Today's column describes frequency characteristics of the amount of impedance |

Z| and ESR in capacitors.

Understanding frequency characteristics of capacitors enables you to determine,
for example, the noise suppression capabilities or the voltage fluctuation control
capabilities of a power supply line.
1. Frequency characteristics of capacitors
The impedance Z of an ideal capacitor (fig. 1) is shown by formula (1).

From formula (1), the amount of impedance |Z| decreases inversely with the
frequency, as shown in Figure 3. In an ideal capacitor, there is no loss and the ESR is
zero.

Figure 3. Frequency characteristics of an ideal capacitor

ESR is from loss due to dielectric substances (from delay of polarization in the
dielectric substance), electrodes or other components in addition.
ESL is due to
electrodes, leads and other components. As a result, the frequency characteristics of |Z|
form a V-shaped curve (or U-shaped curve depending on the type of capacitor) as shown
in Figure 4, and ESR also shows frequency characteristics for values equivalent to loss.

Figure 4. An example of frequency characteristics of a real capacitor

(http://www.murata.com/en-global/products/emiconfun/capacitor/2013/02/14/en20130214-p1)
El trazo rojo corresponde a la respuesta en frecuencia del condensador ideal, y el
trazo azul corresponde a la respuesta en frecuencia de la inductancia parsita.

The reason why |Z| and ESR form curves like those shown in Figure 4 can be
explained as follows.
* Low-frequency region: |Z| in regions with a low frequency decreases inversely with
frequency, similar to the ideal capacitor. ESR shows a value equivalent to dielectric loss.
* Near the resonance point: as the frequency rises, |Z| behavior to stray from that of an
ideal capacitor (red broken line) and reach a minimum value. The frequency at which |Z|
is the minimum value is called the self-resonant frequency, and at this time, |Z|=ESR.
Once the self-resonant frequency is exceeded, the element characteristic changes from
capacitor to inductor, and |Z| starts to increase. The region below the self-resonant
frequency is called the capacitive region and the region above is called the inductive
region.
ESR is affected by loss caused by the electrode in addition to dielectric loss.
* High-frequency region: in frequency zones even higher than the resonance point, |Z|
characteristics are determined by parasitic inductance (L). |Z| in the high-frequency
region approaches formula (2) and increases proportionately with frequency.

As for ESR, electrode skin effects, proximity effects and other effects begin to
appear.
The above was an explanation of frequency characteristics of an actual capacitor.
The main point to remember is that, as frequency rises, ESR and ESL cannot be ignored.
As there is an increasing number of applications in which capacitors are used at high
frequencies, ESR and ESL become an important parameter that shows capacitor
performance, in addition to electrostatic capacitance values.
(http://www.murata.com/en-global/products/emiconfun/capacitor/2013/02/14/en20130214-p1)
Frequency characteristics of different types of capacitors

As the types of parasitic components vary with the type of capacitor, let's look at
the different frequency characteristics of different types of capacitors. Figure 5 shows
the |Z| and ESR frequency characteristics of various capacitors with an electrostatic
capacitance of 10 F. Except for the film capacitor, all the capacitors are SMD types.

Figure 5. |Z|/ ESR frequency characteristics of different types of capacitors

As the electrostatic capacitance is 10 uF in all the capacitors shown in Figure 5,
the |Z| value is the same for all types in the capacitive region at frequencies under 1 kHz.
Rising above 1 kHz, |Z| values increase much higher in the aluminum electrolytic
capacitor and the tantalum electrolytic capacitor than in the monolithic ceramic capacitor
and the film capacitor. This is because there is high resistivity of the electrolyte material
and large ESR in the aluminum electrolytic capacitor and tantalum electrolytic capacitor.
The film capacitor and monolithic ceramic capacitor use metallic materials for their
electrodes, and therefore exhibit very minimal ESR.

The monolithic ceramic capacitor and leaded film capacitor show roughly the
same characteristics up to the resonance point, but in the monolithic ceramic capacitor the
self-resonant frequency is higher and |Z| in the inductive region is lower. This is
because, in the monolithic ceramic capacitor the inductance is only as large as that due to
the lead wire.
These results show that impedance is small over a wide frequency band in SMD
type monolithic ceramic capacitors, making them the best-suited capacitors for highfrequency applications.
(http://www.murata.com/en-global/products/emiconfun/capacitor/2013/02/14/en20130214-p2)
3.Frequency characteristics of monolithic ceramic capacitors

There are also different types of monolithic ceramic capacitors made of different
materials and with different shapes. Let's look at how these factors affect frequency
characteristics.
(1) ESR
ESR in the capacitive region depends on dielectric loss caused by the dielectric
material. Class 2 high dielectric constant materials tend to have higher ESR levels as
they use ferroelectrics. Class 1 temperature compensation materials use paraelectrics, and
therefore exhibit very little dielectric loss and have low ESR levels.
In addition to the resistivity of the electrode material, the shape of the electrode
(thickness, length, width) and the number of layers, ESR levels at high frequencies from
around the resonance point to the inductive region are also influenced by the skin effect
and by the proximity effect. Ni is often used as the electrode material, but Cu that has low
resistivity is sometimes chosen for low loss-type capacitors.
(2) ESL
ESL of monolithic ceramic capacitors is strongly affected by the internal electrode
structure. Where the size of the internal electrode is shown as length l, width w and
thickness d, the inductance ESL of the electrode can be shown by formula (3), according
to F. W. Grover.

From this formula, it is apparent that ESL decreases as capacitor electrodes become
shorter, wider and thicker.

Figure 6 shows the relationship between the nominal capacity and self-resonant
frequency for different sizes of monolithic ceramic capacitors. You can see that, as size
decreases, self-resonant frequency increases and ESL decreases for the same capacity.
This means that small capacitors with a short length l are best-suited to high-frequency
applications.

Figure 6.
The relationship between nominal capacity and
self-resonant frequency for different sizes
Figure 7 shows an LW reverse capacitor with a short length l and large width w.
From the frequency characteristics shown in Figure 8, you can see that LW reverse
capacitors have lower impedance and better characteristics than a conventional capacitor
of the same capacity. By using LW reverse capacitors, the same performance can be
achieved as that of conventional capacitors with a fewer number of units. The reduction
of unit number enables reduced costs and a reduction of mounting space.

Figure 7. External appearance of an LW reverse capacitor

Figure 8. |Z|/ESR of an LW reverse capacitor and a general-purpose capacitor

4.How to obtain frequency characteristics data
While data on frequency characteristics can be obtained using an impedance analyzer or
vector network analyzer, such data is also now available on the websites of parts
manufacturers.
Figure 9 shows a screen view of Murata's "SimSurfing" design tool. Characteristics can
be displayed by simply entering the model number and the items you wish to check.
Furthermore, you can download SPICE network lists and S2P data as data for
simulations. Feel free to use these for design of all types of electronic circuits.

Figure 9. An example screen view of the "SimSurfing" design tool

Click the image to see the enlarged image

See here for SimSurfing

(http://www.murata.com/en-global/products/emiconfun/capacitor/2013/02/14/en20130214-p3)
Por qu se altera el valor de ESR?
Al estar los terminales del condensador unidos por remaches o puntos de
soldadura a las placas, existe en ambos casos una cierta resistencia de contacto. Si el
condensador trabaja en una condicin de alto rizado (ripple) como, por ejemplo, el
filtrado de una fuente conmutada (switching), estas uniones elctricas se calientan y se
oxidan. Al calentarse y enfriarse, se dilatan y contraen respectivamente; estas sucesivas
contracciones y dilataciones provocarn el aflojamiento de las uniones de los terminales,
llegando incluso a dejar al condensador en un estado de circuito abierto o con
intermitencias, comnmente llamadas falsos contactos. Por otra parte, estos falsos
contactos producen un sobrecalentamiento, que acelera el proceso, en una especie de
crculo vicioso. Esta condicin especial es la que suele confundir a los tcnicos menos
experimentados, pues un aparato puede funcionar correctamente en el instante inicial de
encendido y fallar al alcanzar apenas unos grados de temperatura y viceversa.
(http://www.videosistemas.com/proyectos/COMO_REEMPLAZAR
%20CONDENSADORES%20DE%20SUPERFICIE.pdf)