

Landsat MSS
Landsat TM
Spot 4
Landsat ETM
Landsat ETM+

1200
1000
1000
1000
1000

98
98
98
98
98

Maximum Minimum
standard distance b/w
deviation
class mean
4.2
4.0
4.2
4.2

3.0
2.8
3.0
3.0

The image classification and change detection were

performed using unsupervised classifications model.
This allows for classification to be done without prior
knowledge of the landcover class and hence the
flexibility of assigning land cover type to each class
after assessment of its spectral signature and
44

FIG. 7 SIGNIFICANT LAND GAIN ALONG ESCRAVOS RIVER

1.8K

FIG. 8 SIGNIFICANT LAND GAIN OFF THE SHORE

OF ESCRAVOS

International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

Distributary mouth bars: offshore islands have

appeared and disappeared at the mouth of the Bonny
river and also the San Bathelomeo river. See figure
below

FIG. 9 OFFSHORE ISLAND EMERGING OFF BONNY COASTLINE

FIG. 10 OFFSHORE ISLAND EMERGING OFF

ST.NICHOLAS RIVER

Analysis of the results from colour composites, change

detection and image differencing across each transect
line reveals that the change along the coastline is not
uniform, which involves an interplay of erosion and
accretion at different points and to different degrees as
showing in the table below:
TABLE 3 QUANTITATIVE NIGER DELTA COASTLINE CHANGES 1972 - 2008

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Discussion
Impacts of the Fluvial Processes
As a wave dominated delta, the fluvial influence on
the development of the Niger delta is relatively weak.
However river forces have been responsible for the
transport and deposition of sediments especially in
areas where there have been accretion and significant
land growth, and other phenomena such as the
vegetation of previously bare land and waterbodies.
This situation is quite evident in the section between
Dodo and the Escravos river. The development and
disappearance of near offshore in the mouth of the San
Bathelomeo river is also a possible consequence of
sediment discharge into the Atlantic ocean. Hence the
nature of the River Niger system, and its main
tributraries of the Nun and Forcados river is an
important player in coastline dynamics.
Impacts of the Marine Processes
The Niger Delta is a wave dominated delta, and
marine processes are the major players in influencing
coastline change. Tides play a significant role but
highly complicated role because tide changes. In
addition wave, current and longshore drift are
primary responsible for shaping the coastline, most
evidently in area where spits and bars have developed.
It should be noted that the marine forces are more
erosive in nature. Their effect is prominent between
Imo river and Dodo river. The erosive forces in the
marine environment is less potent between the
Forcados and the Benin river due to the presence of
the offshore Mahin canyon.

S/N

Transect

Location

State

Epoch1-2

Epoch2-3

Epoch3-4

Epoch4-5

Net Shift

A-A'

Agansa

Akwa
Ibom

+ 172m

- 33m

+ 102m

- 42m

199

B-B'

Obianga

Akwa
Ibom

+ 494m

- 61m

- 46m

+ 112m

499

C-C'

Abazi

Rivers
State

+ 526m

+ 253m

- 11m

+ 114m

882

D-D'

Amaetuk

Rivers
State

-133m

+ 58m

- 16m

0m

-91

E-E'

Ama remer

Rivers
State

-201m

- 127m

- 55m

+ 238m

-145

F-F'

Agaja

Rivers
State

-2m

+ 93m

+ 24m

+ 278m

393

G-G'

Bonny

Rivers
State

-795

- 200m

- 137m

+ 56m

-1076

H-H'

Bonny

Rivers
State

400m

- 27m

+ 14m

0m

387

Impacts of Human Activities

I-I'

Amalinakiri

Rivers
State

-215m

- 3m

0m

0m

-218

10

J-J'

Ifoko

Rivers
State

-137m

- 383m

- 8m

400m

-128

11

K-K'

Kpogakiri

Rivers
State

-1700m

- 243m

- 67m

375m

-1635

12

L-L'

Sangakiri

Rivers
State

No data

- 60m

0m

0m

60

13

M-M'

Kula

Rivers
State

No data

+ 172m

+ 400m

+ 275m

847

The impacts human activities on the delta include

dredging of river mouths, shore protection and heavy
marine transport equipment. These activities are most
prominent in the Bonny river, Brass river, Forcados
river and Escravos river, and are closely related to the
activities of oil and gas exploration companies.
Daming in the upper and lower River Niger system
also has a strong impact on sediment transport and
deposition, as river discharge is altered.

14

N-N'

Otukiri

Bayelsa

-400m

- 25m

+ 36m

0m

-389

15

O-O'

Diema

Bayelsa

-330m

- 17m

- 2m

0m

-349

16

P-P'

Brass

Bayelsa

0m

- 26m

- 22m

- 30m

-78

17

Q-Q'

Liama

Bayelsa

No Data

+ 0m

0m

+ 41m

41

18

R-R'

Sangana

Bayelsa

-1064m

+ 10m

- 46m

+ 18m

-1082

19

S-S'

Foniweiforo

Bayelsa

+ 815m

- 106m

- 102m

+ 64m

671

20

T-T'

Pepegbene

Bayelsa

+ 258m

- 78m

- 55m

0m

125

21

U-U'

Erebugbene

Bayelsa

+ 385m

0m

0m

- 35m

350

22

V-V'

Egbeletobo

Bayelsa

+ 825m

+ 96m

- 260m

- 39m

622

23

W-W'

New Amatu

Bayelsa

no data

- 68m

0m

- 38m

-106

All these human activities play a highly complicated

role in the alteration on of natural fluvial and marine
processes that model the coastline. While some of
these activities favour accretion, while others favour
erosion. However these processes happen sometimes
simultenously and to varying degrees thus making
their effect difficult to model..
45

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International Journal of Remote Sensing Applications Volume 4 Issue 1, March 2014

Conclusions
This study has two objectives. One is to explore the
applicability of satellite imagery in the context of a GIS
for the monitoring of the coastline change of the entire
Niger Delta coastline. The second aim is to deal with
assessment of the vulnerability of sections of the
coastline to physical processes around the coastline of
the Niger Delta.
Geographic information system has been proved to be
a very useful tool in assessing the vulnerability of the
Niger Delta coastline to physical processes impacting
it. Sea level rise scenarios not used for the
vulnerability analysis as only wide estimates uniform
across the Niger Delta have been proposed by earlier
studies.
For images with the same tidal level, image
differencing and image overlaying based on postclassification images are very useful and efficient
techniques to monitor coastline change. Due to tidal
effect, for coastal water and land classification, it is
always difficult to identify whether the classified
coastline represents the low tidal line or occurring
between the two.
For the interpretation and on-screen digitization, the
high tidal line is defined as the coastline to detect the
coastline change. As tideland slope data are not
available, more attention should be paid to coastline
interpretation. Due to tidal change, ocean wave
movement, beach gentle slope, soil and air moisture,
water quality, water substratum and habitats,
inaccuracies are introduced into interpretation of the
coastline.
The entire Niger Delta coastline is not entirely eroding
or accreting over the 36 year study period. Also almost
no section of the coastline that has consistently been
eroding or accreting from 1972 to 2008, but have all
had periods of erosion and periods of accretion at one
time or another.
Generally, accretion is more predominant from
Sangana river to Benin river in the western Niger
Delta. While erosion is generally more predominant
from the New Calabar river mouth to the Nun river.
Human activities play an important but complicated
role in the coastline change of the Nigeria Delta. The
impact of human activities on the delta may include
damming, artificial diversion of water courses,
pumping of ground fluids, shore protection, dredging
and engineering structures such as oil and gas pipeline
across waterways. However in terms of unavailability
of requisite 36 year data on the operations of dams in

46

the upper and lower River Niger and also the

operations and activities several oil and gas companies
along the coastline, these effects cannot be accurately
modeled.
Oil and gas facilities such as the Agip Brass terminal,
Shell Forcados terminal, Olokola LNG and their
associated facilities are located along highly
vulnerable coastlines. Hence shore protection should
be in the short, medium and long term plans of the oil
and gas companies responsible for these facilities.
Coastal settlements between New Calabar river and
Sangana river are ranked as generally highly
vulnerable to the negative effect of coastline change.
While positive effects of coastline change, such as
increase in economically useful land are evident
around the mouth of the Escravos river.
There is lack of available data to quantitatively
determine potential capital loss to communual and
industrial infrastructure due to the effect of a highly
vulnerable and unchecked erosive coastline.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Special appreciation was given to Shell Petroleum

Development Company of Nigeria Ltd and US
Geological society for the provision of satellite image
datasets critical for this work.
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Chituru D. Obowu was born on the 20th

of January 1973 in Port Harcourt Nigeria.
He holds Degree in Surveying and
Geodesy from the Rivers State University
of Science and Technology Port
Harcourt, Nigeria and has completed his
research
work
in
Environmental
Management for an Masters in
Philosophy Degree.
He is currently the Remote Sensing focal foint for Shell
Nigeria with over 15 years of local and international
Geomatics expertise in oil and gas exploration and
production. He has published several local and international
technical articles and papers in the area of Remote Sensing
and GIS in oil and gas exploration and production.
Mr Obowu is a member of several local and international
bodies among which are the Nigerian Institution of
Surveyors, IEEE Geosciences and Remote Sensing Society.
He has received several local and international awards for
work in the area of oil and gas including the Shell Chief
Executive Officers HSSE & SP Award for excellence in
Social Performance.
Tamuoene K. S. Abam was born on the 4th of July 1957 into
the Abam-Ado royal family of Okirika in Rivers State
Nigeria. He attended the University of Ibadan Nigeria,
University of Nigeria and Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine, University of London. He holds a
Bachelors Degree in geology, a Master of Science Degree in
Applied Geology and a Doctorate in Environmental
Geotechnics.
He is currently the Director of the Institute of Geosciences
and Space Technology, Rivers State University of Science
and Technology, Port Harcourt Nigeria. He has served as a
consultant to various local, multi-national and international
organizations including the World Bank, EuroConsult,
SPDC, NAOC, NEPA and the Niger Delta Environmental
Survey.
Professor Abam is a member of several reputed national and
international organizations, including the Nigerian Mining
and Geosciences Society, International Association of
Hydrological Sciences, New York Academy of Sciences,
American Association for the Advancement of Science and
Ecological Society of Nigeria.
Professor Abam has extensively published in local and
international technical journals and is a recipient of the
prestigious United Kingdom Cambridge based international
Biographical Centers 21st Century Award for Achievement.

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