1 EO 102 Transducers and Instrumentation PDF

Transducers and Instrumentation
EO-102
Fundamentals of Electronics & Instrumentation
Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102
Transducers/ Sensors
Variety of Sensors/ Transducers Digital or Analog
For example:
Temperature Sensor
Humidity Sensor
Radiation Sensor
Ultrasonic Sensor
Infrared Sensor
Vibration Sensor
Global Positioning System (GPS)
Global System for Mobile Module (GSM)
Optical/ Hyper spectral Camera etc.
Sensing process
Input Energy
(or signal)
Transducer
Output Energy
(or signal)
Fig. 1. The Sensing Process
Definition of a transducer
Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form
to another energy. The majority either convert electrical
energy to mechanical displacement or convert some
non-electrical physical quantity, such as temperature,
sound or light to an electrical signal.
Functions of transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency
of some measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately
processed and applied to readout device, gives accurate
quantitative data about the measurand
Measurand
Transducer
Electrical
output
Excitation
Measurand refers to the quantity, property or condition which the
transducer translates to an electrical signal.
Classification of transducers
Transducer can be classified according to their application,
based primarily on the physical quantity, property, or
condition that is measured.
The transducer can be categories into:
A) Passive transducer:
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and
capacitance. E.g. : condenser microphone
B) Self generating transducer:
- not require an external power, and they produce analog
voltage or current when stimulated by some physical form of
energy. E.g. : Thermocouple
Transducer types
Quantity
being
Measured
Input Device
(Sensor)
Output Device
(Actuator)
Light Dependant Resistor (LDR),

Lights & Lamps, LED's &
Photodiode, Phototransistor, Solar Cell
Displays, Fiber Optics
Thermocouple, Thermistor,
Heater, Fan, Peltier
Temperature
Thermostat, Resistive temperature
Elements
detectors (RTD)
Force/Pressur Strain Gauge, Pressure Switch, Load
Lifts & Jacks,
e
Cells
Electromagnetic, Vibration
Potentiometer, Encoders,
Motor, Solenoid, Panel
Position
Reflective/Slotted Opto-switch, LVDT
Meters
Tacho-generator, Reflective/Slotted AC and DC Motors, Stepper
Speed
Opto-coupler, Doppler Effect Sensors
Motor, Brake
Carbon Microphone, Piezo-electric
Sound
Bell, Buzzer, Loudspeaker
Crystal
Light Level
Selecting a transducers
1. Operating range
2. Sensitivity
3. Frequency response and resonant frequency
4. Environmental compatibility 5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
6. Accuracy
7. Usage and ruggedness
8. Electrical parameter
Transducers to be covered
Temperature transducers
Resistive Position Transducer
Capacitive Transducer
Inductive Transducer
Strain Gauge
LVDT
Photoelectric etc.
Temperature Transducers
Temperature transducers can be divided into
four main categories:
1. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
2. Thermocouples
3. Thermistor
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1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum,
nickel or resistance wire elements, whose resistance variation with
temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are available in many
configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both
immersion and surface applications.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can
be calculated from the equation:
R R0 (1 T )
where
R
R0
= the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)

= the resistance at the reference temperature, usually
200C
= the temperature coefficient of resistance
= the difference between the operating and the
reference temperature
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2) Thermocouple
It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together

at one end, a temperature difference between this end and the
other end of wires produces a voltage between the wires. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the
wires and the amount of temperature difference between the
joined ends and the other ends.
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Contd
The emf of the thermocouple :
E = c(T1 T2) + k(T12 T22)
Where
c and k
T1
T2
= constant of the thermocouple

materials
= The temperature of the hot
junction
= The temperature of the cold or
reference junction
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Thermocouples
Two dissimilar metals induce voltage difference (few mV
per 10K) electro-thermal or Seebeck effect
Use op-amp to process/amplify the voltage

Absolute accuracy of 1K is difficult
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3) Thermistor
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering
mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of manganese,
nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Termistors have negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature
rises.
Types of thermistor
Disc
Washer
Rod
Resistance
1 to 1M
1 to 50k
high resistance
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This figure shows

resistance versus
temperature for a
family thermistor.
The resistance value
marked at the bottom
end of each curve is a
value at 250C
Note!
The resistance
decreases as their
temperature rises-NTC
17
Advantages of thermistor
Small size and low cost
Fast response over narrow temperature range
Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

(NTC) region
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

of resistance on absolute temperature.
Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

to large resistance
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Limitations of thermistor
Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

characteristics
Unsuitable for wide temperature range
Very low excitation current to avoids self heating
Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc due to high
resistance
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Temperature Sensors
Bimetallic switch (electro-mechanical) used in
thermostats. Can be creep or snap action.
Creep-action: coil or
spiral that unwinds
or coils with
changing
temperature
Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors); Platinum

Resistance Thermometer (PRT), very high accuracy.
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Resistive Position Transducer

The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical
variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the
sensing element.
A common requirement in industrial measurement and control

work is to be able to sense the position of an object or distance it
has moved.
Potentiometer
R: resistance change
: density
L: Length
A: area
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Contd
FIG 1 (a)
FIG 1 (b)
Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer uses a

resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object
being monitored.
The resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element
depends on the position of the object. The output voltage depends on
the wiper position and therefore is a function of the shaft position
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Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V 0 is a certain
fraction of VT, depending on the position of the wiper:
V0
R2
VT
R1 R2
This equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to
the position of the wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed
uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper
EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used in the
circuit of figure 1 (b). R1 +R2 is 1000 and VT = 4 V.
The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?
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Positional Sensors: potentiometer

Can be Linear or Rotational
Processing circuit
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Positional Sensors: Rotary Encoders

Incremental and absolute types
Incremental encoder needs a counter, loses absolute
position between power glitches, must be re-homed
Absolute encoders common in CD/DVD drives
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Capacitive Transducer
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
kA 0
C
( Farads)
d
where
k
A
o
d
= dielectric constant
= the area of the plate, in m2
= 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
= the plate placing in m
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Contd
Forms of Capacitance Transducers
Rotary plate capacitor
Rectilinear Capacitance
Transducer
Thin diaphragm
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Contd
Rotary plate capacitor:

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the
amount of the fixed plate that is covered, that
shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer
will give sign proportional to curvilinear
displacement or angular velocity.
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Contd
Rectilinear capacitance
transducer:
It consists of a fixed cylinder and
a moving cylinder. These
pieces are configured so the
moving piece fits inside the
fixed piece but insulated from
it.
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Contd
Thin diaphragm:
A transducer that varies the
spacing between surfaces. The
dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Often used as Capacitance
microphones.
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Contd
Advantages:
1. Has excellent frequency response
2. Can measure both static and dynamic phenomena.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitivity to temperature variations
2. the possibility of erratic or distortion signals owing to
long lead length
Applications:
1. As frequency modulator in RF oscillator
2. In capacitance microphone
3. Use the capacitance transducer in an ac bridge circuit
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Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or
passive type. The self generating type utilises the basic
electrical generator principle, i.e, a motion between a
conductor and magnetic field induces a voltage in the
conductor (generator action). This relative motion between
the field and the conductor is supplied by changes in the
measurand.
An inductive electromechanical transducer is a device that
converts physical motion (position change) into a change in
inductance. Transducers of variable inductance type work
upon one of the following principles:
1. Variation of self inductance
2. Variation of mutual inductance
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Cont..
Inductive transducers are mainly used for the measurement of
displacement. The displacement to be measured is
arranged to cause variation in any of three variables:
1. Number of turns
2. Geometric configuration
3. Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits
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Positional Sensors: Inductive Proximity Switch

Detects the presence of metallic objects (non-contact) via
changing inductance
Sensor has 4 main parts: field producing Oscillator via a
Coil; Detection Circuit which detects change in the field;
and Output Circuit generating a signal (NO or NC)
Used in traffic lights (inductive loop buried under the road). Sense
objects in dirty environment.
Does not work for non-metallic objects. Omni-directional.
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Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that
uses electric resistance variation in wires to sense the strain
produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector
and transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical
force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain
gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire
element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing
stress. A tensile stress tends to
elongate the wire and thereby
increase its length and decrease its
cross-sectional area.
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The combined effect is an increase in resistance:
R
Where,
L
A
: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters

L : length of conductor (meters)
A : area of conductor (m2)
As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:
1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor,
K, is expressed mathematically as
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R / R
K
L / L
Where
K= the gauge factor

R=the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R= the change in initial resistance in ohms
L= the initial length in meters (without strain)
L=the change in initial length in meters
L/L same unit with G, therefore
R / R
K
G
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From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.
F
S
A
Where
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
F= the force in kilograms
A= area in square meters
Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Youngs modulus (Hookes
Law) is written as:
S
E
G
Where,
E= Young modules in kg per square meter
S= the stress in kilograms per square meter
G= the strain (no units)
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Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance

wire or etched from thin sheets of metal foil.
Wire gauge (small) to minimum leakage for high T
applications
Semiconductor strain gauge high output transducers
as load cells
Strain gauge is generally used as one arm of bridge
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Positional Sensors: LVDT

Linear Variable
Differential
Transformer
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LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
It consists basically of a primary winding and
two secondary windings, wound over a hollow
tube and positioned so the primary winding is
between two secondaries. In figure shows the
construction of the LVDT.
An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet
coupling between the primary and the two secondaries. When the core is in
the centre, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When the core
is moved in one direction from centre, the voltage induced in one winding
is increased and that in the other is decreased. Movement in the opposite
direction reverses this effect
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Cont..
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Cont..
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Motion sensors/transducers
Switches, solenoids, relays, motors, etc.
Motors
DC
Brushed/brushless
Stepper motor
Servo
Stepper motors
AC
Brushed motor permanent magnets on armature, rotor acts as electromagnet

Brushless motor permanent magnet on the rotor, electromagnets on armature are switched
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Light sensors: photoconductive cells

Light dependent resistor (LDR) cell
45
Light level sensitive switch
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Photo-junction devices
phototransistor
photodiode
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Whats Photoelectric Effect?

-is the emission of electrons from matter upon the
absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such as
ultraviolet radiation or x-rays.-refers to the emission,
or ejection, of electrons from the surface of,
generally, a metal in response to incident light.
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Photoelectric Transducer
Can be categorized as: photoemissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.
No. Types
Characteristics
1.
Photoemmisive
radiation falling into a cathode causes

electrons to be emitted from cathode
surface.
2.
Photoconductive
the resistance of a material is change

when its illuminated.
3.
Photovoltaic
Generate
an
output
voltage
proportional to radiation intensity
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Examples of Photoelectric Transducer

(i) The Photomultiplier Tube
(ii) Photoconductive Cells OR Photocells
the electrical resistance of the materials
varies with the amount of light striking.
(iii) The Photovoltaic Cell or solar cell
- produce an electrical current when
connected to the load.
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Photovoltaic Solar Cells

Can convert about 20% of light power into electricity
Voltage is low (diode drop, ~0.6V)
Solar power is 1.4kW/m^2
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Photomultiplier tubes (PMT)

Most sensitive of light sensors (can detect individual
photons)
Acts as a current source
electrons
52
Piezo transducers
Detect motion (high and low frequency)
Sound (lab this week), pressure, fast motion
Cheap, reliable but has a very limited range of motion
53
Piezoelectric
transducers are based
on the property of
accumulating charges if
stressed (direct
effect)and to strain in
case of an electric signal
is applied across their
electrodes (inverse
effect)
Piezoelectricity is due to
asymmetries in the
crystallographic structure.
54
The Curie point is about 130C. Above 130C, a nonpiezoelectric cubic

phase is stable, where the center of positive charge (Ba2+ and Ti4+)
coincides with the center of the negative charge (O2) (Figure a).
When cooled below the Curie point, a tetragonal structure (shown in Figure
b) develops where the center of positive charge is displaced relative to the
O2ions, leading to the formation of electric dipoles.
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Naturally occurring Piezoelectric Material

Quartz
Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is
structurally identical to quartz
Sucrose (table sugar)
Rochelle salt
Topaz
Tourmaline-group minerals
Lead Titanate (PbTiO3)
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Advantages
High stiffness, to measure force.
High resonant frequency (up to 500 kHz)
Stability, reproducibility and linearity
Large operating temperature range
Low sensitivity to external magnetic field.
Drawbacks
Curie Temperature, Tc
Resonant behaviour
High output impedance
Cannot be used to detect static quantities
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Sound transducers
microphone
speaker
Note: voice coil can also be used to generate fast motion

59
Where would you interface these sensors?

Require suitable sensor nodes
For example:
Single Board Microcontrollers
Arduino Uno
Single Board Computers
Raspberry Pi
Beaglebone Black
60
ATmega328
The ATmega328 is a single chip micro-
controller
created
by
Atmel
and
belongs to the megaAVR series.

The Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based microcontroller combines 32 KB ISP
flash memory with read-while-write capabilities, 1 KB EEPROM, 2 KB
SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working
registers, three flexible timer/ counters with compare modes, internal and
external interrupts, serial programmable USART, a byte-oriented 2-wire
serial interface, SPI serial port, 6-channel 10-bit A/D converter (8channels in TQFP and QFN/MLF packages), programmable watchdog
timer with internal oscillator, and five software selectable power saving
modes. The device operates between 1.8-5.5 volts. The device achieves
throughputs approaching 1 MIPS.
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Arduino
A free development system based on
Atmega328.
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What is Arduino
Open Source Hardware, you can make your own
board, or buy one.
Cheap, easily available.
Open Source Software.
Very widespread, many projects openly available.
Extra HW (shields) available.
69
Arduino Uno
70
Arduino IDE
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Arduino Language
C like syntax, but simplified

Abstracts the pin naming to numbers
Trades efficience for ease of use
Easy to learn, yet powerful
Lots of example code
Easy to reuse C-code from other projects
Libraries can be written in C++
Lots of libraries available
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Simple Arduino Code(Blink LED)

int ledPin = 13; // LED connected to digital pin 13
// The setup() method runs once, when the sketch starts

void setup() {
// initialize the digital pin as an output:

pinMode(ledPin, OUTPUT);
}
// the loop() method runs over and over again,
// as long as the Arduino has powervoid

loop()
{
digitalWrite(ledPin, HIGH); // set the LED on
delay(500); // wait for half a second
digitalWrite(ledPin, LOW); // set the LED off

delay(500); // wait for half a second
}
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Introduction to Raspberry Pi
(RPi)
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What is Raspberry Pi
Created by Raspberry Pi Foundation
The Raspberry Pi is a credit-card sized computer that plugs
into your TV and a keyboard.
Available in two revisions (Model-A and Model-B)
It has a powerful processing unit (BCM2835 ARM11 RISC)
Graphic processing capabilities (GPU@250MHz)
Has ported Open source OSs specially developed for ARM11
like Raspbian, Pidora, etc.
Raspberry+debian = Raspbian,Fedora
Remix+Raspberry = Pidora
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Why Raspberry pi?

Faster on-Board processing (When spontaneous
response is required).
Includes Audio-Video processing capabilities.
Extended Peripheral devices support
(like Keyboard, Mouse, USB-stick etc.)
Networkable board (via Ethernet Cable)
Camera support (CSI)
Less power consumption (5V adapter)
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Model A
Model B
Rs.1900
Rs.2400
700 MHz ARM1176JZF-S core (ARM11 family)
Broadcom VideoCore IV, OpenGL ES 2.0, MPEG-2 and VC1, 1080p 30 h.264/MPEG-4 AVC
Raspberry
Pi Model-A and B
Price
CPU:
GPU:
Memory
(SDRAM):
USB 2.0 ports:
Video outputs:
256 MB (shared with GPU)
512 MB (shared with GPU)
1
2
Composite RCA, HDMI, raw LCD Panels via DSI 14 HDMI
resolutions from 640350 to 19201200
HDMI, 3.5 mm jack (stereo analog)
SD / MMC / SDIO card slot
Audio outputs:
Onboard storage:
Onboard
None
10/100 Ethernet
network:
Power ratings:
300 mA (1.5 W)
700 mA (3.5 W)
Size and Weight
85.60 mm 53.98 mm, 45 g
Operating
Debian GNU/Linux, Raspbian OS, Fedora, Arch Linux ARM,
systems:
RISC OS, FreeBSD, Plan 9
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Raspberry Pi (Short Map)

Audio
Video
USB
GPIO
Ethernet
DSI
CSI
SD
HDMI
Power
CPU/GPU
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Ref:
http://pi.gadgetoid.com/pinout/pin6_ground
http://makezine.com/projects/tutorial-raspberry-pi-gpio-pins-and-python/
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Set up your Raspberry Pi
SD card (Minimum size 4Gb)

HDMI to HDMI / DVI lead
RCA video lead (if you are not using the HDMI output)
Keyboard and mouse (USB 2.0)
Ethernet network cable (optional)
Power adapter (micro USB power 700mA at 5V)
Audio lead (If you are not using HDMI)
HDMI connector
HDMI to DVI lead
RCA composite video

connector
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Set up your Raspberry Pi
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Serial between Arduino-RPi

Data Received on RPi using
simple Python programs
accessing USB serial
Data can be immediately
processed and send back to
arduino for further routing
over network
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LM335 PRECISION
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
The LM335 are precision temperature sensors which can be easily
calibrated. Wide range, low power temperature sensor outputs an
analog voltage that is proportional to the ambient temperature
1C Initial Accuracy Available
Operates from 400 A to 5 mA
Less than 1 Dynamic
Impedance
200 C overrange
Time stability (Tcase =
+125C)=0.2 C/kh
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Interfacing with Arduino
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Interfacing with Raspberry Pi

Required parts
Raspberry Pi
MCP3008 8 channel ADC
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
TMP36 temperature sensor
10 Kohm resistor
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MCP 3008
The MCP3008 is a 10bit 8-channel Analogue-to-digital converter
(ADC).
The following list shows how the MCP3008 can
be connected. It requires 4 GPIO pins on the Pi
P1 Header.
VDD 3.3V
VREF 3.3V
AGND GROUND
CLK GPIO11 (P1-23)
DOUT GPIO9 (P1-21)
DIN GPIO10 (P1-19)
CS GPIO8 (P1-24)
DGND GROUND
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Reading The Data Using a Python

Script
#!/usr/bin/python
import spidev
temp = ((data * 330)/float(1023))-50
import time
temp = round(temp,places)
import os
return temp
# Open SPI bus
# Define sensor channels
light_channel = 0
spi = spidev.SpiDev()
temp_channel = 1
spi.open(0,0)
# Define delay between readings
# Function to read SPI data from MCP3008 chip
delay = 5
# Channel must be an integer 0-7
while True:
def ReadChannel(channel):
# Read the light sensor data
light_level = ReadChannel(light_channel)
adc = spi.xfer2([1,(8+channel)<<4,0])
light_volts = ConvertVolts(light_level,2)
data = ((adc[1]&3) << 8) + adc[2]
# Read the temperature sensor data
return data
temp_level = ReadChannel(temp_channel)
# Function to convert data to voltage level,
temp_volts = ConvertVolts(temp_level,2)
# rounded to specified number of decimal places.
temp
= ConvertTemp(temp_level,2)
#
Print
out
results
def ConvertVolts(data,places):
print "--------------------------------------------"
volts = (data * 3.3) / float(1023)
print("Light: {} ({}V)".format(light_level,light_volts))
volts = round(volts,places)
print("Temp : {} ({}V) {} deg
return volts
C".format(temp_level,temp_volts,temp))
# Function to calculate temperature from
# Wait before repeating loop
time.sleep(delay)
# TMP36 data, rounded to specified
# number of decimal places.
def ConvertTemp(data,places):
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MQ-6 LPG Sensor

They are used in gas leakage detecting equipment in family and industry, are suitable for
detecting of LPG, iso-butane, propane, LNG, avoid the noise of alcohol and cooking fumes and
cigarette smoke.
FEATURES
MQ-6: High sensitive to LPG, Propane,
Butane.
Small sensitivity to alcohol, smoke
Fast response
Stable and long life
Simple drive circuit
89

int sensorValue;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
port to 9600
}
// sets the serial
void loop()
{
sensorValue = analogRead(0);
// read
analog input pin 0
Serial.println(sensorValue, DEC); //
prints the value read
delay(100);
// wait 100ms
for next reading
}
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MQ-7 Gas sensor
This is a simple-to-use Carbon Monoxide (CO) sensor, suitable for sensing CO

concentrations in the air. The MQ-7 can detect CO-gas concentrations anywhere
from 20 to 2000ppm.This sensor has a high sensitivity and fast response time.
The sensors output is an analog resistance.
FEATURES
High sensitivity to carbon monoxide
Stable and long life
Heating consumption About 350mW
APPLICATION
They are used in gas detecting equipment for
carbon monoxide(CO) in family and industry or car.
91

int sensorValue;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
port to 9600
}
// sets the serial
void loop()
{
sensorValue = analogRead(0);
// read
analog input pin 0
Serial.println(sensorValue, DEC); // prints
the value read
delay(100);
// wait 100ms for
next reading
}
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Electrat (condensor) microphone
DESCRIPTION
An electret microphone is a type of condenser microphone, which eliminates the need for
a polarizing power supply by using a permanently charged material.
APPLICATIONS
1.Telephones
2.Handheld devices
3.Recording devices
4.2-way
communications
5.Audio/visual
equipment
6.Flow detectors
7.GPS systems
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void setup()
{ Serial.begin(9600); }
void loop()
{ Serial.println(analogRead(0));
delay(300); }
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PIR sensor
PIR sensors allow you to sense motion, almost always
used to detect whether a human has moved in or out of
the sensors range.
PIRs are basically made of a pyroelectric sensor which
can detect levels of infrared radiation.
FEATURES
1. Operating voltage: 4.5V to 20V DC
2. Static power consumption: 65 micro-amps
3. Output Logic level : High-3.3V, Low-0V
4. Delay Time: adjustable (5-200S +-3%)
5. Blocked Time: 2.5 Seconds Default
6. Trigger Jumper: L No Repeat, H Repeated
Trigger(Default)
7. Sensing range: <1400 , 3-7 meters(Adjustable)
8. Operating temperature: -20 -+800 C
95

void setup()
{ Serial.begin(9600);}
Serial.println("Warming up...");
delay(20000); }
void loop()
{ Serial.print("IN2 = ");
Serial.println(digitalRead(2), DEC);
delay(200); }
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Infrared transmitter and reciever
Infrared proximity sensor has an analog

output that varies from 2.8V at 15cm to
0.4V at 150cm with a supply voltage
between 4.5 and 5.5VDC.
Features
1. Distance measuring range : 20 to 150
cm
2. Analog output type
3. Package size : 29.51321.6 mm
4. Consumption current : Typ. 33 mA
5. Supply voltage : 4.5 to 5.5 V
Applications
1. Touch-less switch
(Sanitary equipment, Control of
illumination, etc. )
2. Sensor for energy saving
(ATM, Copier, Vending machine, Laptop
computer,
LCD monitor)
97

const int x;
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);}
void loop()
{
x = analogRead(2);
Serial.println(x);
}
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DHT11 Humidity sensor

DHT11 digital temperature and humidity sensor is a
composite Sensor contains a calibrated digital signal
output of the temperature and humidity.
2Applications
HVAC, dehumidifier, testing and inspection
equipment, consumer goods, automotive, automatic
control, data loggers, weather stations, home
appliances, humidity regulator, medical and other
humidity
measurement and control.
3Features
Low cost, long-term stability, relative humidity and
temperature measurement, excellent quality, fast
response, strong anti-interference ability, long
distance signal transmission, digital signal output,
and
precise calibration.
99

int potpin=0;
int ledpin=12;
int potval=0;
Void setup()
{
pinMode(ledpin,OUTPUT);
}
Void loop(){
Potval= analogRead(potpin);
digitalWrite(ledpin,HIGH);
Delay(potval);
digitalWrite(ledpin,LOW);
Delay(potval);
}
100
Accelerometer sensor
The ADXL335 is a small, thin, low power, complete 3-axis accel-erometer with
signal conditioned voltage outputs. The product measures acceleration with a
minimum full-scale range of 3 g
FEATURES
Small and thin
4 mm 4 mm 1.45 mm LFCSP package
Wide supply voltage range: 2.4 V to 5.25 V
Low power: 350 A at VS = 2.4 V (typ)
Good sensitivity accuracy
X-axis and Y-axis aligned to within 0.1 (typ)
Single-supply operation
10,000 g shock survival
APPLICATIONS
Cost-sensitive motion- and tilt-sensing applications
Smart hand-held devices
Sports and health-related devices
PC security and PC peripherals
101

const int groundpin = 18;
// analog input pin 4
const int powerpin = 19;
// analog input pin 5
const int xpin = A3;
// x-axis of the accl.
const int ypin = A2;
// y-axis
const int zpin = A1;
// z-axis (only on 3-axis
void setup()
{
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(groundpin, OUTPUT);
pinMode(powerpin, OUTPUT);
digitalWrite(groundpin, LOW);
digitalWrite(powerpin, HIGH);
}
void loop()
{
Serial.print(analogRead(xpin));
Serial.print("\t");
Serial.print(analogRead(ypin));
Serial.print("\t");
Serial.print(analogRead(zpin));
Serial.println();
102
delay(100);

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Transducers and Instrumentation

Fig. 1. The Sensing Process

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Light Dependant Resistor (LDR),

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

1) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

= the resistance of the conductor at temperature t (0C)

It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

= constant of the thermocouple

Use op-amp to process/amplify the voltage

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

This figure shows

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Small size and low cost

Fast response over narrow temperature range

Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient

Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence

Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due

Non linearity in resistance vs temperature

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Thermistors (thermally sensitive resistors); Platinum

Resistive Position Transducer

A common requirement in industrial measurement and control

Figure shows the construction of a displacement transducer uses a

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Positional Sensors: potentiometer

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Positional Sensors: Rotary Encoders

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Rotary plate capacitor

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Rotary plate capacitor:

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Positional Sensors: Inductive Proximity Switch

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

: the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

K= the gauge factor

From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Metallic strain gauge formed from thin resistance

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Positional Sensors: LVDT

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Brushed motor permanent magnets on armature, rotor acts as electromagnet

Light sensors: photoconductive cells

Electronics & Instrumentation EO-102

Light level sensitive switch