CHAPTER 1

Crystal Properties
BITS Pilani
Hyderabad Campus

EEE F214 / ECE F214 / INSTR F214

Meenakshi Viswanathan
Electronic Devices

Learning Outcomes
1. Understanding the relationship between atomic structure and physical properties
of semiconductors.
2. Interpreting electronic band structure using quantum mechanics.
3. Identifying the semiconductor properties that determine the performance of
electronic devices.
4. Calculating the carrier concentrations and conductivity of a semiconductor using
given doping concentrations.
5. Understanding the basic physics of charge carriers in solids and carrier transport in
semiconductors.
6. Deriving equations of charge transport in semiconductors under normal operating
conditions.
7. Applying the charge diffusion equation to electronic devices and deriving their I-V
characteristics.
8. Utilizing defect densities and carrier recombination processes to calculate
generation and recombination rates in semiconductor devices.
9. Understanding the physics of optoelectronic devices.
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Course Plan
Lecture
No.
1
2-4
5-8

Topic
Introduction to the subject
and course details
Crystal Structure
Review of semiconductor
fundamentals.

9-11

Charge carriers in
semiconductors,

12-14

Effect of electric and

magnetic fields on drift of
carriers
Excess carriers in
semiconductors

15-19

20-27

Junctions

28-32

Field Effect Transistors

33-38

Bipolar Junction Transistors

39-42

Optoelectronic devices

Learning Objectives

Reference to text

Cubic Lattices, Planes & Directions

Fundamentals of quantum physics, Schrdinger
wave equation, tunneling, uncertainty principle

1.2.1 1.2.3
3.1.3, 3.1.4, 3.2

Fermi level, equilibrium carrier concentrations,

temperature dependence, space charge
neutrality
Conductivity and mobility, Hall effect

3.3

Interaction of photons with semiconductors,

generation and recombination mechanisms of
excess carriers, quasi-fermi levels in nonequilibrium

4.1 4.4

PN junctions, I-V characteristics, biasing,

breakdown diodes, Metal semiconductor
junctions, Tunnel Diode, Varactor diode
To understand the structure and working of
JFET, MOSFET, I-V characteristics and
secondary effects

5.2 5.7, 10.1

BJT operations, amplifications, carrier

distribution, I-V characteristics etc. and
secondary effects,
Photoelectric effect, Solar cells, Photodiodes,
Light Emitting Diodes(LED), Lasers and
Semiconductor Lasers

7.1, 7.3 7.7, 7.9

3.4-3.5

6.2,6.3.1,6.3.3,
6.4.1-6.4.5, 6.5.16.5.4, 6.5.6,6.5.8

2.2.1, 8.18.4

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Classification of Solids

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Crystal
Ideal Crystal: Infinite repetition of identical
structural units in space.
Structural Unit: Single atom such as in
copper, gold, etc. It many comprise many
atoms or molecules.

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Lattice
Structure of all crystals defined in terms of lattice
with a group of atoms attached at every lattice
point (basis); repeated in space to form crystal
structure.
A lattice is a regular periodic array of points in
space.

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Two Dimensional Crystals

Crystal Structure = Lattice + Basis

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Two Dimensional Crystals

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Two Classes of Lattice

Bravais Lattice
All Lattice points equivalent.
Non-Bravais Lattice
Some of the lattice points are nonequivalent.

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Bravais Lattice
Summarizes only the geometry of the underlying periodic
structure, regardless of what the actual units may be.
(a)

An infinite array of discrete points with an arrangement

and orientation that appears exactly the same from
whichever of the points the array is viewed

(b) All points with position vectors of the form

R = n1a1+n2a2+n3a3
ai are primitive vectors generate the lattice
ni are integers

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Primitive Translation Vectors

T = n1a1 + n2a2

Position vector of any lattice site in 2-D

Choice of primitive translation vector not
unique

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Identify which ones are

primitive translation vectors.

All pairs are translation vectors

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Different Choices of Primitive

Vectors

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SC Primitive vectors

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BCC Primitive Vectors

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FCC Primitive Vectors

z

2
y
3

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Primitive Unit Cell

A primitive cell or primitive unit cell

is a volume of space that when
translated through all the vectors in a
Bravais lattice just fills all of space
without either overlapping itself or
leaving voids.
A primitive cell must contain precisely
one lattice point.
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Unit Cell

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Unit Cell

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Crystallographic Points,
Planes and Directions
How to define points, directions, planes?

Why all these schemes?

Just understand the properties of the unit cell to
understand the macroscopic properties of the solid.

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Parameters of a unit cell

Unit cells may be described via these vectors
and angles
a, b, and c define axes of a 3D coordinate
system.

Right handed coordinate system

The axes need not be mutually perpendicular.

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Point Coordinates
To define a point within a unit cell.
Express the coordinates uvw as fractions of unit cell vectors a, b, and c
pt. coord.
pt.

b
origin

x (a)

y (b)

z (c)

1/2

1/2

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Crystallographic Directions
z

1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass

through origin.

2. Read off projections in terms of

unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
3. Adjust to smallest integer values

4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

ex: 1, 0,
-1, 1, 1

=> 2, 0, 1
=>

[ 111 ]

[uvw]
=> [ 201 ]

where overbar represents a negative index

families of directions <uvw>

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Symmetry Equivalent
Directions
Note: for some crystal structures, different
directions can be equivalent.
e.g. For cubic crystals, the directions are all
equivalent by symmetry:
[1 0 0], [ 1 0 0], [0 1 0], [0 1 0], [0 0 1], [0 0 1 ]

Families of crystallographic directions

e.g. <1 0 0>

Angled brackets denote a family of crystallographic directions.

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Families and Symmetry :

Cubic Symmetry
z

[010]
Rotate

90o

about z-axis

y
[100]
x

z
Rotate 90o about y-axis

[001]

Symmetry operation can

generate all the directions
within in a family.

Similarly for other

equivalent directions

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Crystallographic Planes
Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial intercepts for a
plane, cleared of fractions & common multiples. All parallel
planes have same Miller indices.
Algorithm

1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in

terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

27
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Crystalographic Planes
example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals
3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

a
1
1/1
1
1

b
1
1/1
1
1

1/
0
0

(110)

y
b

a
x
z

example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals
3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

a
1/2
1/
2
2

1/
0
0

1/
0
0

y
a

(200)

x
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Crystallographic Planes
z
example

1.

Intercepts

1/2

3/4

2.

Reciprocals

1/

1/1

1/

2
3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

4/3

(634)

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100),

(010),

(001),

(100),

(010),

(001)
29
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Crystallographic Planes

30
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In cubic crystals, show that planes and directions

with same Indices are perpendicular to one another?

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Families of Lattice Planes

Given any plane in a lattice, there is a infinite set of parallel lattice planes
(or family of planes) that are equally spaced from each other.
One of the planes in any family always passes through the origin.

The Miller indices (hkl) usually refer to the plane that is

nearest to the origin without passing through it.
You must always shift the origin or move the plane
parallel, otherwise a Miller index integer is 1/0, i.e.,!
Sometimes (hkl) will be used to refer to any other plane
in the family, or to the family taken together.

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FCC (100)
z

y
Distance between (100) planes

Look down this direction

(perpendicular to the plane)

Distance to (200) plane

d100 a
d200

a
2

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FCC (110)

Distance between (110) planes

d110

a 2
2
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Diamond Lattice

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Diamond Structure

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Diamond

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus