Journal of Food Engineering 106 (2011) 4852

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Food Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfoodeng

Effect of high or low molecular weight of components of feed on transmembrane

ux during forward osmosis
Chetan A. Nayak, Satya Sriram Valluri, Navin K. Rastogi
Department of Food Engineering, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Council of Scientic and Industrial Research, Mysore 570 020, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 25 November 2010
Received in revised form 11 January 2011
Accepted 5 April 2011
Available online 12 April 2011
Keywords:
Forward osmosis
Pineapple juice
Anthocyanin
Betalains
Concentration polarization

a b s t r a c t
The possible mechanism of water transport from feed to osmotic agent side during forward osmosis in
situation when feed contains high or low molecular weight compounds and their combination has been
presented. The orientation of membrane was found to inuence the transmembrane ux. When the feed
contains mixture of low and high molecular weight compounds mode I (feed towards the support layer)
was found to result in lower ux values as compared to Mode II (feed towards active layer) due to signicant external concentration polarization. Forward osmosis resulted in the concentration of betalains
content in beetroot juice and anthocyanin content in grape juice from 50.92 mg/L to 2.91 g/L (57.1 fold)
and from 104.85 mg/L to 715.6 mg/L (6.8 fold), respectively. Total soluble solids in case of beetroot, grape
and pineapple juice were found to increase from 2.3 to 52 Brix, from 8.0 to 54.6 Brix from 4.4 to 54
Brix, respectively.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Fruit juices and natural food colorants are of high nutritive value as they are naturally enriched with minerals, vitamins and
other benecial components required for human health. Removal
of water helps in reducing the water activity, thereby facilitating
the increase in the shelf life of these liquid foods. Hence, it is desirable to concentrate these liquid foods to improve shelf life, stability
and to reduce storage/transportation costs (Babu et al., 2006;
Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a,b). Many researchers have reported forward osmosis for many industrial applications like food processing
(Beaudry and Lampi, 1990; Wong and Winger, 1999) or desalination (Gray et al., 2006).
Membrane processes such as microltration, ultraltration and
reverse osmosis are often being employed for clarication and concentration of fruit juices. The limitations of these membrane processes are attainable maximum concentration (only up to 2530
Brix), concentration polarization and membrane fouling. Conventional method for concentration such as evaporation results in
product deterioration with respect to loss of avors, taste and
nutritive components resulting in low quality product, besides
being energy intensive.
Forward osmosis concentration is a membrane process, which
has potential to concentrate liquid foods/natural colors at ambient
temperature and pressure without signicant product deterioration (Cath et al., 2006; Cath, 2010; McCutcheon and Elimelech,
Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 821 2513 910; fax: +91 821 2517 233.
E-mail address: nkrastogi@cftri.res.in (N.K. Rastogi).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2011.04.006

2007). Forward osmosis works at ambient pressure and is capable

of concentrating liquid foods without product deterioration. No use
of solvent for extraction, low energy consumption, higher retention
of thermo labile components and attainment of higher concentration are the several advantages of forward osmosis over conventional processes. Forward osmosis membrane process employs a
semi-permeable asymmetric hydrophilic membrane, which separates the feed as well as the osmotic agent solutions. Osmotic pressure difference between the feed as well as osmotic agent solutions
acts as a driving force for transport of water (Rastogi and Nayak, in
press). A protocol for the selection of optimal draw solutions for
forward osmosis applications was developed by Achilli et al.
(2010).
The asymmetric membrane used in forward osmosis consisted
of a loosely bound support layer and a dense active membrane
layer. The membrane can be placed between the feed and the osmotic agent solutions in two different orientations such as feed towards the support layer and feed towards the active layer. The
orientation of the membrane was shown to affect the process performance (Gray et al., 2006; Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a,b; Xu et al.,
2010). The active research in area of development of membrane led
to the development of novel dual-layer hollow ber nanoltration
for protein enrichment/concentration (Yang et al., 2009a,b), double
skin layers to mitigate the internal concentration polarization
(Wang et al., 2010a), thin-lm composite forward osmosis hollow
bers (Wang et al., 2010b; Su et al., 2010; Chou et al., 2010), double
dense membrane for low salt leakage (Zhang et al., 2010).
The objective of the work is to evaluate the effect of low
(dextrose or sucrose) and high molecular weight (pectin) of the

C.A. Nayak et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 106 (2011) 4852

components of feed solution on transmembrane ux. The effect of

different model systems containing dextrose and pectin (system I),
sucrose and pectin (system II), as well as dextrose, sucrose and
pectin (system III) were studied on transmembrane ux. Attempts
were made to concentrate the real systems (beetroot, pineapple
and grape juices) using forward osmosis.

2. Theoretical considerations
In forward osmosis process, the feed and the osmotic agent
solutions are circulated on either side of the semi-permeable
asymmetric hydrophilic membrane. The difference in osmotic
pressures between the feed as well as osmotic agent solutions sets
in the driving force for the ux to occur. There are two possible orientations in which the membrane can be positioned between the
feed and the osmotic agent solutions such as feed towards the support layer and feed towards active layer, which are referred, in the
present work, as modes I and II, respectively.
In case of mode I (Fig. 1a), when the feed is pure water, it is diffused into the support layer and transferred to the osmotic agent
side through the active layer of membrane. No external concentration polarization (ECP) or internal concentration polarization (ICP)
take place on the feed side. An insignicant external polarization
may take place in the boundary layer on osmotic agent side. In this
situation, if the feed (water) consists of solution of low molecular

(a)

OA Side

Feed Side

OA
13, 23

E1 E2
22

21
12
11

feed
Mode I

(b)

OA Side

Feed Side

OA
33

49

weight compounds, it will lead to negligible external concentration

polarization but signicant internal concentration polarization on
feed side (Fig. 1a solid lines). When the feed contains mixture of
low and high molecular weight compounds, it will result in the
buildup of the retained concentration of high molecular weight
compounds on the support layer resulting in signicant external
as well as internal concentration polarization on the feed side
(Fig. 1a dotted line, Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a). The solutes having
molecular weight less than 1000 g/mol were regarded as low
molecular weight compounds (dextrose and sucrose) and solute
having molecular weight equal or more than 30,000 g/mol was regarded as high molecular weight solute (pectin). Mi and Elimelech
(2008) have indicated that these high molecular weight compounds may be deposited within the porous structure of the membrane leading to cake layer formation due to lack of shear force as
well as hindered back diffusion in the porous structure. But, the
external polarization towards osmotic agent side will be negligible
(Fig. 1a). Effective driving force (DpE1 ) for mixture of low and high
molecular weight compounds will be lower as compared to the
same situation in which a solution of low molecular weight compounds (DpE1 < DpE2 ) is taken as feed leading to the drastic reduction of transmembrane ux.
In case of mode II, membrane orientation is such that the active
layer is towards feed and osmotic agent is towards support layer,
the water from the feed is diffused into the active layer, which,
in turn, is diffused to the support layer and then to the bulk
through the boundary layer. Since, solute of low molecular weight
(Sodium chloride) is used as an osmotic agent, it is also diffused
into the support layer to the interior surface of the active layer before transmembrane ux can occur. The dilution of solute is attributed to convection. The solute diffuses back to the interior surface.
A steady-state is quickly reached, but the concentration at the interior surface of the active layer is far lower than in the bulk solution.
The combined effect of diffusion of water through the active layer
and osmotic agent into support layer will result in setting up of an
internal concentration polarization (dilutive, Fig. 1b, Nayak and
Rastogi, 2010a).
The external concentration polarization for mode II will be
much less as compared to internal polarization and hence can be
neglected and molecular weight (low or high) of the compounds
in feed does not have any effect on transmembrane ux (Gray
et al., 2006). When the feed contains mixture of low and high
molecular weight compounds, the effective driving force in mode
II will be higher as compared to mode I (DpE3 < DpE1 ), which is
the most desirable. Whereas in case of feed containing low molecular weight compounds, the mode I will be most desirable due to
the higher effective driving force as compared to mode II
(DpE2 < DpE3 ).

32

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Chemicals and membranes

E3

31

feed
Mode II

Fig. 1. Mechanism of forward osmosis indicating water transport from the solution
of low osmotic pressure to the solution of high osmotic pressure. (a) Mode I: Feed
solution containing low (solid) and mixture of low and high molecular weight
compounds (dotted); (b) Mode II: Feed solution containing low/high molecular
weight compounds. DpE1, DpE2 and DpE3 are the corresponding effective driving
force, respectively. pFeed and pOA are the osmotic pressures of feed and osmotic
agent solution, respectively (Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a).

Sucrose, dextrose, sodium chloride and pectin (molecular

weight 30,000100,000 g/mol) were procured from Merck India
Ltd, Mumbai, India. All the chemicals were of analytical grade.
The forward osmosis asymmetric membrane developed by Osmotek, Inc., Corvallis, OR, USA was employed in the present study. The
membrane consisted of a very thin semi-permeable non-porous
active skin layer of cellulose triacetate embedded in a nylon mesh
(a porous support layer) to provide strength. The membrane was
highly hydrophilic in nature. The thickness of the membrane as
determined by scanning electron microscope was found to vary between 50 and 100 lm. The membrane was characterized by
McCutcheon et al. (2005).

50

C.A. Nayak et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 106 (2011) 4852

3.2. Extraction

3.7. Feed and osmotic agent solution

The fresh grape (Vitis vinifera), pineapple (Ananas comosus) and

beetroot (Beta vulgaris) were procured from a local super market.
Grapes were deseeded and ground, whereas the beetroot and pineapple were peeled and ground. The pulp, thus obtained, was mixed
in 1:2 ratio with water. The extract was ltered using muslin cloth,
centrifuged at 10,000 rpm and stored in cold room at 45 C for
further studies. The total soluble solids of beetroot, pineapple
and grape juice were 2.3, 4.4 and 8.0 Brix, respectively. The pH
values were 4.60, 3.14 and 3.46, respectively.

The different model systems containing low molecular weight

sugar (i.e. 0.15 M dextrose, molecular weight 180 g/mol) or high
molecular weight sugar (i.e. 0.15 M sucrose, molecular weight
342.30 g/mol) was used as a feed solution. The other model feed
systems were: system I containing low molecular weight sugar
(0.15 M dextrose) plus 0.1% pectin; system II containing high
molecular weight sugar (0.15 M sucrose) and 0.1% pectin; and system III containing mixture of low and high molecular weight sugar
(0.15 M dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose) plus 0.1% pectin.
Osmotic agent solutions were prepared by dissolving sodium
chloride in distilled water (6.0 M or 26% w/w). Solutions were kept
overnight at room temperature before use to ensure complete dissolution of sodium chloride. Osmotic pressures of sodium chloride
solutions were calculated as per the procedure described by Toledo
(1991).

3.3. Estimation of anthocyanin

The anthocyanin content in the extract was determined using
pH differential method (Wrolstad, 2005). The anthocyanin content
in grape juice was calculated using the following equation

Anthocyanin contentmg=L

A  M  DF  103
e1

where, A = total absorbance = ((AkmaxA700)at pH 1.0 (AkmaxA700)at pH 4.5),

M is the molecular weight of anthocyanin (449 g mol1), DF is the
dilution factor, e is the extinction coefcient (29,600 L cm1 mol1)
and l is the path length (1.0 cm). All the experiments were carried
out in triplicates and average values are reported. A double beam
spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan, Model UV-160A) was employed to measure the absorbance.

4. Results and discussion

Forward osmosis experiments were carried out by using either
model system or real extract and sodium chloride solution as a
feed and an osmotic agent solution, respectively. The transmembrane ux for water, model and real systems were evaluated. The
osmotic agent ow rate and concentration during the experiments
were maintained at 100 mL/min and 6.0 M, respectively.
4.1. Effect of transmembrane ux for water

3.4. Estimation of betalains

The concentration of betalains was determined by spectrophotometric method using the following equation (Nilsson, 1970;
Chetana et al., 2007)

Total betalainsmg=100 ml 1:33 A480 0:893 A540

where A480 and A540 refer to the absorption maxima at 540 nm and
480 nm, respectively.
The concentrated extract samples were diluted to original concentration with distilled water before the color measurement and
the values are reported after multiplication with appropriate dilution factor. All the experiments were carried out in triplicates and
average values are reported.
3.5. pH measurement and total soluble solids
pH meter (Eutech 510, Singapore) was used for the measurement of the pH of anthocyanins extract. Total soluble solid of extract was measured using Ermas Handheld refractometer at
25 2 C.
3.6. Membrane experimental setup
Experiments were performed using a at membrane module
having a membrane area of 1.14  102 m2. The module consisted of membrane, which is placed over a polyester mesh (as
a spacer to increase turbulence), supported in between Viton
gasket and two stainless steel frames. Feed solution and osmotic
agent solution were circulated on either side of the membrane in
co-current mode using peristaltic pumps (Model 72-315-230,
Barnant Company, IL, USA). The ratio of feed solution to osmotic
agent solution was maintained at 1:10 for all the experiments.
The transmembrane ux was calculated by measuring the increase in volume of osmotic agent every hour. All the experiments, unless otherwise indicated, were carried out at the
temperature of 25 2 C.

Transmembrane ux was evaluated for water as the feed and sodium chloride as an osmotic agent. The initial transmembrane ux
in case of modes I and II was found to be 19.33 and 9.93 L/m2 h,
respectively. The transmembrane ux was more in case of mode I
as compared to that of mode II. The higher ux in case of mode I
is attributed to the absence of external and internal concentration
polarizations. Whereas, in case of mode II, osmotic agent side internal concentration polarization was found to be signicant due to
setting up of concentration gradient within the support layer.
4.2. Effect of molecular weight of feed solution on transmembrane ux
The effect of molecular weight of feed solution on transmembrane ux was evaluated. The model systems containing different
molecular weight sugars (i.e. 0.15 M dextrose, molecular weight
180 g/mol or 0.15 M sucrose, molecular weight 342.30 g/mol) were
used as feed solutions.
In case of mode I, the transmembrane ux was found to decrease
from 8.94 to 5.38 L/m2 h and from 5.95 to 3.73 L/m2 h for 0.15 M
dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose, respectively (Fig. 2a). The transmembrane ux was found to be higher when 0.15 M solution of dextrose
was taken as a feed solution in comparison to the same concentration of sucrose solution. It is due to the higher penetration power (in
loosely bound support layer) of dextrose (i.e. molecular weight
180 g/mol) in comparison to sucrose (i.e. molecular weight
342.30 g/mol) due to lower molecular weight. The penetration of
low molecular weight compounds (dextrose or sucrose) in the support layer resulted in internal concentration polarization. The extent of which was higher in case of sucrose than that of dextrose.
In case of mode II, the transmembrane ux was found to decrease from 11.03 to 7.20 L/m2 h and from 11.16 to 7.90 L/m2 h
for 0.15 M dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose, respectively (Fig. 2b).
The higher ux in mode II has been reported in case of concentration of fruit juices (Beaudry and Lampi, 1990; Wrolstad et al.,
1993), colorants (Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a,b), sucrose
(Garcia-Castello et al., 2009), and desalination (How et al., 2006;

51

C.A. Nayak et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 106 (2011) 4852

4.3. Effect of components of model system on transmembrane ux

Transmembrane Flux (Lm-2h-1)

10

M)moles)
Dextrose ((0.15
0.146
M)moles)
Sucrose (0.15
( 0.146

8
6
4
2

(a)

0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Time (h)

Transmembrane Flux (Lm-2h-1)

14
Dextrose (0.15
( 0.146
M)moles)

12

M)moles)
Sucrose (0.15
( 0.146

10
8
6
4

(b)

2
0

1.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

The model systems containing 0.15 M dextrose plus 0.1% pectin

(system I); 0.15 M sucrose plus 0.1% pectin (system II); and mixture of sugars (0.15 M dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose) plus 0.1% pectin (system III) were selected to study the effect of components of
feed solution on transmembrane ux.
In case of mode I, the transmembrane ux was found to decrease from 7.90 to 3.60 L/m2 h, 5.62 to 2.50 L/m2 h and 4.70
2.45 L/m2 h for system I, II and III, respectively. The presence of
0.1% pectin resulted in decrease in transmembrane ux in case of
system I and II, as inferred from the comparison of Fig. 2a and
Fig. 3a. The presence of pectin might have resulted in external concentration polarization on the support layer due to its high molecular weight. The presence of pectin along with mixed sugars
(system III) resulted in lowest transmembrane ux as compare to
system I and II because of presence of external concentration
polarization (due to pectin) in addition to the increased internal
concentration polarization (due to increased effective concentration of sugars).
In case of mode II, the transmembrane uxes in case of system I
and II were found to decrease from 10.18 to 6.67 L/m2 h and 10.53
6.30 L/m2 h, respectively (Fig. 3b). These uxes were also lower
than the corresponding uxes for feed without pectin as shown

McCutcheon and Elimelech, 2007). The higher ux in case of mode

II as compared to mode I is due to negligible external and internal
concentration polarization towards feed side. The transmembrane
ux for 0.15 M dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose solution as feed were
very close to each other. It may be due to the orientation of membrane in mode II that leads to negligible internal concentration
polarization and in this situation molecular weight of the solute
has negligible effect on membrane performance (Gray et al., 2006).

14

60

Cycle 1Cycle 2

12

50

Flux
Brix

10

40

30

20

4
2
0
0.0

Brix

Fig. 2. Variation of ux for dextrose and sucrose for mode I (feed towards support
layer) and mode II (feed towards active layer).

Trans membrane flux (Lm-2h-1)

Time (h)

(a)
2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

12.0

10
0

0.15 M Dextrose + 0.1% Pectin (System I)

Dextrose+pectin

Sucrose+dextrose+pectin
0.15
M Dextrose + 0.15 M Sucrose
+ 0.1% Pectin (System III)

6
4
2

(a)
0
0.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

12

Cycle 1

Cycle 2

10

50

40

6
4

30

Flux
Brix

20

2
0
0.0

3.0

6.0

Dextrose+pectin
0.15 M Dextrose + 0.1% Pectin (System I)

10

Sucrose+dextrose+pectin
0.15 M Dextrose + 0.15 M Sucrose
+ 0.1% Pectin (System III)

8
6
4
2

(b)
1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

Time (h)
Fig. 3. Variation of ux for combination of sucrose, dextrose and pectin (a) mode I
(feed towards support layer); (b) mode II (feed towards active layer).

Trans membrane flux (Lm-2h-1)

Transmembrane Flux (Lm-2h-1)

Sucrose+pectin
0.15
M Sucrose + 0.1% Pectin (System II)

0.0

9.0

12.0

15.0

18.0

Time (h)

12

10

(b)

Time (h)
14

60

Cycle 3

Brix

Sucrose+pectin
0.15 M Sucrose + 0.1% Pectin (System II)

10

C ycl e 1

Cycle 2

60

C ycl e 4

Cycle 3

50

Flux
Brix

40

30
4

20

2
0
0.0

Brix

10

Trans membrane flux (Lm-2h-1)

Transmembrane Flux (Lm-2h-1)

Time (h)

(c)
3.0

6.0

9.0

12.0

15.0

18.0

21.0

10

0
24.0

Time (h)
Fig. 4. Variation of ux for real food systems (a) beetroot, (b) pineapple, (c) grape
juice.

52

C.A. Nayak et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 106 (2011) 4852

in Fig. 2b. It is due to the enhanced external concentration polarization because of presence of pectin. It may be noted that in mode
II there exists no internal concentration polarization and additional
external polarization is exerted due to presence of pectin molecule,
which is expected to be same in case of system I and II due to same
concentrations. However, in case of system III the ux were still
lower due to combination of 0.15 M dextrose and 0.15 M sucrose
leading to higher effective concentration on feed side thereby
reducing the effective driving force (Fig. 3b).
These results clearly indicate that mode II can be considered as
the best possible orientation with regard to forward osmosis membrane for the concentration of feed containing mixture of low/high
molecular weight compounds (i.e. fruit juices) in food processing.
4.4. Concentration of real food systems
The real food systems (beet, pineapple or grape juice) were concentrated using mode II in cycles of forward osmosis concentration.
Six hours of continuous concentration was referred as a cycle. Since
in case of real food systems, the uxes were reducing very signicantly after 6 h, the membrane was washed with distilled water
after each cycle and next cycle was continued. The variation in
the ux and Brix in each case is presented in Fig. 4. For all the real
systems, the uxes were found to decrease in the each cycle, but
these were found to increase in the beginning of next cycle. The
beetroot juice was concentrated in 2 cycles and the betalains content of the juice was found to increase from 50.92 mg/L to 2.91 g/
L (57.1 fold) and total soluble solids was found to increase from
2.3 to 52 Brix (22.6 fold) (Fig. 4a). The pineapple juice was concentrated in 3 cycles and the total soluble solids was found to increase
from 4.4 to 54 Brix (12 fold, Fig. 4b). The anthocyanin from the
grape juice was concentrated in 4 cycles from 104.85 mg/L to
715.6 mg/L (6.8 fold) and total soluble solids from 4.4 to 54 Brix
(12.3 fold) (Fig. 4c). Maximum anthocyanin concentration of 4.5,
7.5, and 54-fold have been reported in case of red raspberry
Wrolstad et al. (1993), red radish Rodriguez-Sanoa et al. (2001)
and Garcinia indica Choisy (Nayak and Rastogi, 2010a), respectively.
5. Conclusion
Forward osmosis process can be potentially used for the concentration of fruit juices especially in the case when the fruit juice
contains various sugars and heat sensitive compounds such as
betalain or anthocyanin. In case of a model food system consisting
of dextrose, sucrose and pectin, the membrane orientation such
that feed was towards active layer was found to result in higher
transmembrane ux. Forward osmosis resulted in the concentration of betalains content in beetroot juice from 50.92 mg/L to
2.91 g/L (57.1 fold increase) and anthocyanin content in grape juice
from 104.85 mg/L to 715.6 mg/L (6.8 fold). Total soluble solids in
case of beetroot, grape and pineapple juice were found to increase
from 2.3 to 52 Brix (22.6 fold), from 8.0 to 54.6 Brix (6.85 fold)
and from 4.4 to 54 Brix (12.3 fold), respectively.
Acknowledgements
Authors thank Dr. V. Prakash, Director, CFTRI, Mysore for his
encouragement. Thanks are also due to Dr. KSMS Raghavarao,
Head, Department of Food Engineering, CFTRI for his support. The
author Chetan A Nayak expresses his gratitude and sincere thanks
to the Council of Scientic and Industrial Research (CSIR), New Delhi for providing Senior Research Fellowship. The authors also thank
Dr. Edward G. Beaudry, Director of Process Development, Hydration Technology Innovations, USA for providing us forward osmosis
membranes to continue the work further in this direction.

References
Achilli, A., Cath, T.Y., Childress, A.E., 2010. Selection of inorganic-based draw
solutions for forward osmosis applications. Journal of Membrane Science,
doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2010.08.010.
Babu, B.R., Rastogi, N.K., Raghavarao, K.S.M.S., 2006. Effect of process parameter on
transmembrane ux during direct osmosis. Journal of Membrane Science 280,
185194.
Beaudry, E.G., Lampi, K.A., 1990. Membrane technology for direct osmosis
concentration of fruit juices. Food Technology 44, 121.
Cath, T.Y., 2010. Osmotically and thermally driven membrane processes for
enhancement of water recovery in desalination processes. Desalination and
Water Treatment 15, 279286.
Cath, T.Y., Childress, A.E., Elimelech, M., 2006. Forward osmosis: principles,
applications, and recent developments. Journal of Membrane Science 281, 70
87.
Chetana, S., Nayak, C.A., Raghavarao, K.S.M.S., 2007. Aqueous two phase extraction
for betalains. Journal of Food Engineering 81, 679687.
Chou, S., Shi, L., Wang, R., Tang, C.Y., Qiu, C., Fane, A.G., 2010. Characteristics and
potential applications of a novel forward osmosis hollow ber membrane.
Desalination. 261, 365372.
Garcia-Castello, E.M., McCutcheon, J.R., Elimelech, M., 2009. Performance evaluation
of sucrose concentration using forward osmosis. Journal of Membrane Science
338, 6166.
Gray, G.T., McCutcheon, J.R., Elimelech, M., 2006. Internal concentration
polarization in forward osmosis: role of membrane orientation. Desalination
197, 18.
How, Y.N., Tang, W., Wong, W.S., 2006. Performance of forward (Direct) osmosis
process: membrane structure and transport phenomenon. Environmental
Science and Technology 40, 24082413.
McCutcheon, J.R., McGinnis, R.L., Elimelech, M., 2005. A novel ammoniacarbon
dioxide forward (direct) osmosis desalination process. Desalination 174, 111.
McCutcheon, J.R., Elimelech, M., 2007. Modeling water ux in forward osmosis:
implications for improved membrane design. AIChE Journal 53 (7), 1736
1744.
Mi, B., Elimelech, M., 2008. Chemical and physical aspects of organic fouling of
forward osmosis membranes. Journal of Membrane Science 320, 292302.
Nayak, C.A., Rastogi, N.K., 2010a. Forward osmosis for concentration of anthocyanin
from Garcinia indica Choisy. Separation Science and Technology 71, 144151.
Nayak, C.A., Rastogi, N.K., 2010b. Comparison of osmotic membrane distillation and
forward osmosis membrane processes for concentration of anthocyanin.
Desalination and Water Treatment 16, 134145.
Nilsson, T., 1970. Studies into the pigments in beetroot. Lantbrukshgskolans
Annaler 36, 179219.
Rastogi, N.K., Nayak, C.A., in press. Membranes for forward osmosis. In: Advanced
membrane science and technology for sustainable energy and environmental
applications, Woodhead Publishers, Cambridge UK.
Rodriguez-Sanoa, L.E., Giusti, M.M., Robert, W.D., Worlstad, R.E., 2001. Development
and process optimization of red radish concentration extract as potential
natural red colorant. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 25, 165182.
Su, J., Yang, Q., Teo, J.F., Chung, T.S., 2010. Cellulose acetate nanoltration hollow
ber membranes for forward osmosis processes. Journal of Membrane Science
355, 3644.
Toledo, R.T., 1991. Fundamentals of Food Process Engineering, third ed. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Wang, K.Y., Ong, R.C., Chung, T.S., 2010a. Double-skinned forward osmosis
membranes for reducing internal concentration polarization within the
porous sublayer. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 49, 4824
4831.
Wang, R., Shi, L., Tang, C.Y., Chou, S., Qiu, C., Fane, A.G., 2010b. Characterization of
novel forward osmosis hollow ber membranes. Journal of Membrane Science
355, 158167.
Wong, M., Winger, R.J., 1999. Direct osmotic concentration for concentrating liquid
foods. Food Australia 51, 200205.
Wrolstad, R.E., McDaniel, M.R., Durst, R.W., Micheals, N., Lampi, K.A., Beaudry, E.G.,
1993. Composition and sensory characterization of red raspberry juice
concentration by direct osmosis or evaporation. Journal of Food Science 58,
633641.
Wrolstad, R.E., 2005. Hand Book of Food Analytical Chemistry Pigments, Colorants,
Flavor, Texture, and Bioactive Components. Wiley Interscience Publications,
New Jersey.
Xu, Y., Peng, X., Tang, C.Y., Shiang, F.Q., Nie, S., 2010. Effect of draw solution
concentration and operating conditions on forward osmosis and pressure
retarded osmosis performance in a spiral wound module. Journal of Membrane
Science 348, 298309.
Yang, Q., Wang, K.Y., Chung, T.S., 2009a. A novel dual-layer forward osmosis
membrane for protein enrichment and concentration. Separation and
Purication Technology 69, 269274.
Yang, Q., Wang, K.Y., Chung, T.S., 2009b. Dual-layer hollow bers with enhanced
ux as novel forward osmosis membranes for water production. Environmental
Science and Technology 43, 28002805.
Zhang, S., Wang, K.Y., Chung, T.S., Chen, H., Jean, Y.C., Amy, G., 2010. Wellconstructed cellulose acetate membranes for forward osmosis: minimized
internal concentration polarization with an ultra-thin selective layer. Journal of
Membrane Science 360, 522535.