Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
CONCRETE INSPECTION
Donald E. Dixon
Claude E. Jaycox
Chairman
Secretary
Edward A. Abdun-Nur
Gordon A. Anderson
Joseph F. Artuso
John F. Cook
Robert L. Henry
Charles J. Hookham
Robert S. Jenkins
Thomas A. Johnson
Francis W. Joyce
Julia G. Consuegra
Maro R. Diaz
Lawrence Dombrowski, Jr.
Chaman L. Grover
Terrell R. Harper
Marke E. Vincent
Publication SP-2(92)
American Concrete Institute
Eighth Edition
Copyright
(1:)
All rights reserved including rights to reproduction and use in any form or by any means,
including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or mechanical device,
printed or written or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any
knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the
copyright proprietors.
The Institute is not responsible for the statements or opinions expressed in its publications.
Institute publications are not able to nor intended to supplant individual training, responsibility,
or judgment of the user, or the supplier, of the information presented.
PREFACE
This book is for tbe guidance, assistance, and instruction of concrete inspectors and otbers engaged in concrete
construction, such as field engineers, construction superintendents, supervisors, laboratory and field tecbnicians and
inspeetors, and workers. Journeymen may find it valuable as a reference for improving their work, while apprentices can
use it as an effective instruction manual. Altbougb designers' duties are primarily confined to office work tbey may find
the manual a valuable tool wbicb provides a ready description of tbe various details of concrete construction. Sucb information may enable designers to better adapt tbeir designs to tbe realities of field construction.
Because of tbe diverse possible uses of tbe manual, and the varied backgrounds of tbe readers, it includes the
reasons bebind tbe tecbnical instructions.
Except for tbe seventb edition, each previous edition included a series of minor revisions over tbe previous edition.
The seventh edition was completely rewritten. This eighth edition was revised wbere deemed necessary or required due
to changes in reference documents. Much of the older material has been retained because experience bas sbown it to
be useful and technically correet. However, tbe field of concrete construction is ever cbanging, and some of the biggest
advances in modern day construction have taken place in the concrete field. A list of onIy a few of the recent developments in materials, equipment, and processes include: shrinkage-compensating cement, sopbisticated admixtures, fibrous
concrete, epoxy resins, bigh capacity and automated concrete production equipment, very bigh strengtb concrete, and
systems building. While tbere has seldom been reason to change the fundamentals developed earlier, added material is
neeessary to recognize new teehnology. The field of inspection bas been drastically expanded, and the approach and
emphasis modified in recent years, without change to the basic teehnology of the past. The need to cover all items wbich
affeet inspection has been tbe reason for continuing our efforts in revising tbis ACI Manual o[ Concrete Inspection.
In preparing tbis edition of tbe manual, as witb previous editions, tbe task of ACI Committee 311 was not to make
policy on construction practices, but rather to interpret tbe policies set forth by otber autborized bodies. As before, the
main empbasis of tbe manual is on the technical aspects of inspeetion and construction. Administrative factors of inspeetion are generally limited to the frrst chapter.
Because tbis manual is general and broad in nature, no part of tbe manual should be included by reference in contract documents. Applicable inspection requirements for each project must be determined and speeified as neeessary.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The manual is based on information from many sources, organizations, and individuals whose contributions an
gratefuUy acknowledged. Many of the published references are listed at the end of the texto References to standarc
specifications and methods of testing are listed separately.
The original manuscript was prepared by Joe W. Kelly, author-chairman of Comnttee 611, and revised over:
period of years to achievc a frst edition in 1941. The second edition, also in 1941, inc1uded a number of corrections aDl
minor rcvisions. The tbird edition, in 1955, incorporated many constructive suggestions from users. The fourth edition
in 1957, brought several sections up to date and contained editorial corrections.
The fifth edition provided new information on scttlement of concrete, shoring and forming, strength requirements
cold weather concreting, and shotcrete. The sixth edition primarily provided updated information in aU chapters, anl
inc1uded editorial and substantive changes throughout.
The seventh edition presented a complete revision of the manual by eliminating sections of the previous editiol
covering concreting methods no longer in use. Chapters 2, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 (partial), 16, 17, and 18 covered materia
which was inc1uded in the manual for the fust time. A1lother material was reviewed and updated as required to conforn
to current practice.
This edition, the eighth, has be en revised as deemed appropriate by the comnttee. Members were assigned chap
ters to review and their suggestions were discussed. Member Oswin Keifer, Jr., was especiaUy helpful in getting the re
visions in order so the full comnttee could make appropriate review. The comnttee thanks Mr. Kiefer. Also membe
Lewis H. TutbiU, a long-time member of tbis comnttee and past president of ACI, retires from active participation witl
his ACI activities. For aU his help over the years, Committee 311 is truly grateful.
Iv
--
DEDICATION
ACI Committee 311, Inspection of Concrete, would like to pay tribute to Lewis H Tuthill ("Tut" to his legion of friends
and admirers.) A pioneer in quality concrete, he has been a giant among its advocates for over half a century. His conceros range from design, tbrough material selection, to construction, including testing and inspection.
Tut, a Past President and Honorary Member of ACI, has had a long and distinguished career, mostly with the Federal
Govcrnment and the State of California. In "retirement" he has worked as a very active consultant, both in the United
States and abroad. The list of his ACI publications on how to achieve quality concrete is endlcss. He has also been a
frequent lecturer on the subject. The Lewis H. TuthiU International Symposium on Concrete and Concrete Construction
was held at the 1987 ACI FalI Convention in Seattle, in recognition of his long advocacy and practice of quality concrete.
(Thc papers were published in a special symposium volume, SP-104.)
Tut has been a member of Committee 311 (formerly Cornmittee 611) since 1953, serving as its second chairman from
1956 to 1962. The fourth edition of this manual was published during his chairmanship. He has made significant contributions to every subsequent edition of the Manual, including this one. During his long service he has been a friend and
guide to two generations of young engineers, teaching and encouraging them, formally and by example.
This edition of the inspection Manual is dedicated to Lewis H. Tuthill with sincere appreciation, respect, and affection.
CONTENTS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DEDICATION
1. INSPECTION AND THE INSPECTOR
INSPECTION PROCESSES AND ORGANIZA TION
THE INSPECTOR
REFERENCE LlBRARY
MEASUREMENT AND TOLERANCES
SAFETY
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
MATERIALS
OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
6. CONCRETE MIXES-PROPORTIONING
AND CONTROL
METHODS OF SPECIFYING CONCRETE PROPORTIONS
vi
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
44
46
47
49
52
54
54
58
61
65
65
65
72
72
9. CONCRETING OPERATIONS
SITE CONDITIONS
HANDLING OF CONCRETE
CONSOLIDATION
FINISHING
CONSTRUCTlON JOINTS
73
73
73
76
80
82
84
84
85
87
89
89
91
91
91
93
93
93
95
97
97
97
97
100
100
13. PAVEMENT
102
102
103
104
CONCRETE
PAVING
ACCEPTANCE
JOINTS
WEATHER PROBLEMS
PROTECTION FROM PREMATURE TRAFFIC
BRIDGE DECKS
10.
10<
11'
11
11
11
11
14. ARCHITECTURAL
11
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
CONCRETE
GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND COOPERATION
UNIFORMITY
INSPECTION PROCEDURES
FORMS
REINFORCEMENT
CONCRETE MATERIALS
MIXES AND MIX PROPORTIONS
BATCHING, MIXING AND TRANSPORTING
PLACING AND CONSOLlDATION
FINISHING-SURFACE
TREATMENT
EXPOSED AGGREGATE FINISH
CURING
REPAIRS
PRECAST MEMBERS
POST-FINISHING PROTECTION AND ERECTION
FINAL ACCEPTANCE
METHODS
SLlPFORMING VERTICAL STRUCTURES
SLlPFORMING CAST-IN-PLACE PIPE
TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
LlFT-SLAB CONSTRUCTION
PREPLACED AGGREGATE CONCRETE
UNDERWATER CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
VACUUM CONCRETE
PUMPING CONCRETE
'.'
SHOTCRETE
121
121
12;
13'
13
13:
13:
13:
13!
141
141
14:
14:
14
141
141
14i
14.
14!
15:
15
151
161
163
163
163
167
168
168
168
170
172
172
172
174
174
176
, 176
180
180
180
181
182
182
21. REFERENCES
188
190
23. CHECKLlST
195
OF INSPECTION
APPENDIX
GUIDE FOR CONCRETE INSPECTION (ACI 311.4R-80) (REVISED 1984)
BATCH PLANT INSPECTION AND FIELD TESTING OF READY-MIXED CONCRETE
METRIC CONVERSION
TABLE
198
(ACI 311.5R-88)
213
INDEX ........................................................................
215
Ix
CHAPTER 1-lNSPECTION
INSPECTION PROCESSES
AND ORGANIZATION
Need
for inspection
or
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Importance of specifications
This manual provides details and descriptions of
practices involved in good workmansbip as well as procedures considered necessary to assure satisfactory
concrete construction.
It cannot be empbasized too strongly, bowever, tbat
the inspector is strictly govemed by the requirements of the
contract documents, wbich are a part of tbe contract
------
INSPECTION
INSPECTION
tbat the requirements of the contract documents (drawings and specifications) are fulfilled. It states in part:
For the protection of the owner and the public, the
responsibility for inspection should be vested in the
designer as a continuing function of design responsibility. The responsibility of the designer for inspection
may be discharged directly, or through employees, or
may be delegated to an inspection agency seleeted by
tbe designer. In those cases in wbicb the owner provides the engineering service, tbe owner sbould select
tbe inspection agency. The fee for inspeetion should be
a separate and distinct item and should be paid by tbe
owner directly to the designer or to tbe inspeetion
agency. In as mucb as final responsibility for inspeetion
rests witb tbe designer, close surveillance over wboever
is carrying out tbe details of inspeetion sbould be maintained. At no time sbould acceptance inspeetion or
testing be made a function of tbe construction contractor, except wben required by law or applicable regulations or wben the owner considers tbat its interest is
best served by sucb an arrangement. Furthermore, as a
professional service, the selection of inspection services
sbould be based on qualifications.
The guide furtber states tbat tbe designer sbould
avoidtbe undesirable practice of arranging payment for
acceptance inspection and testing services tbrougb tbe
contractor. Sucb practice is not in tbe owner's interest.
Impartial service is difficult under sucb circumstances,
and the cost is eventually paid by tbe owner in any
case.
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
'-<
--
--
---
----------------------------------------
INSPECTION
THEINSPECTOR
Quallflcations of the Inspector
Inspectors must be persons of integrity who have both
practical experience and a technical understanding of the
principIes involved in the assigned construction.
They
should know how and why the work is to be done in a certain way. Inexperienced but technicaUy trained persons
should serve for a period of on-the-job training under the
supervision of more experienced individuals before working
alone.
Increasing attention to control of quality and to refinements of concrete construction often caUs for higher standards of materials and workmanship than were formerly accepted. Sophisticated design methods place more reliance
on the assurance of uniformly high quality concrete.
Superior concrete can be produced without excessive cost if
its producers are vigilant and aware of its requirements.
Inspectors, to be effective, should have sufficient support
from management. Inspectors must be observant, able to
evaluate the relative importance of various work items, and
provide greater attention to the important matters. Above
aU, inspectors must be completely familiar with all acceptance criteria of the contract documents. Inspectors should
always promptly document and report nonconformances to
the contractor's and their own supervision.
Education and certiflcation of inspectors
Properly trained inspectors are much more effective than
those without training. Inspectors can get initial technical
education at junior colleges, trade schools, and similar
educational institutions, but should continually improve their
technical training. It is well worthwhile Cor employers to
encourage tbis effort and provide assistance. The employer
should provide periodic training courses to make certain that
the inspectors receive up-to-date knowledge and training.
Certification of inspectors and technicians is becoming
the norm and should be mandatory. It provides tbird party
assurance that the inspector or technician possesses at least
the basic skills and knowledge to perform the job. Some
states directly require certification, but in most cases the
requirement is placed in industry standards and then
spccified in the building codeso Presently the foUowing
industry standards contain an ACI certification requirement:
ACI311.4R
ACI311.SR
ACI 349
ASTM C 94
ASTM C 1077
ASTM E 329
Authorlty of the Inspector
It is imperative that the inspector's supervisor, at the
start of each job, explain clearly and in detail the authority
that the inspector has as weU as action to be taken in various
INSPECTION
supervlsors,
and
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
L1BRARY
INSPECTION
MEASUREMENT
AND TOLERANCES
INSPECTION
11
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CHAPTER 2-STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS FOR QUALlTY ASSURANCE
(QUALlTY CONTROL AND QUALlTY ACCEPT ANCE)
Quality assurance as used herein refers to aU of the
programs and functions involved in obtaining the quality of concrete materials and concrete itself which will
provide satisfactory service of the desired concrete
structures. It includes design, production, sampling,
testing, and decision criteria. The two functions which
make up quality assurance are quality control, primarily
a function of the contractor, and quality acceptance,
primarily a function of the owner or the owner's representative.
In the past, to a large extent, the owner has been
assured of quality primarily through the combined skills
and experience of the designer and the contractor involved. Properly applied, such an approach has produced concrete structures of satisfactory quality.
However, modern concrete construction has attained a
rate such that the approach used in the past has often
been unable to keep pace. In addition, the work load
of skilled designers has increased to the point that
many activities and decisions have been delegated to
individuals whose skiUsand experience often are inadequate for on-the-spot decisions that the skilled designer
previously made. Further complicating the problem are
legal requiremeuts for documentary evidence of satisfactory compliance.
TRADITIONAL
QUALlTV ASSURANCE
Knowndistribulion01 one101
.j
Pass
.50
Pass
lrili2!J.m
I
.50
I1
Probabilily
Foil
(.50) = (.75)
I
Resomple
_-1'------I
I
.50
Foil
(.25)_
Foil
Probobilily
.50
Poss
Overollprobobilily_(.25)
OVERALL PROBABILlTY
STATISTICAL
STATISTICAl
CONCEPTS
QUAlITY ASSURANCE
CONCEPTS
IN
FOR QUALITY
ASSURANCE
terials, sueh as highway paving projeets, large dams, and airfield paving. Use of statistical coneepts has proved not only
feasible but very effective and efficient where properly
applied.
BASIC STATISTICAl
PROCEDURES AS APPlIED
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
riskand
situations
Protects
defects
ahle
reJzation
#X
#against
#ability
7inherent
7X
Low
unknown
unknown
Protects
Low
risk
in
X
knowledgecycles
sampler
organipattems
Higb
Simple
against
cacb
individual
the
same
.I=Satisfies
column
beading
at
uniform
interva
\stwo
in
by
time
day.
location,
etc.,
sample
inofsuccessive
such
ahas
tbat
judgment
distribution
ofaor
sample
parts
independently
rrom
amore
(seleclting
eacb
ormanner
(selecling
ohservations
STRAllFIED
SAMPLING
SYSTEMAllC
SAMPLING
JUDGMENT
SAMPLING
(based
QUOTA
SAMPLING
(making
RANDOM
SAMPLING
(selecting
\.
known
defects
##
Protects
against
TO
require
Does not
10
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
1.
.J
3 miles
Portlond cemenl concrete
poving projecI
Divide projecl
inlo lols
X2 =8.2S"
X3=8.30"
X4=8.1S"
XS=8.10"
The resull 01 01101 Ihe meosurements is o
somple 01 povement thickness olsize n=S for 1011.
SUb'O!TSUb'O!iSUb'O!tSub'O!
Sublo!
[";X5
x31xA
Sample Incremen!
( average of 2)
Sample Incremen!
(average of 2 )
B
One sample of size n =
of
test
5
portion,
sample
STATISTICAL
BASIC STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS
CONCEPTS
25
1III
-l- I
.1
.
-,
-1-
5
95.45%
68.27%
25
I v= 13.2%
FOR QUALITY
11
ASSURANCE
Xl
+ X2 + X3 + ...
n
+ X"
= ~ [_(X_I
A form simpler
calculators is:
n -_X_i
1
X_)_2_+_(X_2_-
and more
...
adaptable
n ~ 1 (L(xi)
+ (X"
xi
- (EnX/)
. XII
: 5 = 462p5i
where n
= number of values;
L (xi)
EX;
v=
Coefficient of variation
This is the sample standard
percentage of the average.
V
deviation expressed
as a
l~s
X
2400
00 3600
"00 4000
"00 4400
'.00
R = Sample range
The numerical difference between the largest observed value
(highest test result) and the smallest observed value (lowest
test result)
le = Specified compressive strength of concrete
fer
12
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
TOOLS
11..- _
INSPECTION
fa
'2.
le
l.34s
fa
'2.
le
2.33s - 500
where
fer
psi
STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS
13
le (or fa - 1.34 s)
and the "action" line at
~~t~~=~
I .;.;f~:
. .
~
. <1.r.M."'"
"
Ov*'QIIstondord
deviotion
connot be reod fl'OlTllCOle.
i~1,st 2~';',~!,i'l$.(~v;"';.,.
Scrnpling
-".
ASSURANCE
No.
~~
f ~'"'
FOR QUAUTY
ISs
3 ::~~:"'l~':~..$~~'
.
4 -~.~~~.,
Ma1eia1
DSm
5 ~~~'~~fJ;:;~'~).,,~.;,;A;:-~~~ZJ~~7~~~~~,
200
400
600
800
Componenlsof the varionce-psi
1000
/200
o[
Control charts
While frequency distributions
themselves are used
primarily to establish a proposed average compressive
strength of concrete before commencing work, control
charts are the primary
statistical
tools used for
evaluation of test results on the concrete and concrete
material s during construction.
Table 2.2-Standards
4.0
above
5.0
lO
6.0
250
2.0
3.0
300
above
lo
3.0
350
300
350
10
5.0
POOR
500
600
FAIR
GOOD
lO
lo
700
600
700
4.0
200
250
VERY
400
lo
500
GOOD
(42.2
lo
49.2)
(17.6
(21.1
21.1)
24.6)
(35.2
lo
49.2)
42.2)
(14.1
(above
lo
24.6)
17.6)
(28.1
35.2)
CrASS OF OPERATION
3.0
below
below200
2.0
400
14
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
lowerAveroge
oction
Upper
worning
Lower
Uppe'
warning
aclion limit
limil
Ilimil
imi1
+3
-1
INSPECTION
X
-2
-3
+2
+1
4000
.~
~3000
g'
~
.~ 2000+
\!!
u~ 4000
12345678910
..
Required S1renqth
f~. lo
---------
ot
Eoth """',
"""_
,,_"
fiw provious lest Oroups
Tesl romber
3000
'j,
300
~
~
Eoch
100
poinl averaQe
ten previous
ffi
7 8
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Test rumber
16
o,
range
Somple numbers
8.4
Upper controllimit
-----------------------
8.0
-! 7.6
e'"
7.2
g6.8
u
.: 6.4
e
'" 6.0
C'
~ 5.6
~ 5.2
MoYng
.-ag.
No.
Lower conlrolliinil
4.8
4.4
4.0
Fig.
2.7- Typical
horizontal
This chapter gives a background of the underlying concepts for use of statistics in quality assurance programs for
concrete construction, together with examples of the proced-
STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS
FOR QUALITY
15
ASSURANCE
Solutlon
1. Lot size-The lot size is a day's praduction of 9 hours
because tbe plant starts at 7:30 a.m. and stops at 4:30 p.m.
2. Sublot size-Divide tbe lot into five equal sublots by
selecting five equal time intervals during tbe 9 bours tbat tbe
plant is operating. The time interval for eacb sublot is :
=
Coution
Operotional
-.
control
3:+2222:2:2'22'J02:2~~22:l:lfS0;Z2'L22
34
'-....
o.!:!
g : 26%
.!
" >
>
"en
iii
""
::~;:;:;;;';:~~~1~~~~~~::::S::7:GG}772:YVJ::[':::
90
85
Operationol control
g~
80
,,>
u 75
Sublot 1
Sublo! 2
Sublot 3
Sublot 4
Sublot 5
70
,;
90
85
a..
ti ;;.~~~~~~_
'"
~--:
,."
...
M
M
e~
5~e~
eci.
CIC
'"
...
....
ci.
;1;
ci.
APPENDIX 1-SAMPLlNG BY
RANDOM NUMBERS
Example 1-Sampling by time sequence
Sampling will be done at tbe place of manufacture.
(For example, tbe manufacture of aggregate, concrete,
or precast products.) The task is to select tbe sample
inerements by means of a stratified random sampling
plan to distribute tbe sampling over a balf day or a full
day, wbicbever is more applicable.
The contract documents will define tbe lot size,
number of sublots per 101, aml/or tbe number of sample
inerements per 101. For tbis example assume tbe contraet documents state tbat tbe lot size is a day's produetion, tbat five sublots are required fram eacb lot,
and tbat one sample increment per sublot must be obtained. The plant operates for 9 br (fram 7:30 a.m. to
4:30 p.m.) to accomplisb one day's production.
Assume tbat tbe plant is running continuously tbraugb the
luneh periodo (Alternatively, one migbt assume a
sampling time to coincide witb tbe actual bours of
production.)
Fig. A1-1-Relationship
interval
Use tbe table of random numbers (rabie A1-1) to randomize tbe timing of sample increments. Cboose consecutive random numbers from either tbe X or Y columns. The
particular column to use may be specified by tbe inspector' s
supervisor.
For tbis example, use Column X to obtain tbe timing of
five sample increments. Note tbat Column Y could have
be en used instead and tbat any five consecutive values could
be selected by starting at any point in tbe table.
Cboosing tbe first five numbers from Column X, tbe numbers are 0.471, 0.6936, 0.6112, 0.7930, and 0.0652. To randomize tbe sampling time witbin eacb sublot, use tbe time
interval (108 min) computed in Step 2. This time interval is
multiplied by eacb of tbe five random numbers selected
previously.
16
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
RANDOM
X
.........
PosmONS
IN DECIMAL
FRACTIONS
(4 PLACES)
INSPECTION
1
2
3
4
5
7:30 a.m.
9:18 a.m.
11:06 a.m.
12:54 p.m.
2:42 p.m.
Sampling
min
+ 75 min
+ 66 min
+ 86 min
+ 7 min
+ 51
time
8:21 a.m.
10:33 a.m.
12:12 p.m.
2:20 p.m.
2:49 p.m.
Example 2-Sampllng
by material welght
Assume that the contract documents specify a lot size
of 3000 tons with five sublots per lot and that one sample
increment per sublot must be obtained. In addition, assume
that the total tonnage required for the project is 15,000 tons.
The sampling wilI be done from the hauling units at the
manufacturing source.
Solutlon
This solution follows the same basic pattern as the solution given for the previous example. First identify the lot
size and then determine the number of lots, sublot size, and
finalIy the point at which to obtain the sample increments.
1. Lot size and number of lots. Since there are 15,000
tons required for the project and the lot size is 3000 tons,
the total number of lots is:
Number 01 wts =
gto measurea along
starting point (or decimal (raction o( otber units)
y = Decimal (raction o( road (rom outside edge toward centerline (or decimal (raction o( otber units)
R = Indicates measurement (rom rigbt edge
L = Indicates measurement (rom le(t edge
51
75
7 min
86
66
min
Sublot #1:
0.4721
108
Lo
108
15,000 tons
= 5 wts
3000 tons per wt
STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS
FOR aUALITY
17
ASSURANCE
Solution
1. Lot size and number of lots.
Lot size = 5000 lin ft
0.1818
Random
Ton
be
toas to
l09tb
0.8362
534tb
Number
0.2364
0.8908
502nd
142nd
600
0.9181
551st
sampled
Sublot
size,
+ 00
20 000 ft
'
= 4lots
ft per lot
SOOO
Sublot #1:
+ 502
551
142 =
1134th
+ 534ton=
Lot ton
- ton
5000 ft
2542nd
2302nd
109th
1751st
Sublotsize
= _5_000_ft~p_er_lo_t_
= l(xx) ft per sublot
S sublots
per lot
Sublot
Sublot 2
+
8~+..8+..
~
Sublot 3
....
<;)
<;)
Sublot 4
Sublot 5
'<1'
8
+
Sublot 2
Sublot 3
Sublot 4
Sublot 5
sublot
ton
600
(typica1)
Fig. AI-2-Relationship
quantity interval
---,
x
LOCATION
8
+
8
..
SAMPLE INCREMENT ~
~y
I
I
..-.
Fig. AI-4-
8
+
o..
..
~-----------------
18
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
variability is small, s (or TI) is small and the data are closel:
packed. Fig. A2-4 also shows that a high value of fer i
required when the variation is wide.
L
0.1545
R
0.6451
0.4000
of
lot
random
0.6727
12
0.2951
0.0441
0.4742
0.9483
Tra
number
DSVerse
4044.1
2948.3
3295.1
1474.2
565.1
474.2
random
L0.5651
0.1273
12
948.3
295.1
44.1
1000
1000
w
idth,
ft
from
from
start
start
ofright
Sublot
size,
Sublot
location,
size,
ft of
location,
ftleft
Sample
1.5
from
1.8
lengtb
7.7
from
rigbt
4.8
fram
8.1
fram
edge
Location
ofedge
sample,
ft
Longitudinal
Sample
from
edge
roadway
Upper
specitied
hmil
Meon ok
scotter (5) ok
~r(s)
I ~ I
~~~~Ok
toa lorge
DISTRIBUTION CURVES
Mecn 100 low
tor omounl ot
scotter (5)
a-Good precision
or uniformily
~tOOh;'h
,,
25
20
'"
, '<:'
/b-A:>oror unlform,'y
preci~ion
...
....
...
15
'O
'E
~
~
Fig. A2-1-Nonnal
10
distribution curves
l ..
--,.--
2000 2400
STATlSTICAL
CONCEPTS
FOR QUALITV
19
ASSURANCE
Note that
value n, which
The reason is
to compensate
tests.
s by Eq. (1a)
X
value,
psi
value
3315
3090
3510
2900
3690
3310
3100
3490
3295
3500
2910
3700
3110
3790
3300
3290
3105
2800
3305
3495
10,989,255*
9,548,100
12, 320,100
8,410,000
13,616,100
10,956,100
9,610,000
12,180,100
10,857,025
12,250,000
8,468,100
13,690,000
9,672,100
14,364,100
10,890,000
10,824,100
9,641,025
7,840,000
10,923,025
12,215,025
2
3
4
5
6
7
Numerical value al individual
tests
9
10
11
Tabular
3I4773
Sld,Multiple
Actual
DevlOfion(s)
Area
Value
as
Decimal
Part
49865
2(.49865=.9973
.3413
.2
2
(.4773)
.9546
01
Total
Area
Curve
2(.3413)
=Under
.6826
01
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
IX;
S -
------------
- ~ (Xl
xi
xi ...
(Xz n - -1
+ (XII -
X)2
66,005
I(X;Z)=
219,264,225
A1though the squared values have been wrilten here for illustration,
Ibis is unnecessa!)'
if Ibe calculalor pennits eacb squared number lo be
summed in memo!)' as il is compUled.
Eq.(l)
whereXp
66,0052 = 217,833,000
20
n
I:(X1 s=.I-----n
[(I:X/ln]
- 1
219,264,225
XZ
where
(X2) is the sum of the squares of all
individual tests, and (EXl is the square of the sum of
all individual tests.
.
s = ';75,327
- 217,833,000
19 .
= 274 psi
20
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Z
:>
.o
E
'O
.,
- I,I
5 o I 25
oI,, I25o o
5'10
.1
464
5o IIIlo
o
132%
II Y'
o : o
95.4%
-1-
-1-
I
682%
I
INSPECTION
xX
02
102
62
82
22
42
IX I
AO
s = 100 ~~C46=l5
= 465psi
Ol
2400 2600 2800 3000 3200 3400 3600 3800 4000 4200 4400 4600
Compressive strer>9fh.psi
"If "bar X" equals an odd number such as 3570. then the midpoinls of
the cells will be 3370. 3570. 3970L ete.
ter =
t.
STATISTICAL
CONCEPTS
FOR QUALITY
ASSURANCE
21
X.41.89
3$ Lirnits
~, 5.18
n ' 2
UCL51.63
LeL
Note:
Controllimits
bosed on
finl 30 subqroups
.32.15>
szeve
NI:Ite:ConIroIlimibbosedon
n
' 30
32
28
24
Fig. A4-2-Control
(percent passing)
Example calculations and control charts for moving average (five tests) for sand-equivalent test results and for coarse
aggregate material passing the l-in. sieve are shown in Examples 1 and 2, which are taken from Reference 8.
Example 1 - Calculatlons to determine movlng averages for the sand-equivalent test (See Fig. A4-3 for a
plot of the data)
Assume a contract document requirement for individual
test of not less than 73 and a moving average not less than
75. The caution zone for tbis example was arbitrarily set
between 75 and 80. The data tabulation and calculation are
shown below. The operation was discontinued and significant steps were taken by the contractor to correet the
deficiency before additional material was accepted.
APPENDIX 4-CONTROL CHARTS ON
CONCRETE MATERIALS
Normal1y the only concrete material property for
which control charts are maintained is aggregate gradation, usual1y for only a few of the sieve sizes. However, where aggregate quality is particularly important,
charts may be maintained on results of certain quality
tests although statistical1y tbis may be an improper
application. Typical control charts for aggregate gradation for individual tests and for range are shown in Fig.
A4-1 and A4-2.9 Plot gradation in individual percent
retained on the particular sieve.
90
10
15
20
25
30
40
22
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
--
- --
8-28-91
8-29-91
8-22-91
400
79
8-14-91
8-31-91
159
80
85
2543MOVING
8-11-91
8-18-91
8-24-91
6-25-91
9-7-91
9-5-91
385
320
396
323
240
75
74
+(e)
+result
=to
80
77
81
83
80.0
77.0
795
80.7
82.7
79.2
73.8
8-16-91
247
84
82
369
testDate
164
81
72
82.0results
68
Rounded
7983
AVERAGE
(a)
Example210 2-Calculations (minimum
to determine
movlng
number
Sum
(b) of
divided 1byCALCULA1l0NS
EXAMPLE
No. WAS
WERE
TAKEN
BY
THE
CONTRACTOR
TO CORRECT
764
12
11
not
shown
an control
charts.
38
Test
THE 73)
OPERA1l0N
DEFlCIENCY
ANO
BEFORE
SIGNIACANT
ADDmONAL
STEPS
MATERIAL
WAS THE
ACCEPTED.
(minimum
75) DlSCONTINUED
by engineer
averages for 1 1/2 In. waived
x 3/4 and
In.1 accepted
concrete aggregate
5
9
MaterialsIndividual
rejected
and results
(Maxlmum variatlon of percentage of material
passing 1 In. sleve) (See Flg. A4-4 for a plot of
the data)
The contraetor's proposed average Gob formula) is
26 pereent passing the one ineh sieve. Assume the
contraet doeuments allow an individual test variation of
14 pereent and a moving average variation of 12 pereent from the average submitted by the contraetor.
The eaution zone for tbis example was arbitrarily set
between 4 pereent higher than the lower Iimit and 4
pereent lower than the upper Iimit. Data tabulation and
caleulations follow.
38
34
.,
~30
-;;
.~
O>
-~
26
U>
a.
c:
.,
e 22
(a) These results will be rounded up to tbe next wbole number using tbe
same number of significant figures as in tbe individual test resulL
(b) The sum of tbe f!Vemost recent individual test results including tbe
current test resulL
18
(c) Sbow tbis test result as tbe fm;t value on tbe moving average control
chart.
--
- -
20
30
40
50
60
6-6-91
51
24
++ result
6-26-91
6-22-91
6-12-91
6-8-91
168
150
178
143
108
79+3=26.3
28
42
34
40
38
35
29
=to
26
34
36
29
27
25.5
33.6
30.0
35.6
28.6
27.0
6-27-91
196
38
39.2
test
6-5-91
524MOVING
30
37.8
Date189
Rounded
27
(e)
Sum
(b)
(Iimits
dividedAVERAGE
by
(a)
EXAMPLE
2 CALCULA1l0NS
Thousands
No. 14of toresults
6-20-91
6-16-91
DEFlCIENCY
BEFORE
ADDmONAL
numher
6-14-91 Tons -Test
ACCEPTED.
STEPS
TAKEN
DlSCONTINUED
BY
THE CONTRACTOR
ANO MATERIAL
SIGNIACANT
TO WAS
CORRECT
(Iimits
38 THE
%) OPERA1l0N
12 ta 40WERE
%) WAS
8
Individual
waived and accepted 1by engineer
and results not shown on control charts.
4-4 - Control chart of moving Materials
averagesrejected
for grading
5
210
934
10
THE
Fig. A
analysis
(a) These results will be rounded up to tbe next wbole number using tbe
same number of significant figures as in tbe individual test result.
(b) The sum of tbe f!Vemost recent individual test results including tbe
current test resulL
(c) Sbow tbis test result as tbe fm;t value on tbe moving average control
chart.
INSPECTIONITESTING
CHAPTER 3-INSPECTION
OF MATERIALS
23
24
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
AGGREGATES
INSPECTION[TESTING
Coal and lignite: Detrimental to surface appearance and cause difficulty in air entrainment.
Soft particles: Reduce performance of heavy-duty
floors and other concrete where surface hardness is
required.
Lightweight chert (with specific gravity less than
2.40): Reduces durability of concrete and is a cause of
OF MATERIALS
25
"popouts."
Sampllng
Select samples of processed aggregate for test
representative of the run of the material as it will be
when batched; i.e., from bins that discharge directly into
the mixer. Use sampling methods meeting AS1M D
75. In production of quality concrete, sampling of
aggregates may be the weakest link, and therefore it
should receive c10se attention.
Expect a reasonable amount of local variation in
the aggregate source and select samples so that the
effects of local variations are neither over- nor underemphasized. In judging test results, consideration may
be given to the statistical distribution of the amount of
undesirable material and the quality control charts of
previous samplings (see Chapter 2). For example, a
single c1aylump in one sample do es not in itself justify
rejection of an entire carload of aggregate, unless the
sample is obviously representative and is supported by
a degradation trend. In judging test results, accept or
reject aggregate in accordance with the contract documents for the project.
Samples may be taken from conveyors, bins, cars,
barges, or stockpiles. Methods of sampling from belts,
bins, and stockpiles are outlined in Chapter 19.
Sampling preferably should be from conveyors or from
the discharge opening of bins (Fig. 3.1). Stockpiles are
most difficult to sample properly and should be avoided
if possible. AS1M D 75 does not cover sampling stockpiles, but if it is necessary, take samples at three or four
points along the length and about mid-elevation of the
pile. Avoid segregated surface material. A satisfactory
method of sampling stockpiles is to use a front-end
loader to scoop material from the stockpile and then
remove sample material from the front of the scoop.
Select a quantity greater than the desired sample at
various intervals or at various places, and then blend
these quantities thoroughly. Obtain the sample from
this total quantity as described later.
The quantity of material represented by a single
sample may vary widely, typically one sample per carloado
The most representative sample possible is that
from a conveyor belt. For fine aggregate take scoopfuls
as the belt goes by until a bucketful is obtained, from
which the test sample can be split or quartered. For
coarse aggregate, take samples from the belt only if it
is practicable to stop it while all material on a short
MANUAL
26
OF CONCRETE
301
n3.01
55.55
75
9sand
37
62
15
4
7.25
85
aggregale
% by weigbl retaioed
coarse
aggregate
No. 4 lO
INSPECTION
INSPECTIONrrESTING
OF MATERIALS
27
MANUAL
28
OF CONCRETE
OVE'H-~
O
TOTAL MOI5TUQE::
NON E
INSPECTION
MOI5TURE-:
HE:GATNE
AIR.-DRY
~ . "
' ,1
MOl5T
5ATURATEDAND
.5URFACE-DR-Y
0,
',
"\{~j~~t:/ ;;~{l:~D~W~~.~
\,w!;(\~;:y
:::XW0r;;\
LE:55 THAN
EQUAL TO
AB50RPTION
ABSORPTIOH
CAPACITV
CAPACITV
5UI2F-ACE'
NE-6ATIVE
\'CAPACITV
f=ABSORPTION'
J
HON
GRE-ATER THAN
AB50RPTION
CAPAC.ITV
P05ITIVE:
INSPECTION{TESTING
OF MATERIALS
29
30
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
nta
ge o vOuu =
gravity
62.4 )
if u_
100 ( specific
1 - weight,
lb perx cuft
Always state the condition of the aggregate regarding moisture content and compactness when reporting the amount of voids. For dry rodded aggregate,
the method of determining voids just stated is described
in ASTM C 29. A formerly used method of determining voids by measuring the amount of water required to
fill a container of aggregate is subject to error caused
by entrapped air.
Tests for unit weight
The weight per unit volume of aggregates is used
in computing the amount of voids in aggregate, in
computing proportions of materials, and for conversion
of bulk volume quantities to weight, or vice versa.
The unit weight of a given type of aggregate as
used in the work varies with the degree of compaction
and with the moisture content. In Cine aggregate, the
"bulking" or fluffing apart of partic1es by films of
surface moisture may lessen the unit weight as much as
I ~
INSPECTION
25 percent.
To provide a uniformIy reproducible
basis of
measurement of ordinary aggregates, ASTM has adopted a
standard method of test for unit weight of aggregate (AS'TM
C 29). This test consists of compacting the dry aggregate
into a cylindrical container and weighing the aggregate. In
one method of compac~ion, fill the container in three layers,
rod each layer 25 times, then strike off the excess aggregate
level with the top of the container. The standard sizes of
container are as foUows:
cuft
10.0
Capacity,
14.0
8.0
11.2
11.5
11.0
Inside
Inside
11/2
1/3
diam.,
in.in.
height.
CONTAINER
size of
-----------
INSPECTION/TESTING
OF MATERIALS
31
WATER
_
unit weight
weight of surface
of damp loose - moisture in unit
aggregate
volume of damp
loose aggregate
ASTM tests for undesirable substances and properties, which may be required by contract documents
for aggregate, are:
A- Water-reducing admixtures
B - Retarding admixtures
C-Accelerating admixtures
Water-reducing and retarding admixtures
E- Water-reducing and accelerating admixtures
0-
32
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
FOR CONCRETE
STEEL REINFORCEMENT
JOINT MATERIALS
INSPECTION(TESTING
Instructions for sampling liquid and dry components of a job-mixed mastic joint filler are given in
Reference 5. Thoroughly mix the liquid component
before a sample is taken because it is susceptable to
separation. Obtain a sample of dry component by
usinga sample splitter or by "quartering." Ship samples
in tightly sealed canso
The successful performance of any joint sealant will
depend greatly on proper instaUation. Each step in the
construction and preparation of the joint to reccive the
sealant requires careful workmanship and thorough inspection. The contract documents for the work should
state the type of sealant, the method of instaUation, and
special features required in construction and preparation of the joint to receive it. Inspection of each joint
for cleanness and dryness is essential prior to placing
back-up material S, primers, or sealants. Check joint
widths and concrete temperatures against the design
assumptions if they are stated in the contract documents. In the absence of specified restrictions with
respect to temperature, avoid instaUation at above 90
F and below 40 F.
OF MATERIALS
33
34
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
CHAPTER 4-HANDLlNG
The quality of concrete produced depends on the
quality of the ingredients used. Contaminated, poorly
graded aggregates or old cements degrade the concrete.
Problems such as high or low yield, low strength, and
deterioration can often be traced to poor handling and
storage of materials. Comprehensive recommendations
for transporting and handling are found in ACI 304R.
CEMENT HANDLING AND STORAGE
Bulk storage of cement
..-~----~,-~-~-------------"
HANDLING
AND STORAGE
L ~-~.-=
INSPECTION
Minimize segregation
----,-----------...-------
HANDLING
AND STORAGE
OF MATERIALS
PREFERABLE
CRANE
OR OTHER
MEANS
PLACING MATERIAL
UNITS NOT LARGER
LOAD WHICH
ANO DO NOT
35
OBJECTIONABLE
OF
METHDDS
WHICH PERMIT THE
AGGREGATE
TO ROLL DOWN THE
SLOPE AS IT IS ADDED TO THE
PILE OR PERMIT HAULING
IN PILE IN
THAN A TRUCK-
LIMITEO
EQUIPMENT
TO OPERATE
OVER
SAME LEVEL REPEATEDLY.
ACCEPTABILITY--GENERALLY
OBJECTIONABLE
BULLDOZER
THE
STACKING
PRDGRESSIVE
LAYlRS DN SLOPE
NOT FLATTER
THAN 3: 1UNLESS rtATERIALS STRONGL Y
RES 1ST BREAKAGE.
METHODS
ARE ALSO
OBJECTIONABLE.
THESE
CORRECT
CHIMNEY
SURROUNDING
MATERIAL
FALLING
FROM END OF CONVEYOR
BELT TO PREVENT WIND FROM
SEPARATING
FINE ANO COARSE
MATERIALS.
OPENINGS
PROVIDED
AS REQUIRED
TO DISCHARGE
MATERIALS
AT VARIDUS
ELEVATIONS
ON THE PILE.
WHEN
INCORRECT
CONVEYORS.
MINIMIZED
LADDER.
UNFINISHED
STORAGE
NOTE:
OR
FINE
STDCKPILING
AGGREGATES
FINISHED
AGGREGATE
FROM
LARGE-SIZED
ELEVATED
BREAKAGE
BY USE OF
AGGREGATE
IS
A ROCK
STORAGE
(DRY MATERIALS)
IF EXCESSIVE
BY STOCKPILING
PLANT WILL BE
FINES
METHODS
REQUIRED.
CANNOT
USED.
BE AVOIDED
FINISH
SCRElNING
IN COARSE
PRIOR
AGGREGATE
TO
TRANSFER
FRACTIONS
TO
BATCH
Fig. 4.2 - Co"ect and inco"ect methods o/ handling and storing aggregates
36
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Avoiding contaminants
in vehicles
;:...J
HANDLING
37
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
38
INSPECTION
CHAPTER 5-FUNDAMENTALS
The inspector should "know concrete," that is, one
should know why as weU as how things are done. This
chapter presents some of the basic features of concrete
which affect the work of inspection. For detailed study
of principies and practice, see References 5, 12, 16, 17,
and ACI 224.1R.
GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS
OF
CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
REQUIREMENTS
AIR
50!.
WATER
j.---PASTE
AGGREGATE(FINE
15 %
_le
OF CONCRETE
70
AND
COARSE)
INERTMINERALFILLER------'~
01 typical concrete mix containing an air-entraining
FUNDAMENTALS
erease the durability, reduce surface scaling of pavements,add to the workability and cohesiveness, slightly
inerease resistance to sulfate attack by reducing permeability, and reduce segregation and bleeding.
Recommended practices regarding the use of airentrainedconcrete are given tbroughout tbis manual.
Settlement
39
OF CONCRETE
8000
0.5
o.~
WATER-CEMEHT
0.7
RATIO,
0.8
e,V WEIGHT
40
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
240
'O
v
'6
TYPE
.E
I CEMENT
No ca CI2
~200
c;
.s::
o.
~ 160
Ui
,..
':~ 120
Q.
Lt..:
80
r<I
,....
~ 40
2e
v..
.f
100'\ R.H.
28
90
~65
Age of Test-doys(log.scole)
Fig. 5.3 -At early ages, the higher the curing temperature the
higher the strengrh. However, high curing lemperalure may
resu/t in relotively /ow slrengrh at laler agd8
Heat of hydratlon
The reaction between the constituents o( portland
cement and water is accompanied by liberation o( heat. Part
of tbis heat escapes through the surface of the concrete, but
some is retained and the concrete gets warmer. Excessive
temperature rise is undesirable because it may reduce the
strength and it produces stresses that may cause cracks as
the temperature drops later. This is particularIy true where
temperature differentials exist between parts o( the mass and
where it is partiaUy restrained. In most concrete structures,
temperature rise is small and of little consequence. In heavy
mass concrete, where the heat escapes slowly, the
temperature rise will be somewhat as shown in Fig. 5.4. As
shown, the temperature rise depends on the type o( cement.
AIso, it is roughly proportional to the cement content o( the
concrete.
To control the temperatures in mass concrete, various
measures have been adopted, such as using a lean mix, using
a low-heat type of cement, replacing some o( the cement
with a pozzolan (see ASlM
618), using a water-reducing
admixture to further reduce cement requirements, precooling
materials, or replacing a portion of mixing water with ice.
Other measures are scheduling placements during cooler
periods of the day or during cooler seasons, scheduling the
placement so as to aUow one layer to cool before placing the
next, and removing heat by means of embedded pipes
through which cool water is circulated.
FUNDAMENTALS
41
OF CONCRETE
FROST RESISTANCE
HIGH-EARL Y_STRENGTH CEMENT TYPE
MODERATE
SULFATE
HEAT ANDSULFATE
RESISTANCE. TYPEtI
RESISTING
28
and protection
The period of positive curing provided for in the
contraetdocuments is required to assure attainment of
potentialstrength and to prevent formation of surface
craeks caused by rapid loss of water and resultant
shrinkage while the concrete is still \ow in tensile
stteng\n and unab\e \0 tesis\ \ne snrlnkage s\tesses.
Hydration of cement in thin-section beams, columns,
and slabs, not in contact with moist earth or water, is
reduced so as to become insignificant at and near the
surface soon after termination of curing.
If a member is sheltered from rain or other free
water, hydration can proceed at significant rates (in the
partion of concrete that has dried) only when the
relative humidity of ambient air is well above 80
percent.
On the other hand, members with thin
sections in contact with moist earth or other free water,
such as retaining walls and pavement s\abs, wi\l
continue hydration at a significant rateo The principal
purpose of specified curing is to prevent rapid
removal of water by initially dry subgrades or by sun
and wind, so as to assure the ear\y attainment of
specified strength and to reduce the effects of
shrinkage. Hydration of cement beyond that needed for
specified strength is highly desirable for the added
margin of qua lity it produces.
Self-desiecation (removal of available water in the
concrete by hydration of the cement) ofvery rich mixes
may become important when curing formed concrete by
means of commercial membrane-forming curing compounds. The compounds available only retard the
water loss. They do not provide perfect seals, nor do
they supply water. However, when applied promptly
and properIy to mixes of ordinary proportions, they
may reta in the evaporable water sufficiently long for
the concrete to reach its specified strength within an
acceptable period, but little more.
More detailed information on curing is provided in
Chapter 10. That chapter also provides information on
tbe necessary protection of concrete during cold,
normal, and hot weather conditions.
Curing
Total air,
percent
7'12
1'12
1'12
lVz
5Vz
lVz
3
6
4Vz
lVz
41'h
42
AND SWELLlNG
oo
o
---
----
./
/'
/'
CONCRETE
CHAPTER 6-CONCRETE
MIXTURES-PROPORTIONING
OF SPECIFYING
PROPORTIONS
CONCRETE
43
MIXTURES
AND CONTROL
i.
Proportlon specification
44
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Values are estimated average strengtbs for concrete containing not more tban tbe
percentage of air sbawn in TabJe 5.3.3 of ACI 211.1. For a constant water-cernent
ratio, tbe strengtb of concrete is reduced as tbe air content is increased. Strengtb
is based on 6 X 12 cylinders moist cured 28 days at 73.4 :!: 3 F in accordance witb
Section 7.3 of ASfM C 31.
Relationship assumes a mnimum size of aggregate about ~ to 1 in.; for a
given sourc:e, strengtb produced for a given water-cernent ratio will increase (as will
cement content) as mnimum size of aggregate decreases; see Sections 3.4 and
5.3.2 of ACI 211.1
Aggregate
The nominal maximum size of aggregate usuaUy is speci
fied or limited by the placing conditions, dimensions o:
structural member, and reinforcing steel spacing and cover
WeU-graded aggregate of large maximum size has less tota
volume of voids than smaller sized aggregate. Hence, con
cretes with the larger size aggregates that are properl)
graded require less mortar, and thus less water, per uni!
volume of concrete. Generally, and for "average" strength
requirements, the maximum size of aggregate should be the
largest that is economicaUy available and consistent with the
dimensions of the structural elements and placing conditions.
When high strength concrete (in excess of 6000 psi) is de
sired, best results may be obtained with reduced maximum
aggregate sizes, usually 3/4 or 1/2 in., because concretes with
these aggregates normaUy have higher strengths at a givelJ
water-cement ratio. However, smaller aggregate will require
more water and thus more cemento
Whenever mixture proportioning studies and concrete
tests are made for evaluation of material S, use each materia]
to the best advantage. Best results from each aggregate are
likely to be obtained with different gradings, especiaUy the
proportion of fine to coarse aggregate. Keep the amount 01
pea gravel or flat and elongated small coarse aggregate at a
minimum to enhance fmishability and pumpability. Nevertheless, whatever aggregates are selected, determine the
most favorable combination of fine with coarse aggregate to
provide the required concrete properties. GeneraUy, keep
the percentage of sand as low as practical but still provide
the needed fme sizes for good workability and minimum
bleeding. Low sand content usuaUy minimizes the water
CONCRETE
requirement of the concrete and gives the most economical proportions provided a gap-grading doesn't
occur due to lack of intermediate sizes. Water requirement, however, increases only by about 1 percent for
each percentage point increase in the sand- aggregate
ratio. A strict minimization of the propor-tion of fine
aggregate is not always advisable, partic-ularly if concrete with more fme aggregate is noticeably easier to
place, consolida te, and fmish. Low sand contents are
desirable in low-slump concrete to maximize strength,
but higher sand contents are needed to minimize segregation in higher slump concretes.
Other factors being the same, aggregates composed
of angular partic1es require more paste than equal
proportions of smooth, rounded partic1es. However,
when concrete strength is the criterion, the rounded
aggregates are not always preferable, because crushed
aggregates normally give higher strengths at a given
water-cement ratio. When durability requirements do
not govern the water-cement ratio, it is sometimes
permissible, on the basis of test data, to use a watercement ratio higher with crushed material than would
be required for rounded material. In other words, with
a different aggregate, a different water- cement ratio
may sometimes be used to achieve the same strength.
For concrete designed on the basis of flexural
strength for pavements, angular aggregates are usually
preferable if available.
After determining the water-cement ratio, the next
step is to find the aggregate proportions that will provide a workable mixture with a minimum amount of
paste. Whenever possible, the mixture should be based
upon trial mixes using job materials. All mixtures
must be workable. The data to be obtained from trial
batches are strength (flexural or compressive), slump,
percent air, and unit weight.
When these tests cannot be made, use recommendations based on experience, such as those found in ACI
211.1 and 211.3 as well as References, 5 and 14. These
recommendations do not explicitly take into account
differences in strength that may arise from differences
in aggregate or cement characteristics, however, they
are sufficiently conservative to provide safe results.
Adjust the initial mixture proportions as necessary
based on test results and observations during production.
Alr entralnment
For nornlal concrete of a given water-cement ratio,
without adjustment of slump increase, the entrainment
of air will reduce strength about 5 percent for each
percent of added air. However, with air entrainment,
less mixing water will be required to provide the same
slump, beca use the smalI air bubbles provide "Iubrication" to the mixture. Therefore, if slump and cement
content remain constant, a lower water-cement ratio
results, which will partly compensate for the strength
loss in ordinary mixes. UsualIy the coarse aggregate
MIXTURES
45
46
MANUAL
Nominal maximum
size of
aggregate, in.
Paste fraction
in unit volume
of concrete
Cement,
lb per
0.40
Y.
0.30
l'h
0.26
0.22
750
565
490
415
395
3
6
cu
0.21
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
yd
o5AHD
z:
W\
~
~
....
~
::>
...
-10.20
-1 0.10
o.
40
%SAt-ID
50
'lO
00
40
1/4
314
MAXIMUM
'-1/2
SIZE OF AGGREGATE.
3
INCHES
Fig. 6.1 - The larger the maximum size of graded aggregate, the smaller the amount of paste required to make
the concrete workable. Water-cement ratio = 0.58 by
weight; medium consistency (3 to 5 in. slump); natural
sand and graveL Non-air-entrained concrete; air content
shown in entrapped air
Quallty of paste
The quality of the paste is a matter of prima
consideration. This is controlled by the use o c1ean mixl
water (Reference 13), appropriate cementitious materia]
and the water-cement ratio. Maximum recornmended valu'
CONCRETE
of water-cement ratio for different conditions of tempera ture and exposure to sulfate environment are given
in Table 6.2. For a complete discussioo 00 durability,
see ACI 201.2R.
Where prolonged exposure to water is expected, a
low water content paste must be provided to reduce
permeability, absorption, and the effect of leacbing.
Also, where the rate of transmission of moisture from
the moist-earth side to the exposed side of the concrete
member is of concero, the density of the paste must be
such as to reduce tbis transmission rate, and hence the
average degree of saturation of the concrete member.
Other cementitious material s are helpful in improving
these characteristics and should be considered. They
contribute to producing less permeable paste through
long-time, slow chemical combination with the free lime
present in the concrete, thus preventing leacbing of the
lime as weU as providing cementing properties.
Requlred alr entralnment
Air entrainment is necessary to provide resistance
to the effects of freezing of concrete (Fig. 6.3).
Aggregate quality, cement content, water-cement ratio,
kind and amount of admixture, consistency, consolidation (density), and curing are aU important to concrete quality and durability, but none of these is as
important in resisting freezing effects as proper
amounts and distribution of entrained air. Chapter 5
gives the desirable amounts of entrained air in the
section on frost resistance. The greater effectiveness of
voids produced by an air-entraining agent, relative to
that of entrapped air voids, is due to their relative
smallness and hence closer spacing in the paste for a
given total amount of air.20 The function of the airentraining admixture is to provide a large number of
small (nearly microscopic) voids in the paste, so that
the calculated spacing factor of air voids is less than
0.008 in. This close spacing aUows relief of the
pressure developed by the moisture in the concrete as
it expands during freezing.
Table 6.2-Maxlmum
47
MIXTURES
Aggregate proportlons
Adjust the percentage of the fme aggregate in the
mixture so that, with the proper amount of entrained air, the
cement-paste content is at a mnimum for the required
consistency. The procedure now generaUy foUowed is: (1)
proportion the mix as would be done without an airentraining agent; then, (2) aUowing for the effect of adding
an air-entraining agent, reduce the proportion of fine
aggregate and water sufficiently to produce concrete of the
same coarse aggregate content and consistency as it would
have without entrained air.7 Such a procedure mnimizes the
effective loss of compressive strength of the concrete caused
by the addition of entrained air.
With a mixture proportioned to include the proper
amount of entrained air, the ability of concrete to resist the
effects of freezing depends mainly on the quality of the paste
and the porosity and pore characteristics of the aggregate
particles, particularly the coarse aggregate particles. See
Chapter 5 for further discussion.
PROPORTIONS
BY ABSOLUTE
VOLUME
If a container is filled exactly to its top with solid material such as gravel, sand, or cement, the volume of the container represents the bu/k volume of the material it contains.
The particles piled together in the container do not fit each
other exactly, so there are tiny spaces (voids) between them.
Thus the bulk volume is the sum of the absolute vo/ume of
aU of the particles plus the total volume of the spaces between particles. Absolute volume is some times caUed solid
volume, particle volume, ordisplacement volume.
The actual amount of solid material in a given bulk
volume of aggregate varies with its grading and with its
degree of consolidation. The absolute volume of solid
material in a given weight of aggregate, cement, or mineral
admixture depends on its specific gravity.
For water,
absolute volume is the same as bulk volume.
When aggregate, cement, and water are mixed to
produce a batch of fresh concrete, the cement-water-sand
mortar fills the spaces between the coarse particles.
Type of structure
Structure exposed
to sea water
or sulfates
0.45
0.40
0.50
Concrete should also be air entrained .
0.45"
-----------------------
48
MANUAL
-------------OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Fig. 6.3 - Examples o[ scaling o[ concrete caused by freeze-thaw effects when there is insufficient entrained air in the concl
Sometimes improper finishing method or timing drives the entrained air out o[ the top surface o[ the concrete
Thus, if the concrete is compacted to remove most
entrapped air, tbe total volume of tbe concrete is tbe
sum of the absolute volumes of tbe ingredients, including tbe entrapped air. If entrained air is included in tbe
mix, the volume of the total air is included in tbe sum
of absolute volumes.
Since it is not practical to batcb aggregate, cement,
or mineral admixture by absolute volume directly, convert a desired absolute volume into terms of weigbt for
purposes of batcbing. Conversely, convert proportions
by weigbt into terms of absolute volume for computing
yield (typicalIy cubic yards or cubic feet of fresb
concrete).
Proportioning
concrete by absolute volume
assumes that tbe volume of compacted fresb concrete
is equal to tbe sum of the absolute volume of aU ingredients.
weight, lb
absolute volume, euft
Thus 100 lb of cement
average value) contains
= speeifie gravity
x 62.4
100
3.15 x 62.4 = 0.509 cu ft 01solid material
If specific gravity and unit weigbt in lb per cu ft o
aggregate in a given condition of compaction are known,
percentages
of solids and voids in tbe aggregate car
computed as foUows:
pereent solids = surface dry unit wt, pel
speeifie gravity x 62.4 x 100
Then
pereentage 01 voids = 100 - pereentage 01 solids
Thus, a saturated and surface-dry rodded aggregate weig
110 lb per cu ft and baving SSD specific gravity of
contains
100 x
Example of proportioning
A common metbod
by absolute volume
of proportioning
concrete
mixtl
CONCRETE
MIXTURES
49
7.12
27
-10.80
ft19.88
COMPUTATION
1.35
3.00
295/62.4
590/(3.15
54.73
percent
x eu
62.4)
27
en
ften
per
yd
1800/(2.67
xof
62.4)
19.88 eu ft
t'.
Material Data:
Cement: Type 1, ASlM C 150, with a specific
gravity of 3.15
Fine aggregate: Natural, with specific gravity
(SSD) = 2.62, and fineness modulus = 2.60
Coarse aggregate: Crushed granite, Size No. 57, per
ASlM C 33; specific gravity, saturated surface-dry
(SSD) = 2.67; unit weight, saturated surface-dry,
"rodded = 96.6 lb per cu ft
Admixture: Air entraining admixture
Trial Mix Data: (basic procedures from ) CI 211.1)
1. Estimate water requirement from past experience with materials being used or use approximate
value given in Table 5.3.3 of ACI 211.1. Water content
estimate for 1 in. nominal maximum size aggregate,
air-entrained concrete with 2-4 in. slump is 295 lb per
cu yd of concrete
2. The minimum cement content is set beca use a
water-cement ratio of 0.50 by weight is specified:
cement content = 295/0.50 = 590 lb per cu yd
NOTE: From past experience or average watercement ratio to compressive strength relationship, the
maximum water-cement ratio specified must indicate
that the specified compressive strength might be obtained. In actuality, several trial mixtures should be
proportioned, varying the water-cement ratio (thus
cement content) up to the maximum.
3. Aggregate quantities are determined by several
methods. Concrete with satisfactory workability is
produced when a given volume of coarse aggregate, on
a dry-rodded (or SSD rodded) basis, is used for a unit
volume of concrete. Table 5.3.6 of ACI 211.1 gives the
approximate dry rodded volume of coarse aggregate per
cu yd of concrete based on maximurn aggregate size
and fineness modulus of fine aggregate.
For the
example material, the volurne ratio is 0.69 (the volurne
ratio = 1 - void ratio). Therefore, weight of coarse
aggregate equals
0.69 x 96.6 x 27 = 1800 cu yd of concrete
4. Fine aggregate content is then deterrnined by
difference, using absolute volume computations.
OF CONCRETE
PROPORTIONS
50
UNITSCREENS.
WEtGHT.
SPfClFIC
TERC'EMENT
RAno.
ENT FACTOR.
SKS/YO
SCREENS.
PROJECT:
AGGREGATES
MANUAL
ooovmMIGHT
OfV1DE
SUM
BY 100.
SlUMP
.-atES
DMDE
SUM
BY 100.
"ADD"
--....
" - + '4r'.'tl'
"8
,m.5
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
X-SPfClFfC
CfMEIrT:
CSS
l"
ACTUAl
ADD.oo
TO " AETAlNED
DN
cn
VOLUME
SOUD
fSO"
..
1'tI'f:
FIIE
AGC.
MAnRIAl
nST
CTlS.
1.
"c.
COARSfAGG.
Rn.
"n.
RU.
on.
2('00_
CfIIEIrT
lOO
1080
9.08:
WAnR
ACTUAl.
WUGKT.
PCf
WET
100
PASS
WATtR
"1..
WT.
WT.
SIE
WATIII
11ft_1ft
SPECIFIED
AlA CONTENT
BY VOL
ADDED. LIS
MI
COIfTEIIT.
'"L-5~.
100
00
o2-4'LQ
r....
:....
"1k,,d..
If N6..t'JY""\
7.0l
100
'1.'7
L.e~
mlAl
BATCH
WEIGHTS
SPfCS.
"IIhO.
COARSE
AGCIltGATf
OSTM
--ID
1
O
00
:s
leoo
'1.oa('
AIIIIIXTUIIE
1IfO
UNIT
U E AGGREGATE
7.lZ
~
51
D.S-0.0
5'0
25
'ON
t.60
WfIOKT.
62.'1
0.'>0
it-6
'1\
~B
80-100
0.10
25"
50
=
36.1
I~.L
76
NO.
60
'15-100
/.35
,Anl?
MI)(
0
MIX DATA
<s
2-4
50.a5
'~.4
Jo.?o
2H.'1
5'o5:B
82.
92TOTal
alA
100
VOl
VARO
RfOUlRfb:
75
-'
~'ib.3
COMPUTATlON
18
aME_T.
Z~.L
1.1
51.1.4
466
2'1
/0.4
";6.1
'1'1
(;"'1'11
TTP(
AGGRfGATf
2
-,;',SUPPlIEII
o.l.'!
)C9~')C21~
/q
4b.q
q8.~
'3
11o.~
2.3-j./
PEA MIX WArn
'2.4
SUPPUIER
2~.60
'17
300
FtIC.
TO
DETERMINE
E. M.FIN
VAlUE
/J,S
71
2.7
+=f1II(
3.0
1./
H..~
CONCRETE
z.6l
80JC
MIX
2.~J.
'!<'"y
PROPORTlONING
WORK."",SHEET
5QO lBS
AETAINED ON INDICATED
+
~.I>.'H=
q",
2~;~~S
- 1.7~~f'
I
DATA
work sheet
CONCRETE
MIXTURES
51
Table 6.3-Computatlon
of batch quantities for an air-entralned concrete and correctlon for surface
molsture of aggregate w/c = 0.50
--- --
- --
0.2
21800
93849
3849
1.7
21295
0.9
10.80
1.0
91.35
Air
volume
1164
lb/cu
ft
27.00
4.73
7.12
142.6 Cement590
0.5
Coarse
Total
1184
Z6
1809
Water
590
aggregate
content
3.00
wcight
aggregate
(2.62)"
(2.67)"
(1.00)"
moisture
less
absorbed
aggregates,
(determined
percent
by
by
weight
test)
lb
(percent
times
aggregate
by
drying
with
heat)
moisture)
percent
bydivided
weight
(determined
weight
100)
percent
by weight
(total
Computed unit
Fine
(5.0%)
NOTES: 1. Use of admixtures otber Iban air-enlraining agent is nol considered in Ibis example. 2. Tbe saturated, surface-dry condition is tbe percentage
of moisture at wbich Ibe aggregate will neitber draw mixing water fram tbe pasle nor supply addilional mixing water to Ihe paste. 3. If surface moisture of
aggregates is delermined directly by lest, tbe fines for absorplion and tolal moisture are omitted. Asteris~ indicates specific gravity, SSO.
I
f
j
f
"
:1
52
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
in ASlM
Saturated, surface-dry
Saturated, surface-dry
coarse aggregate
Water
TOTAL
9000 lb
1475 lb
19,245 lb
2950 lb
5820 lb
sand
was measured
as 142.6
= 2950 x --
27
135.0
= 590 lb per cu yd 01concrete
FOR YIELD
e 138 as
the volume of
Tbe
the field
on the
concrete
For
content
in lb per cu yd is
CONCRETE
MIXTURES
53
.,
54
CHAPTER 7-BATCHING
AND MIXING
=~
...
__ """
..
""'-
.
_ .
Weighing equipment
Weigh hoppers should be constructed so that materials
..
___. .
__
__"'"!_
_-_."."II .__ .
_,...~.,....""'~
._ ~l!!IIo;IIl
BATCHING
AND MIXING
55
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
56
UNIFORMITY
OF
OF
CONCRETE
BATCHER
IS
INSPECTlON
AFFECTEO
SUPPlY
BINS
BY
ANO
o.
THE
IIEIGH
ARRANGEMENT
BATCHERS
b.
CORRECT
FULL
BOTTOM
FROM
HOR I ZONT AL
SLOP
DIRECTIONS
TO
CORNERS
I NG
FLAT
SO
OUTLET
OR
WITH
OF
B I N PROPERL
ROUNDEO
SO
THA T
TER 1 AL
MOVES
BOTTOM
BINS
ARRANGEMENT
1 N ALL
AREAS
BINS
MATHE
OR
THOSE
SLOPES
SUCH
WILL
OUTLET
ALL
TOWARO
OF
NOT
WITH
HAV I NG
THA T
ALL
FLOW
REAOILY
W I THOUT
INCORRECT
CORRECT
INCORRF.CT
MATER
SHOVEL
ANY
CORNERS
I AL
IN
THROUGH
MA TER I AL
OROPS
INTO
DIRECTLY
BIN
I CALL y
OVER
OPENING
PERMITTING
01 SCHARGE
OF
GENERALL
MORE
ON
THE
DISCHARGE
UNIFORf~
1 NG.
VERT
CHUTING
AN
MATERIAL
ANGLE.
F ALL 1 NG
Y
MATERIAL.
OTHER
OVER
OPENING
FORtI
AS
INTO
BIN
MATER 1 AL
THAN
NOT
01 RECTL
ALWAYS
UNI-
01 SCHARGED.
0UT LEY
$lOPE
AGGREGATE BIN
FIlllNG
C.
GRAVEL
81NS
AROUNO
CEMENT
ARRANGED
OPEN
CONCENTRICALLY
81 NS.
I NGS
d.
SIOE
::0:
w ......
v)w
w
w:z
ARRANGED
:1J w~ ~
;:J
CIRCU-
(;
LAR
t:
~~
CENTER
8~;: ~
IJ ~ ~
COLLECT
~WITH
I NG
BUT
SUCH
AUTOMATIC
1 NG
MIXER.
EACH
OISCHARGE
SO
AGGREGA
BATCHERS
WI LL
BEU
SUSPENDED
OF
THAT
TE
IS
INSULATED
CONE
OPEN
NOT
OR
TO
MI XER
OR
CEMENT
CEHENT
BE 1 NG
FROM
PERM I T OVERLOAO
IS
BATCH-
,E I GHT
FLOWIIIG
TO
AUTOMA TI CALL y
RECORO
BINS.
FROM
I NG
OPERATOR.
STANTLY
VIBRATION.
1 ON.
CEMENT
INSULATEO
MA TER 1 ALS
OEL 1 VEREO.
PLANT
CORRECT
TE
CUHULATIVELY.
FLOWING
NOT
SEPARA
WEIGHEO
SEPARATELY
PLANT
OVER
PERMIT
VIBRAT
PLA IIILY
SEQUENCE
AVO I O
TOP
OF
OF
OF
ABOVE
01 SCHARGES
MATERIAL
ANO
V 1 S I BLE
CLOSE
GRDUP
1 NGS
WH 1 CH
CAUSE
LONG
BINS
RESUU
IN
IN
IMPAIREO
OF
B IN
SLOPES
OF
SEPARATION
UNIFORt~ITY.
OUMPING
AGGREGA
TE
MATERIAL
CORRECTING
CONIN
OVERLOAOS
f.
'--SIOE
El THER
TEL Y
ION.
cnL
e.
ARRANGEMENTS
PDOR
WE 1 GHEO
EQU I PMENT
PROPER
NECESSARY.
WILL
1 NGS
TRUCK
ARRANGEMENT
BATCHERS
01 REC TL y
CDRNER
BATCHER
AGGREGA
INGREOIENT
BATCHERS,OISCHARG-
COL LEC TI NG
CONTROLLEO
WH ILE
OF
/""-
WEIGHED
SEPARATELY)
ACCEPTABLE
WEIGH
THROUGH
INTO
ER
WEIGHING
INOIVIOUAL
\C~vG
1)
CUMULATIVE
BATCHER
( CEMENT
SQUARE
SHAPE
MEYHOD.
EQU I PMENT
PREFERREDARRANGEMENT
IN
OR
READILY
AVAILABLE
uELIVERY
TO MIXER
MI~ XER
TO
GOOO
LlNE
BINS CONVOOR
CAN BE
HOPPER.
CONE
CEMENT
IN
~G
HEXAGONAL
COMPARTMENT
AGGREGATE
BINS
ARRANGEO
BINS
ABOUT
FG
VIEW
VIEW
~~ -p;;:
PREFERRED
AGGREGATE
TO
11IXER
OISCHARGE
AGGREGA
AUTOMAT
ON
TE
ACCEPTABLE
ARRANGEMENT
ICALLY
CONVOOR
UE IGHEO
BEU.
IS
CONTROLLEO
1S
BE I NG
OELI
CUMULAT
CEMENT
SO
THAT
IVEL
WEIGHEO
cn1ENT
IS
Y,
ANO
CARR lEO
SEPARATELY
FLOWING
l/HILE
ANO
AGGREGATE
SEPARATELY
ING
WHILE
ARRANGEMENT
AUTOMATICALLY
ANO
OISCHARGE
AGGREGATE
VEREO
Fig. 7.2 - Correct and incorrect methods of batching, from ACI 304R
WEIGHEO
IS
CUMULATIVELY.
CONTROLLEO
BEING
OELIVEREO.
SO
THAT
CEMENT
CEMENT
IS
I/EIGHEO
FLOI/-
BATCHING
Make certain that the aggregate bins have adequate separate compartments for fine aggregate and
for each required size of coarse aggregate. Each
compartment should be insta11ed so it will discharge
efficiently and freely, with minimum segregation, into
the weigh hopper.
Cement and pozzolan bins should have a dust
seal between the bin and the weigh hopper. Tbe dust
seal should be insta11ed so that it does not affect the
accuracy of weighing.
Weigh hoppers should have easy-operating
cIamshe11or undercut radial-type bin gates. Poweroperated gates sbould be used to cbarge semiautomatic
and fully automatic batcbers and bave a suitable
"dn'bble" control to obtain the desired weighing
accuracy.
Water measurement-Batch
plants usua11ymeter (Fig.
7.4) or weigh water. In older plants, water may be
measured by volume in a calibrated tank.
Tbe tank or meter should be calibrated by
measuring or weighing sample batcbes of water drawn
out for van'ous settings of tbe device. Modero meters
operate we11over a wide range of pressures, but are
inaccurate at very low flow rates.
Do not permit any leakage into the pipe leading
to the mixer, either from the measuring device or fram
any connections or valves.
Do not permit any arrangement of valves that
a110wsunmeasured water to flow into the mixer from a
tank that is being charged or discharged.
If the mixer is not maintained level at a11times, as
in the case of paving mixers which travel on the subgrade, the tank should be calibrated at grades and side
inclinations up to the maximum to which it may be
subjected. Tbe tank should preferably be one whose
readings are unaffected by ordinary cbanges in
incIination, such as a vertical cylinder with central
siphon discharge.
For proper control of mixing water, the free water
fram tbe aggregate must be accounted foro Moisture
meters or probes are often used to monitor the fine
aggregates for water content. Moisture probes should
be calibrated by comparing readings obtained from the
moisture meter with readings obtained by weighing an
aggregate sample before and after drying the aggregate
in an oyen or over a hot plate (AS1M C 566). Tbe
inspector must be sure that the sample is representative
and must make a suitable correction for absorption.
Admixlures - Liquid admixtures may be dispensed
into the mixer either by weight or by volume. Some
manufacturers of fluid admixtures supply dispensers
wbicb inject the proper dosage into the mixing water or
into the fine aggregate. In any case, be sure dispensing
equipment conforms to AS1M C 94 and provides for
visual confirmation of the correct volume for each
batch, and for a slow discbarge so tbat there is no
possibility for an inadvertent double dosage. See also
57
AND MIXING
r
MANUAL
58
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
MIXING OPERATIONS
BATCHING
AND MIXING
59
dlfferences between
in.
permissible
11 in.
lb
per cu ft
7.5 1.5
1percent
percent
1.6
percent
6.0
percent
Maximum
60
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
Ready-mlxed concrete
-_.-
INSPECTION
----------------------------------------------------
BATCHING
AND MIXING
61
---------62
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
in concrete in place, after the concrete has been consolidated. Losses of air that occur during handling and
transportation and during vibration of concrete after
placing may not be reflected by tests for air content of
samples taken at the mixer, except for the degree to
which consolidation of the test sample in the air-meter
container represents consolidation in the forms. Fortunately, the first air lost as a result of these manipulations consists of the larger bubbles of entrapped air
which do not contribute to durability. However, such
things as long agitation or mixing in truck mixers or
excessive vibration can seriously reduce the amount of
effeetive entrained air, especially when the initial
amount of entrained air is less than that recommended
in the table in Chapter 5.
OccasionalIy, and especially when there is a
possibility that significant loss has occurred, make a test
of the arnount of air in the concrete after it has been
vibrated in place. It is particularly important that the
surface and upper portion of pavement and bridge deek
slabs, as well as exposed surfaces of hydraulic structures, contain the specified amount of entrained air. If
more than one-fourth of the amount noted in the concrete at the mixer has been lost, correet the practices
causing excessive loss or add compensating entrained
air initially.
ControL of temperature - As noted in Chapter 9,
high temperature within the plastic concrete can cause
excessive evaporation and difficulties in placing and
finishing. High concrete temperatures combined with
atmospheric factors such as high winds and low
humidity can also lead to excessive or rapid drying and
plastic shrinkage. Accordingly, most contract documents limit the temperature of concrete as placed.
Thus, it is essential to measure the temperature of the
mix prior to placing. Several kinds of thermometers
are available and suitable for this test. Record the
temperature each time a slump test or air content test
is conducted, or when compression test cylinders are
made. If plastic concrete temperatures are expeeted to
be less than 50 F, and if low temperature is causing
difficulty, warm water may be used for mix water.
However, cold temperatures not in danger of freezing
are advantageous to the ultimate quality and freedom
from cracking of concrete. (See Chapter 16 for effeet
of high temperatures on heavy concrete seetions such
as rnass concrete.)
Ice is much more effeetive than cold water in
reduction of concrete mix ternperatures, mainly because
ice absorbs heat when it melts (144 BTU per lb of ice).
The resulting melted water absorbs additional heat at
arate of 1 BTU per lb for each degree F change as its
temperature rises from 32 F to the final mix temperature.
Placlng Inspection
------------------
INSPECTION
BATCHING
AND MIXING
63
64
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Fig. 7.8 - The sLump test is made on a smooth nonabsorbent surface, such as a sheet
of metaL Protect the surface from jarring by nearby equipment. Hoid down the sLump
cone with two feet
INSPECTION
BEFORE CONCRETING
CHAPTER 8-INSPECTION
Close inspeetion before concreting takes place
is important. Check the condition of earth foundation
preparation for proper compaction and moisture
contento Thoroughly moisten the foundation material
to provide moisture to the concrete during curing. On
the other band, do not al10wstanding puddles of water,
beeause these will increase the water-cement ratio of
concrete in contact with tbe earth.
Improper
reinforcement placement ean lead to severe cracking,
steel corrosion, and excessive deflections (or even
failure). Form tightness and alignment, coating for
release of forms, and cIeanness are al1 required both
for visual1y pleasing exposed surfaces and for sound
concrete. Common imperfections and disappointing
results in concrete construction are often due to lack
of suitable preparation for tbe work.
PRELlMINARY
STUDY
OF PREPARATORY
WORK
65
BEFORE CONCRETING
sary preparations bave been made to form construction
joints and to cure and proteet the concrete. To keep delays
at a minimum, continually inspeet througb tbe three stages
of the work, as fol1ows.
Preliminary - Make a preliminary inspeetion wben
excavation has been completed and forms bave been built.
If form dimensions and stability are satisfactory, tbe
con tractor may then cIean tbe foundation and coat tbe
forms, and instal1 any reinforcement and fixtures.
Semifinal or "cleanup" - When everything is in place
for concreting, make a detailed inspeetion of foundations,
forms, reinforcement, and al1 equipment or parts to be
embedded in the concrete. If tbe instal1ations are satisfactory, the work is ready for final cIeanup.
Final- Final inspeetion is made immediately before
concrete is placed. Forms and fixtures must not bave beeo
displaced. Surfaces must be cIean and, if speeified, must be
wetted. AII pertinent items 00 tbe cbeckout form (described
at the end of tbis chapter) must be properly signed fOL
Assuming that tbe requirements witb regard to suitability
of materials, proportions, and working conditions (weatber,
time, Ighting, equipment, access for prompt delivery of
concrete, curing proteetions, etc.) bave been met, the
contractor may then proceed witb concrete placing.
Excavation and foundation
Excavated surfaces upon or against whicb concrete is to
be placed (Fig. 8.1) sbould conform to tbe speeified location,
dimensions, sbape, compaction and moisture requiremeots.
Make provision for drainage wbere neeessary.
For
discussion of pavement foundations, see Cbapter 13.
For building slabs on grade:
Compact the subgrade to contract document requirements. The type of subgrade material dictates the type of
compaction equipment used. Cobesive materials (cIays) are
best compacted by rol1ers or tamping equipment. Cohesionless materials (sand and granular materials) are best
compacted by using vibrating compaction equipment.
Pay particular attention to the compaction along
edges of foundation wal1s.
Eliminate soft spots, and al1portioos of tbe subgrade
tbat migbt later be subjeet to settlement or swelling. Among
tbese are fissures, incIined layers, cIay layers, and waterbearing sand layers.
Thoroughly compact backfill in trenches and ruts.
For building foundations:
--~--------------------------66
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
INSPECTION
Tabl
410
598761
cement R,
Rate of
ft per hplacement R,
2
-- -
-------M
BEFORE
CONCRETING
-- -
- for
- --
d- -
67
----
60
70
F650
1090
1340
793
1522
870
921
825
938
1410
973
1466
750
750
850
881
943
690
80
50
1050
1043
1008
1578
1170
900
712
1293
1130
1230
1200
1246
1050
1865
1275
1500
1725
1795
825
912
40
F
temperature
indicated
1935
p, maximum
lateral pressure,
psf, for the
600 psf664
minimum
governs
90 F
11
forms
NO'IE:
not with
use design
greater
than 150
X height ofslump
fresh no
concrete
in forms.
Thisvibration
table applies
normal weight
concrete Do
made
Type pressures
cement, no
admixtures
or pozzolans,
more than
4 in. and
depthonly
4 ft for
or less.
.---- ---
----
40 F
90 F
NO'IE: Do not use dcsign pressures greater than 150 X heighl of fresh concrete in forms. This table applies only for normal wcight
concrete made with Type 1 cement, no admixtures or pozzolans, slump no more than 4 in. and vibration deplh 4 flor less.
-------------68
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTlON
..;..--------------------I!!!!II!I-~!!!II!!I!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!IIIIIII""IIIIIIII!III!!I!!!!!I!!!!!!!!!!!!!I~!!II!!!!!!!~~~~!I!II!I!~.!!!II--_.,.IiI!!i!.
111_
INSPECTION
BEFORE CONCRETING
69
installation
70
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
of
Support
INSPECTION
BEFORE CONCRETING
fj~"'-
71
.m'J
72
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
from the joint opening, and that the joint surfaces can
be cleaned before installing the joint filler. Be on the
lookout for construction conditions that may later
interfere with movement of joints or with proper water
drainage. Spaces 2 ft wide or more are sometimes left
in casting concrete to aUow some shrinkage of the
concrete to take place before they are filled. In such
cases, to aUow unrestricted
joint
movement,
reinforcement is Japped rather than con tinuous .
Preparation of joints m these cases should be the same
as for construction joints.
FINAL INSPECTION
BEFORE PLACING
Before
concrete,
a fmal
inspection.
Checkplacing
aU bracing
and make
shoring
to ensure
that it
has not been loosened or misplaced.
Check all forms for damage and mortar tightness, and make sure that tie bolts are tight at construction joints.
Check reinforcement for completeness and proper placement and make sure that the specified tbickness of cover will be obtained.
Give special attention to reinforcement that
supports runways for transporting concrete. (This is
poor practice and many contract documents prohibit it.)
lt may be necessary to provide additional bar supports
in these areas.
Recheck all inserts for proper size, location,
mounting, and protection against contamination.
Check the forms and construction joints for cleanliness
and absence of surface moisture.
Remove all foreign material from the forms by
vacuuming or blowing out the debris. The forms
should
Make
be freecertain
of standing
the forms
water,
have
ice,been
or dirt.
oiled. If reNEER
ENGIDATE
Time
CONTR.
Sewer
& Grade
&Steel
80=
Une
Water
Conduit
Ancbor
80lts
Reinforcing
FORM
Date
Sta.
To
DATE
Elev.
To Time
Date
Time CONCRETE: Sta. From
CONTRACTOR'S
FOREMAN
Elev.
From
Pour
OK No.
TO
PLACE
CONCRETE
PLACEMENT
INSPECTION
Cu.
Vds.Cu.
Waste
Pour
ENGINEER
Total
Vds. atPlant
SUP'T
Cu.
Vds.
Grout
Pour
Completed
Date
Total
Cu.
Vds.Back1ll1
Placed
Computed
Cu.Une
Vds.Cu. Vds.
CHECKOUT
SHEET
Cu.
Vds.
Waste
at Plant
INSPECTOR
Pour
started
Date
Overbreak, Cu. Vds.
CONCRETING
OPERATIONS
CHAPTER 9-CONCRETING
After batching and mixing operations are complete,
satisfactory concrete requires the following:
1. Conveying, placing, and consolidating without
segregation; and consolidating thorough enough to fill
all parts of the form, to essentially eliminate air and
rock pockets, and to form a bond with adjacent steel or
concrete.
2. Maintaining the required quality of the concrete, especially unifonnity.
3. Proper curing.
The principIes of concrete control with regard to
selection and proportioning of material s are discussed
in Chapters 2, 3, 4, and 6. Recommended practice with
regard to batching and mixing is discussed in Chapter
7 and in Reference 5 and ACI 304R. Conveying,
placing, and fmishing are covered in this chapter and in
Reference 5 and ACI 304R.
The ultimate suecess of the concrete operations
involves site preparation, batch plant inspection, transportation to the site, site handling of concrete, and care
after placing.
SITE CONDlTIONS
Do not proceed with concreting unless requirements of the contract documents have been met regarding site preparation as well as location and condition of forms and reinforcement. Items discussed in
Chapter 8 must be completed.
Review the planned placing sequence.
Some contract documents prohibit concreting
at night (to ensure visibility) or during periods of
extreme heat, extreme cold, wind, or rain unless certain
specified protection of the work is provided. (See the
discussion on hot and cold weather concreting in
Chapter 10.) On the other hand, some contract documents require concreting at night in hot weather to
reduce evaporation and to reduce the temperature of
the concrete especially for structures in which cracking
may be a problem, such as bridge decks, pavements,
and mass concrete. Provide adequate lighting for night
work.
Do not place concrete in certain locations (e.g.
columns and walls) until the specified period has
elapsed to allow for settlement, hardening, or cooling
of concrete previously placed.
Do not deliver concrete so fast that proper
placement and consolidation are difficult or impossible.
However, deliver, place, and consolidate concrete fast
enough to prevent undue delays and especially to prevent formation of cold joints. Delays contribute to
slump loss and to slump variation.
Check all equipment for proper operation, and
keep enough equipment on hand to ensure continuity
of tbe placement if failure of some equipment oecurs.
73
OPERATIONS
Schedule enough personnel for the work. For example, large slab areas placed in hot weather require a
greater number of fmishers and better scheduling of operations than the same slabs constructed in cool weather.
HANDLING
OF CONCRETE
MANUAL
74
UNlESS
OISCHARGE
CF
CONCRETE
FROM
OF CONCRETE
FROM
MIXERS
"-
EFFECTIVE
MIXING
INSPECTION
IS
CONTROllEO.
BE
WIll
THE
BY
UESTROYEO
UNIFORMITY
RESUlTlNG
SEPARATION
.....
.....
b.
O.
"
~
~/""""~
:
1...
. i'
j.I
.........
CORRECT
INCORRECT
OROPPING
Of
CONCRETE
O'RECTLY
OVER
OROPP'NG
GdTE
ON
OPEN'NG.
FIllING
BUCKE1S
~-?~--i'
...
~ :_~_~:~;"~'~'~
~pY
OROP'
"''''''
"""" ....,,~.
MORldR--:,~-'OCK
\-----1
.
LEfl
Of
lHE
wHEIHER
CHUTE
CdRS.
O N
CONCP'
lE
CR
CO~CRETE
O'SCH~RGE
GEl
PAR
IS
R O M
A T
ION
A S
DISCHARGEO
I X E
LOdOING
ii
RUBBER
\OUN1ER
.\'.-'
,(N0
.-,.,'-'~'
lHE
dBOVE
SEPdRdl10N
11
'S
BdffLE
..
PERS.
BU(KE1S.
OISCHdRGEO
CdRS.
'NIO
f'CRldR~~_o
TRUCKS.
HOPOR
dS
MdY
BE
BOffLE
G
lO
CEN1[R
Of
SLOPING
fROM
OB14'NEO
TE
BU
"IERELY
lHE
ENO
OF
G G 1
:'1.y../__
'NCH
...:,~ .. -
fO"
dBOVE
:ON.
H E
I'NIO
"AlTER
HOPPER~.
OR
dRRdNGEMErI1
NO
PRE VENT S
HO.,
CONCRETE
IS
~HORI
BE'NG
BU(KETS.
Q-
CARS.
IRUCKS.
Y.
,/
-\
./
.*
.;-
. :-'0
.~ ..
:.r..
MORTt1R
.;:
".".
,""
, ..., ...
~#
..
,/'
'"'DAr
l1P
~.,,".,' .
0 ..
:.~~
:,-::',::~'~'i"-~':"'
__
. ~~~~.~
.. :".-> ,'.
..:~RO(K""
~.. ,.~.
CH~IE.
fORP1S
BQrFlE
Q-,. ,"
\\
\~ 0. ,
SEPd-
1HE
OISCHdRGEO
;~
,..~.,
UO.,HP'PE
. "~.:~
.. ,
'-'
CORRECT
f.
M'N'MUH
L';:~~
~~h
Of
B E l
, o.~
,","J~.
INCORRECT
I MPROPER
CREIE
OR
LAC K Of
CHUTE.
BAffLE
~-"
NO
MERELY
CHANGES
HO"
dI
ENO
Of
ION
ANY
USUALL
SHORI.
OIRECT
OF
CONTROL
A T
THIS
OF
Fig.
CONT ROL
MdTIER
Of
CO/l
y
SE PdRA TI ON.
'0"
T
'TWO
9.1- Co"ect
TRANSFER
CONVEVOR
POINT
BElTS
THE
tPPLlES
/1IX~RS.
cnNTROl
IN
BUGGIES
'
COtHROL
dT
OR SHdLLOI;
OIREeI'ON
I HE
Cf'NVEVOR
HE
II ON
E. SJ
NO SEPtl.RtUION--...
Rdl
CONCRETE
SE PdRd
HE110RaOM
SEPdRdl'ON.
DF
ING
t
\"!r-PROV'OE
10-
. :.'.~-:--M()R!OR
ORIN CO"PLE
C O R
1[ R Ld(K
E C Of
T
BELT
USUdLLY
d BdffLE
WITH
CdUS
O R
e..
0.0
'o'. - .. ~
HOPPER
SEPARATIflN
\
C O '1
IIHETH<R
O F
"HIC':
CHU1[S
CONTROL
'''IPRCPER
ENO Of
GdlE~
EffEeI
flLLING
",IH
fORMS
CONTP.Ol
IN
ENO
"
CHdNGES
HOPPER
dRE
OUl
~ ..; .
l'
~~RO(K-:::",
..,.~.
~"3.W'
OBJ lC TI ONdBLE
. ~ .
..
<>~
..
...
:18
NO
I.N
O A O
:.'.
E
PREV[NIS
C T
WHETHER
.....
SEPORd1'ON
..o,"':..--" .. - ~
dRRdNGEMENl
C O R R
Of CONCRETE
B[lNG
~8
SCRdPER
~E'GHl
.,:~'.:~'I'
. - "
~~L...
~
OPEN'NG
'NIO
dPPROdCH
Hdv' UG 1 0 O, SCHdRGE
Gd lES
()IHE1 OBJfrT'CNdBLE
S C H A R G E O'VIOEO
O F
HOPPERS
H O P
l
~'1
fOR"
CENIER
(ROP
dLTERNd1[
_.........
INCORRECT
OPPOS'lES'OESPERMIISdSRdPIO
g;::
...
._
fRO~
VERIICdL
BUGGY
\<8
'NCH
HEOO
UO"NP 1 PE~~o
PROVIOE
ROOM
INIO
.." .
~ KB'
CORRECT
HOPPERS.
O F
o.'
~~~~~~~:"
Jti
CCN~[yOR.
TRUCKS.
T ROL
d.
. -.
..... '.
..~,. ...i..:
. :-0"
/
HE
REGdROLESS
OR
O 'SCHdRGING
BUCKE1S.
d1
SEPORdl10N
Of
'-:"
dRRdNGEMEN1S
PREVENIS
LENG1H
~ ~o
.
CORRECT
Cf
Cf
CONCRETE
OR
---~-;
El THER
CONCRETE
SIOES
HOPPER.
HOFPERS
c.
Of
SLOPING
ETC
CONCRE1E
IS
CONVE YOR
BELT
OF
ENO
10
SLOPING
OISCHARGlS
OS
1"lL
TO
O'SCHARGEO
AS
'Nl0
SfPARATION
CIJNCRElE
LONGER
ANOIHER
CHUYES
'ROr<
M"E~S.
CHUTES
BUJ
CHUT[
IRUCK
~JI
OR ONTO
wHEN
d
CONCRETING
OPERATIONS
75
Pumping requires a continuous supply of uniform, plastic, workable concrete of mcdium consistency. It is helpful
to reduce the coarse aggregate up to 10 percent, but this
increases both the water and the cemcnt content if tbe
water-cement ratio is not to be exceeded. Slump of concrete delivered to the pump should be between 3 and 4 in.,
or slightly higher for air-entrained concrete.
A waterreducing admixture or a pumping aid (admixture) may be
beneficial, cspeciaUy during hot weather.
Inspect the condition of the concrete at tbe end of
the pipeline, slump at each end of the line, and see that no
unauthorized water is placed in the pump hopper.
Thoroughly clean the pump and pipe after pumping
is done. Water used to clean the pipe must be wasted
outside the forms.
Pneumatic placing, described in Chapter 15, is another
method of conveying concrete through pipelines.
Air used to force concrete through pipes tends to
dry the concrete and whip it to a stiffer consistency, Therefore, a consistency wetter than that desired in the forms is
usually necessary at the beginning of tbe line.
Keep discharge lines horizontal or inclined upward
from the machine.
Because segregation occurs when concrete issues at
high velocity from the end of the pipe, discharge concrete
slowly until the end of the pipe is buried in concrete, and
use appropriate discharge hoods to baffle the discharge.
Control pneumatic placing equipment carefully to
produce uniform in-place concrete.
76
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Placing
Placing methods should keep the concrete uniform
and free from obvious imperfections. This stage of the
work often can be the key point of the whole concreting operation. Proper placing methods will prevent
segregation and porous or honeycombed areas, avoid
displacement of forms and reinforcement, secure a firm
bond between layers, mininlize shrinkage cracking, and
produce a structure of good appearance (Reference 5
and ACI 304R).
Directioll and location of concrete drop - Drop
concrete vertically to avoid segregation. Use dropchutes, if necessary, to avoid striking reinforcement or
sides of the formo This wiJl mininze segregation and
coating of surfaces with mortar. Dry mortar coating on
reinforcement reduces bond.
Do not distribute concrete by pushing or pulling lower sections of sectional dropchutes to a considerable angle from the vertical because serious segregation occurs. Instead, hold the lowest section in a
vertical position.
When concrete placement is near the top, segregation and coating of forms can be avoided, time and
labor saved, and concrete better placed and distributed
by dumping buckets or other delivery equipment directly without hoppers or dropchutes (Reference 5).
Deposit concrete near its finallocation, and do
not allow it to flow laterally unless the whole mix is
moving without segregation.
For best durability, place concrete directly in
corners and ends of waUs, so that flow is away from the
corners and ends rather than toward them.
In slab construction, dump new concrete against the concrete in place, not away from it.
Deposit only as much concrete at one place as
can be consolidated conveniently.
Keep the top of a layer nearly leve!.
Linlit the depth of the first layer placed on
hardened concrete or rock to 20 in.
Dig out and scatter segregated coarse aggregate
on other areas rather than covering it with mortar because covering can result in a rock pocket.
An unusually stiff batch of concrete may be
saved by spreading it in a shallow layer and working it
into the other concrete.
Do not use toothed rakes to spread concrete of
any kind; use come-alongs or similar solid faced tools
or shovels.
Deep lifts - Near the top of a deep lift, concrete
tends to become wetter, because water in lower concrete migrates upward. To offset tbis, use a drier
consistency as the level of concrete rises. This normally
causes no problem in placing because concrete near the
top can be reached more easily for vibration. If bleed
water rises to the surface, it is probably due to sand
deficient in fines, a lean mix, or high slump concrete.
Such bleeding, either of elear water or water and fines,
produces a top surface of weak concrete unsuitable
INSPECTION
CONCRETING
CONCRETE
'ILL
SEPARA
INTROOUCEO
OPERATIONS
TE
INTO
77
SERIOUSLY
FORMS
UNLESS
PROPERlY
b.
CONS UNT
SLUMP
SLUMP REDUCED
AS FORM IS FILLED
INCORRECT
CORRECI
DISCH~RGE
LlGHI
CONCREIE
HOPPER
LlGHI
FEEDING
FLEXIBLE
SEP~R~1I0N
FORM.S
UNTIL
~NO
INIO
INIO
OROP
CHUTE.
IS
~VOIDED.
SIEEL
~RE
CONCRETE
PERMI1
OR
BUGGY
CONCRETE
TO
FORM
~ND
FORM
FACES
~ND
CLE~N
COVERS
lO
FROM
SIRIKE
C~US
HONEYCOMB
ON
ING
AT
CHUTE
AG~INSI
R ICOCHET
BARS
~ND
SEPARAT
ION
THE
NECESSAR
IHEM.
AT
ILY
B0110M
FORM
MAOE
IS
c.
ORIER
NARROII
AS
MORE
NEAR
II~TER
EOU~LlZE
CRETE.
CONCRETE
DEEP
LIFTS
REACHED.
lO
IIETTER
OF
CESSIBLE
PLACING ctKRETE
INCORRECI
CORRECI
B0110M.
10P
G~IN
OU~LlTY
SETTLEMENT
USE
~S
REOUIRED
AC-
LIFI.
~RE
RESULlS
TENOS
OF
TO
SLUMP
IN
IHE
MINIMUM.
OF
~I
IIITH
10P
RESUL1~NI
LOSS
ANO
UPPER
TOP
EXCESSIVE
GAIN
OUALlTY
Al
BOTTOM
DISCOLOR~IION.
SHR INK~GE
CnNSISTENCY
SLUMP
~T
HIGH
II~TER
CON-
S~ME
OF
DUR~BILI1Y
IN
L~YER.
OF CONCRETE IN [(EP
NARRO'
FORMS
d.
BUCKET
CRANE
ING
H~NOLEO
~ND
ATT~CHED
FRAMEIIORK
ORRECT
INCORRECI
BY
REM~ I N-
lO
IHEREIO
COLLECTOR
PRO-
IECT
COLLECIOR
CONE
CONE
FROM
BUCKET
O~MAGE.
UNOER
G~TE
PERM~NENILY
ATT~CHEO
BUCKET
.
,-.~:~
:.:.O'
CORO
~.~:
OROP
CONCRETE
INTO
OUTSIDE
FORM
LET
INCORRECT
E~SILY
IIITHOUT
VERT ICALLY
POCKET
OPEN I NG
CONCRETE
OVER
FROM
FORM .
CORRECT
STOP
INIO
UNDER
SO
~ND
~S
lO
FLOII
FORM
TO
PERM I T H I GH
VELOC lIT
OF
CONCRETE
ENTER
AN
~NGLE
IHIS
TO
FROM
INVMI~BLY
SEP~RAT
I ON.
IHE
S TRE~M
FORMS
VERT I C~L.
RESULTS
IN
ON
FLEX
IBLE
CONE.
CRETE
FOR
BEING
DROP
CHUTE
15
THE
CHUTE
OROPPIN.
FL~T
~LLOIIING
SM~LLESI
LARGE
~TT~CHEO
COLL~PSES
SIZE
ENOUH
TO
COLLECIOR
IIHEN
11
~GGRE~TE
FOR
THE
L~RGEsr.
SEP~R~TleN.
PlACING
IN OEEP m
CURvm
ftALL
PlACING
CONCRETE IN OEEP
NARRO'
Fig. 9.4 - Co"ect and inco"ect methods of placin~ concrete, from A CI 304R
FORMS
NO
TO
~S
CON-
BE
USEO
IIELL
OPERAIE
~CTU~TED
G~IE
E~CH
lO
~IR
lO
FR~ME.
~S
IHE
78
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
CONCRETE
IIIll
SEPARA
TE
!NTO
FORHS
INTROOUCEO
INSPECTION
SERIOUSlY
UNlESS
PROPERlY
f.
INCORRECI
CORRECI
10
OF
OU"P
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
IN
IN10
10
FACE
OUHP
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
PLACE.
IN
AWA1
PLACE.
INCORRECI
PLACE
ENO
BAFFLE
UF
ARA110N
CONCREIE
ANO
OROP
CHUIE
SO
IS
AVOIOEO
IHAI
REHAINS
Al
10
SEP,
FREE
ANO
ON
01 SCHARGE
BE
SLOPE
ENO
PAVEO .ROCK
ANO
GOES
VELOC
I 11
CONCRETE
PlACING
C(JO/EJE
CONCREIE
CHUIE
10
ON
IS
SEPARA
lEO
OF
SLOPE.
B0110"
IENOS
10
OOWN
SLOPE
ON A SlOPING
FROH
A SLOPE
PlACING
10
SlAB
COCRETE
FRI1 BUGGIES
CARR1
g.
SURFACE
h.
AOEQUAIE
10
SUPPORIS
HAINIAIN
PIPE
OROP
RIGIO
ANO
PLUMB
MOR lAR
CORRECI
INCORRECT
PlACING
PlJf'
Al{) HOSE
J.
.,
~
..
(J,'
ti .' ,:'
OF
PLACEMENI
....
REINFORCEO
.~~~.;j
\RANSFER
10
POI NI
. O
~ ..
RUBBER
CONCREIE
01 SCAROEO
.-.- :';.:;.:-~~O#.~~.:.~,.~:O:
OF
BOOI
CUSHION
Al
ENO
PLACEHENI
(:)
rS
SUPPOR
PlACING
HORIAR
ORRECI
INCORRECI
PLACING
B1
IN
CONCRETE
OEEP
PUHP
OR
CURVEO
ANO
WALL
C~CRETE
BY
ORCJ> PIPE
ROe K
B~~~rR~~r~Ug=E&U~of.AN
HOSE
Fig. 9.5 - Correct and incorrect methods of placing concrete, from ACI 304R
BE SUBSTITUTED
FROH
CONCRETING
Do not allow unconsolidated concrete to accumulate in the forms or to stand idle and stiffen in the
mixer, hopper, bucket, or other part of the conveying
system.
Hand tamping
OPERATIONS
79
concrete mixtures, limit vibration to that necessary for effective consolidation. For structural concrete, the desired results will usually be secured within 5 to 15 sec when vibration points are 18 to 30 in. apart rather than for longer
periods at wider intervals. See Chapter 13 for proper procedures for consolidation of concrete pavement.
Quickly insert an internal vibrator vertically (Fig. 9.6) to
the full depth of the layer being placed. Do not drag it
through the concrete, but slowly withdraw it vertically while
operating it continuously so that no hole will be left in any
stiff concrete. Do not use the vibrator to cause concrete to
flow from one location to another, because such a practice
usually causes segregation with the larger coarse aggregate
remaining bebind. In thin slabs, it is not feasible to use
internal vibrators inserted vertically. See Chapter 12 for
detailed discussion of consolidation of concrete in slabs.
Fig. 9.6-Internal
vibration momentarily liquefies
the mix, removing entrapped air and readily
consolidating low-slump concrete
When consolidating concrete placed on hardened concrete or rock, the first layer requires more vibration than
succeeding layers to assure continuous tight contact at the
cold joint. This working is best accomplished by insertion o
the vibrators at about half the normal spacing for short
periods of time. Thoroughly vibrate succeeding layers into
the preceding layer while both are still soft.
Ordinarily internal vibrators will not damage concrete in
lower lifts nor steel reinforcement. In fact, revibration of
concrete is beneficial ir the concrete will respond to the
vibrator and again become plastic (that is, a running internal
vibrator will sink into the concrete of its own weight). Leave
vibrators running as they are slowly withdrawn. Late revibration of the concrete will do much to eliminate horizontal
checks and shrinkage cracks caused by the settlement of
concrete held up by reinforcement or irregular forms. Revibration will increase concrete strength, decrease the number of air bubble holes in upper formed areas, strengthen
bond under horizontal bars and embedments, and reduce
leakage under form bolts.
The same revibration procedures around built-in frames
(such as windows) wilJ help avoid cracking from uneven
settlement.
Begin placing and consolidating concrete on a slope at
MANUAL
80
OF CONCRETE
immersion
FINISHING
~-=~___~_u
INSPECTION
Unformed suaces
Select concrete proportions and consistency and consolidation methods so that onIy sufficient mortar for finishing
purposes isavailable at the surface. If the mix is oversanded
or too wet, or if the concrete is overworked in consolidating
or finishing, the surface is likely to be covered with bleed
water or to contain a relatively decp layer of overwet mortar
or laitance. Spread the concrete evenly ahead of the strikeoff
screed. During early finishing operations, work the surface
as little as possible .
Darbying or bull floating (Fig. 9.9) is used to remove
high and low spots and to produce a true plane surface. After darbying or bulI floating is complete and while the surface is still fairly soft, check the surface for alignment by
using a straightedge or template. Carrect high and low
areas at once. Perform initial edging and joint grooving
operations at this stage while the concrete is still fairly
plastic .
AIlow water that comes to the surface during darbying or bulI floating to evaporate before the surface is floated
with hand or machine floats.
Start hand or machine floating just after the surface
sheen disappears. If the amount of water or laitance is excessive, "scrape" it off before the surface is floated again. A
large loop of garden hose puUed across the surface is effective for removing excess surface water. Do not sprinkle dry
cement or a mixture of dry cement and sand ("dry shake")
on the surface of the fresh concrete. However, the absorbent properties of dry cement placed on top of buriap covering the surface can be used to advantage in certain special
techniques for hardened floor finishing and pavement construction. Before finishing, carefulIy remove the buriap to
prevent contamination of the surface.
CONCRETING
Air-entrained concrete - Because air-entrained concrete has less bleeding, it is sometimes considered more
difficult to finish because the surface layer tends to
stiffen more rapidly than the interior of the slab. It
may be helpful to use a stiffer mix that will provide
more uniformity in setting throughout the depth, and to
finish earlier than is usual for non-air-entrained concrete. A magnesium or aluminum float, instead of
wood, facilitates finishing of air-entrained concrete.
Plastic shrinkage cracking - Cracks appearing on
OPERATIONS
81
82
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
JOINTS
INSPECTION
CONCRETING
OPERATIONS
83
84
MANUAL
CHAPTER 10-CURING,
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
time should the construction load exceed that for which the
member was designed. Sometimes, the designer will provide
for construction loads, such as in multistory work.
Time of removal
The time of form removal is based on tbe effect on
the concrete.
Contract documents usuaUy contain
requirements for removal time based on tests of job
cured cylinders. For methods of evaluation of these test
results, and for minimum cylinder strengths, see detailed recommendations for removal of forms (and for
support and reshoring, discussed below) in ACI 301,
AC1306R, ACI 318, and ACI 347R.
Keep records of weather conditions and other
pertinent information and use these in conjunction with
the test results .
When test cylinders are used to determine
stripping (form removal) tin1es, cure them under conditions that are not more favorable than the most
unfavorable conditions of the concrete that the cylinders represen 1.
UsualJy the designer's approval is required
before supporting forms can be removed but in many
cases this responsibility is delegated to the inspector
under a general ruling of policy.
When stripping operations are not controUed by the
contract documents, "Guide to Fom1work for Concrete
(ACI 347R)," provides minimum times that should
elapse prior to stripping, depending on the type of
concrete member. These tin1es are the accumulated
number of days for air temperatures above 50 F, assuming that Type I portland cement is used. If Type
III cement is used, these times may be reduced on
approval of the designer. Of course, the times must be
increased if low temperatures are experienced.
Early removal of forms is desirable for finishing
and is usual1y desirable for curing. When protection is
not needed, nonsupporting forms (e.g., for waUs, columns, and beam sides) can be removed as soon as it
can be done without damage to concrete surfaces and
edges. In warm, dry weather especial1y, it is preferable
to remove the forms and start curing as soon as
possible. While forms remain in place, keep exposed
portions of the concrete we1. In hot, dry weather, keep
wood forms we1.
Support and reshorlng
AUow forms supporting concrete (Fig. 10.1) to
rema in undisturbed uotil the concrete can bear its own
weight plus construction live aod dead loads. At no
. Fig. 1O.1-High
waLLfonn with ties, studding, waLes, and
bracing in pLace- concrete pLacement in progress
CURING,
PROTECTION,
FORM REMOVAL,
RESHORING
85
86
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Membrana curing
Membrane-forming curing compounds, meeting
AS1M C 309, applied to the concrete surface will effectively retard evaporation of the mixing water. These
euring compounds are a satisfactory means of curing,
particularly if preceded by wet curing.
Whitepigmented curing compounds are commonly used
where future appearance is not eritical because
coverage is easily verified and reflection minimizes
surface temperatures. Clear compounds (used on areas
where the appearance of white euring compounds
would be objectionable during the period that it is
weathering off), should contain a fugitive (quick-fading)
dye to assure complete coverage.
The surfaee receiving a curing compound should
still be moist and above 40 F when the coating is
applied. The application should be made with power
spraying equipment in a smooth even-textured coat.
Apply two-coats, with the second eoat at right angles to
the first coat.
INSPECTION
CURING,
PROTECTION,
FORM REMOVAL,
87
RESHORING
difficult or impossible.
In cold weatber, many people mistakenly believe tbat
calcium cbloride or otber accelerators will act as an
"antifreeze" in concrete. Even at maximum pernssible
dosages, accelerators cannot significantly lower tbe freezing
temperature of concrete.
SPECIAL CURING CONDITIONS
AND PROTECTION
88
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CORRECTING
DEFECTS
IN NEW CONCRETE,
REPAIRING
OLD
CHAPTER 11-CORRECTION
OF DEFECTS IN NEWLY HARDENED
AND REPAIRS OF OLDER CONCRETE
In spite of good workmanship and efforts to
produce flawless concrete, some correction of defects
may be required when forms are removed. In addition,
repairs may be necessary to in-service structures as a
result of overload, design deficiency, abrasion, fire,
freezing, aggressive chemical attack, or corrosion of
reinforcing. Good information on concrete repair and
maintenaoce will be found in Reference 5 as well as in
the recommendations of ACI Cornmittee 546. A general discussion of evaluating damage aod selecting a
repair method is presented in ACI 201.2R.
Investigate the extent of repair needed, and the
quality of the undamaged portion of the structure first
to determine whether the necessary restoration costs
are justified. Consider the possibility that some modification to the original structure, such as more support,
enlargemeot of section, or better drainage, would contribute to better future serviceability.
For high quality and satisfactory results, only
knowledgeable personnel should make repairs to concrete.
For exposed concrete repairs, the texture and
color should blend inconspicuously with the original
concrete.
Make all repairs using procedures that ensure
long-time durability.
On important structures, plan and demonstrate
repair methods first, perhaps by coostructing mock-up
demonstration panels for approval. Such panels help
the inspector judge the repairs required and the procedures used later during construction. On any job
where appearance is important but demonstration
paneIs are not required, develop effective repair
procedures and demonstrate them as soon as possible
on surfaces that will be out of sight in the finished work
such as on a basement wall.
Make repairs to newly hardened concrete as soon
as the need for such repairs is evident. This greatly
improves their compatibility with the original concrete,
because the "greener" the base concrete is, the more
receptive the surface is for bonding of the repairs.
Simultaneous curing of the base concrete aod repair
will promote better color match. The best and least
expensive way to deal with repairs is to avoid the need
for them by means of tight forms, proper placing
methods, and thorough consolidation by ample
vibration.
PLAIN EXPOSED FORMED SURFACES
Care in fabrication, erection, and removal of formwork, will greatly reduce the need for corrective measures. Carefully examine the formwork for correct applicatioo of parting agents, and for potential causes of
89
CONCRETE
90
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
NOTE:
INSPECTION
CORRECTING
DEFECTS
IN NEW CONCRETE,
REPAIRING
91
OLD
ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
92
INSPECTION
Fig. 11.2-Slope
top edge of opening to pennit vibration
of concrete without leaving air pockets at the top of the
repalr
Fig. Il.4-For
repair of parking deck, unsound concrete was
removed, reinforcement sandblasted to remove rnst, and extra
reinforcement
bars installed alongside some damaged or
corroded bars. A bonding layer of neat cement grout was
applied just before placing the concrete overlay
8ack
built
tOril
lI'Iay be
in one piece.
By use of ancho, bolts, these f,on. forms may be used fo, ,eplacements
in the surfaces of massive concrete structures
in walls
CORRECTING
DEFECTS
IN NEW CONCRETE,
sensitivlty
REPAIRING
OLD
93
Hardened epoxy resin has a much higher thermal coefficient of expansion than concrete. Unless co01pensated for,
alI epoxy repairs tend to crack and come unbonded under
expansion-contraction cycling produced by temperature
changes. But epoxy resin bond-coats are not a problem
beca use of the tbinness of the coat (a reason for keeping
bond-coats thin). For epoxy mortar and concrete always use
epoxy resins that have high extensibility, thus alIowing the
material to stretch and relieve differential stress for thick
coatings. When fillers are added to epoxy resins and aggregates are used in mortars and concretes, the "dilution" effect
produces a lower coefficient of expansion in the total mixed
material and provides considerable relief.
Epoxy resins cure with almost no shrinkage.
Low
shrinkage is an advantage in repair work, but can present
problems for repairs to newly hardened concrete that has
not yet reached a stable condition of volume. Using extensible epoxy resins aUows the differential stress to be
relieved.
Temperature
limltations
94
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Materlals
Use epoxy resin binders specially formulated for
the intended use, normally the more extensible
materials. Use hard, dense, cIean aggregates, rounded
or cubical in shape, and completely dry. Table 11.1
gives recommended aggregate gradations.
Coarse
aggregates larger than 3/4 in. are seldom used. For
epoxy mortars, use tbe coarser gradations of fine
aggregate for deeper repairs and the finer gradations
for shallow repairs but material passing the No. 16
sieve is the coarsest that should be used if neat
feather-edging of the mortar is required. The epoxy
size sbown are those
Sieve
mortar aggregate gradations
found to
CaBne
No.
No.
16
No. 8
No. 4
No.sO
No. JO
100'
In J/8in.in.
(1G-15)
(2-10)
J/4
D.
give optimum results in producing nonsag mortars.
Many otber gradations are suecessfully used, some even
consisting of uniform sized aggregate.
Epoxy resin mortar proportions normaUy are 1 part
epoxy resin to 4 to 7 parts aggregate by weigbt. Epoxy
resin concrete proportions normally are 1 part epoxy
resin to 6 to 10 parts aggregate by weigbt. With the
aggregate gradations shown in Table 11.1, equal parts
of fine and coarse aggregates are used. Use the
maximum quantity of aggregate practicable, but never
more than will be completely wetted by the epoxy resin
and will bave all voids filled when tbe mixture is
compacted.
Surface preparation
In general, prepare the surface by foUowing the
requirements previously discussed for otber structural
repairs. Outline the repair area with a saw cut, 1/2 in.
deep for mortars and 1 to 2 in. deep for concrete. If
practicable, make sure the surface of the base concrete
is thoroughly dry, otherwise, a moisture tolerant epoxy
resin must be used. Compressed air lines used for
cIeaning and drying the surface must be equipped with
adequate water and oil separators. If possible, base
concrete and ambient air should be at moderate
temperatures (60 to 80 F) both before placing the
epoxy resin material and during cure.
Preparation, mixing, and handling
Condition the oven-dried aggregate and the epoxy
resin to a temperature between 70 and 85 F before
mixing. Mix the epoxy resin separately before adding
aggregate, being sure to add the curing agent
component to the epoxy component (following formulator's direction) beca use using the reverse order may
cause difficulties. Mix the epoxy resin with mechanical
equipment such as a low speed pneumatic or sparkproof electric drill with a paint mixer or propeUer
attachment.
Mixing must thorougbly blend aU of eacb component and must be at a low speed to prevent entrapping air bubbles. Then transfer the mixed epoxy
resin to larger mixers or containers, and add the
aggregate. The resin-aggregate mixing may be done by
hand in a large pan or mortar box or in a mechanical
INSPECTION
J/8
D.
No.
No.
No.
16
JO
J7-SS
8-18
16-26
80-90
65-77
4().6()
G-S
100
15-4.5
6J-7S
J8-S6
100
No.
84
12-22
24-J6
15-JS
4G-60
100far
9S-100
100
IS-JS
4G-70
G-IS
65-77
J().6()
22-40
16-J4
IG-15
IS-JS
gate
6-14
90-100
aggJe(12-22)
(14-22)
(c.I1)
(6-14)
(4-12)
g<teFme 60-80
aggJeg<te
for epoxy
(IS-15)
(2G-JO)
(8-18)
epoxy
aggJe(36-46)
MAXIMUM
reQn
concrete
resin
SIZEmanar
Fme
lr
balC or more of tbe minus No. 100 material passes tbe No. 200 sieve. use tbe limits in
parentbcses.
"ASTM
CORRECTING
DEFECTS
IN NEW CONCRETE,
Cleanup
GROUTING
OF CRACKS
REPAIRING
OLD
95
96
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CHAPTER 12-SLABS
REINFORCEMENT
Many slabs on grade are designed with reinforcement; usually welded-wire fabric is specified. The
precise placement of tbis reinforcement is important,
yet is often ignored, with the result that it is frequently
found either at the very OOttom of the slab or so near
the top surface that cover is inadequate (Fig. 12.1).
Concrete slabs on grade constructed with expansive
cement normally require reinforcement in the top half
of the slab. Structural slabs often contain two layers of
reinforcement; one placed near the top and one near
the OOttom. In tbis case, precision of placement is even
more important. Pay special attention to placing the
reinforcing around corners of slab openings, where
cracking frequently oecurs. Reinforcement must be
rigidly supported at its designed elevation before
concreting conmlences. Never place reinforcement,
particularly welded-wire fabric, on the subgrade and
then later attempt to pull it into place in the center of
the slab after concrete is placed.
General job mix requirements are usuaUy satisfactory for slabs (see Chapter 6). However, mixes need
97
FOR BUILDINGS
good finishability, and for this reason they should meet the
requirements of ACI 302.1R. If not otherwise specified, use
a water content producing slumps conforming to the provisions of Section 3.5 of "Specifications for Structural
Concrete for Buildings" (ACI 301). The concrete must have
satisfactory plasticity and finisbing qualities and must be
sufficiently cohesive to minimize segregation. The use of
water-reducing admixtures may help to overcome problems
of placement in large, flat structures. Concrete for exterior
slabs must be air entraincd where required by the exposure
conditions. Normal weight concrete for many other exposures may have a small amount of entrained air to increase
the workability of the concrete and to reduce bleeding.
Concrete made with lightweight aggregate may require air
entrainment to improve workability. See page 45 for comments on how temperature, slump, and water reducers may
affect air entrainment.
If excess bleeding (presence of free water on the slab
surface) oecurs, the sand may contain insufficient fines
passing the No. 50, No. 100, and No. 200 sieves. This can
sometimes be corrected by the use of appropriate admixtures, blending sand to improve the gradation, pozzolan, or
increased cement content, with an appropriate reproportioning of the mix. If the mix causes difficulties in workability and finishing, adjust the mix. Plastieizing admixtures
may help to overcome this problem. However, obtain the
designer's approval before changing the mix proportions.
Mixes should contain the maximum amount of coarse aggregate that can be used without causing difficulty in placing
and finishing. Nominal maximum size of coarse aggregate
should not exceed one-tbird the depth of the slab and should
generally not exceed 1 1/2 io. Heavy-duty topping mixes
must have low slump and less fines in the mix.
SLABS ON GRADE
98
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
99
100
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
SLABS
101
u"{I3mm) thlck
alter floor
jolnt
?'::;
~
Joint keyed or
dowelled for
construction
purposes
102
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
PAVEMENT
103
Fig. 13.1-Subgrade trimmer operating from stringline for both line and grade
quired for cement hydration and to provide a bond
breaker between subbase and pavement. The lean concrete base should contain entrained air for durability.
Fabrication and testing of strength test specimens, as
welI as tests of fresh concrete for such properties as air
cantent and consistency, sbould be done in tbe same
manner as for concrete pavement. Regardless of tbe
type of subgrade or subbase or base provided, tbe essential requirement for good concrete pavement performance is uniformity of support. Uniformity in
materials, compaction, and base tbickness sbould be
closely controlIed. Clase attention to tbese features of
prepaving operations will pay off in the years abead in
reduced maintenance and longer pavement life.
FORMS
104
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Fig. 13.2 - Paving airport taxiway in altemate lanes. After form remova~ the lanes between are paved
Wide base
Strlngline
Fig. 13.4-Fixed-form
paver with keyway form attached to
form rail at right. In foreground, dowels are positioned for
expansion joint
insure intimate contact of adjacent slab faces at cracks. Essentially, it has no other function. It acts to maintain any
cracks in a tightly closed condition so that aggregate interlock will provide load transfer at these locations. Normally
transverse contraction joints are constructed at close enough
intervals to prevent transverse cracking, in which case distributed reinforcing steel is not provided, except for oddshaped slabs and areas where joints are mismatched. High
percentages of reinforcing steel are used in structural slabs
and continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP).
Reinforcement may be welded-wire fabric (plain or de-
PAVEMENT
DECKS
105
CONCRETE
Materials
Cement should be furnished in bulk and each shipmeot checked to assure compliance with contract documents.
Maintain close control on aggregates to assure
compliance with contract documents.
Variation in
gradation of the aggregates can cause considerable
difficulty in maintaining uniform consistency of the
concrete. In many areas, coarse aggregates, particularly
gravels, contain significant amounts of materials that
are unstable when subjected to freezing and thawing or
even wetting and drying. When used in pavement concrete subjected to severe weather, these unstable par-
106
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
PAVING
Vlbration
Adequate vibration is essential for successful paving.
This is often accomplished by a combination of internal spud
vibrators and surface tamping bars (Fig. 13.5). They should
be rigidly gang mounted on the front of the paver so aU are
at the same depth and angle. Spud vibrators are usuaUy oriented paraUel to the longitudinal direction of paving and
should be located at intervals of not more than 2 or 2 112 ft
across the width of the paver. Sometimes, however, it is advantageous to orient them transversely when working with
stiff, lean mixes such as those used for concrete subbases.
A minimum frequency is usuaUy specified; measure the actual frequency by tacho meter to assure compliance. Minimum amplitude is also frequently specified.
Provide means for varying the frequency and depth of
the vibrators in accordance with concrete consistency,
materials, weather conditions, and other variables. Maintain
a sizeable head of concrete over the vibrators to achieve
effective consolidation. Provide interlocks for automatic
cutoff of vibration when the paver stops moving.
Paver
PAVEMENT
DECKS
107
Fig. 13.6-Slipfonn
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
108
INSPECTION
Fig. 13.7- Spreader and finishing machine supported on previously paved lane at left and on lonn rail at right.
Subbase is moistened ahead 01 spreader
Flnishing
Fig. 13.8 - Oscillating screed attached to concrete spreader produces specified crown in paved surface
PAVEMENT
109
Fig. 13.9- Components of slipfonn paver, which extrndes concrete to exact width, depth, and crown: (1) primary concrete
spreader screw; (2) primary concrete feed meter; (3) vibrator mounting ann; (4) secondary concrete feed meter; (5) primary
oscillating extrnsion finisher; (6) final oscillating extrnsion finisher; and (7) floating fin e surface finisher
skid
110
Fig. 13.1O-Machine
paved concrete
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE INSPECTION
Curing
Adequate curing is especially important in achieving the desired concrete properties for pavements. It
is essential for obtaining the concrete strength and
durability levels upon which the pavement desigo is
based.
The most common meaos of curing concrete pavements is by spraying 00 liquid membrane-forming compound. Coverage should be complete, and no further
attention is required during the curing period, except to
see that areas are resprayed when the membrane is
damaged by construction traffic.
Curing compounds for pavements generally contain
Fig. J3.11-Machine
PAVEMENT
Fig. 13.13-Machine
pavement
grooving
hardened
concrete
DECKS
111
112
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
sometimes used to form the weakened plane in parking lot and residential pavements. Delay its use until it
is assured that the depression it forms is permanent
and that a crack will form below it. Temporary inserts
are also used for forming the weakened planeo They
should not be removed until the danger of damage to
the concrete has passed. Somctimes these inserts are
removed by sawing after the concrete has hardened.
Make permanent inserts of material that will not
deteriorate under traffic and weather.
Asphaltimpregnated fiber board is econo-mical and has performed satisfactorily.
TIming is critical for sawing contraction joints in
the hardened concrete. Experienced operators can
determine when to saw without causing cxccssive raveling of the concrete, but before uncontrolled cracks
develop. This timing varies with weather conditions,
concrete materials, and the type of pavement foundation. It is generaUy within 8 to 24 hr after concrete
placement, and may occur at any time, day or night.
Therefore, make sure adequate lighting is available for
night sawing, and that a standby saw is available in case
of equipment breakdown.
Expanslon Joints
Expansion joints consist of vertical, compressible
inserts, extending the full depth of the pavement to
permit movement of adjoining slabs or to isolate slab
movements from fixed structures, such as bridge
approach slabs or concrete waUs and directional
changes and blockouts. Premolded expansion joint
material is installed to form these joints.
The expansion filler must be in contact with the
grade throughout its length and extend the full width of
the lane to exclude plugs of concrete from the expansion space. Keep the filler vertical during concrete
placement and hardening. Otherwise, when movement
occurs, one slab will tend to ride up over the other,
possibly causing joint faulting, spalling, or a blowup.
The expansion joint filler should extend to within
only about 1(2 in. of the pavement surface to provide
space for the joint sealant. This is often formed with a
removable insert on the top of the filler.
Pavement dowels
For heavy-duty pavements, mechanicalload transfer
may be specified for transverse joints. This is provided
by smooth, round steel dowel bars. Dowels in transverse joints are usually installed in wire basket assemblies that are staked in the grade ahead of paving. The
dowels are intended to transfer loads across the joint
and reduce deflections at the joint. But at the same
time they must permit unrestricted horizontal movement as the joint opens and closes. Therefore, they
must be completely smooth and free of burrs. They are
painted and one half lightly oiled to prevent bond to
the concrete. Some dowels are manufactured with plastic coatings to reduce bond to the concrete and to
INSPECTION
prevent corrosion.
To function properly, the dowels must be installed
parallel to the center line and surface of the pavement.
Specified tolerances often require that misalignment shall
not exceed 118 inch in 12 inches. Alignment can be checked
by levels and measuring tapes and templates. Stiff concrete
can shove baskets and dowels out of alignment unless precautions are taken in the way the concrete is placed.
Special caps, designed to provide space for concrete
expansion are installed on the free-moving ends of dowels at
expansion joints (Fig. 13.14). This space provides for
concrete movement without the buildup of critical stresses
that could shatter the concrete.
Machines are available for mechanically inserting dowels
in transverse joints and in longitudinal construction joints
and contraction joints. The dowels are inserted from the
surface after the concrete bas been placed. Some types of
dowel inserters do not function properly for longitudinal
construction joints in thick slipformed pavements. If tbe
inserters cannot be used for tbese pavements, cement the
dowels with epoxy resin into boles carefully drilled into the
hardened concrete. Check tbe dowel positioning frequently
for compliance with the specified tolerances.
Fig. 13.14-Dowels
..
pm::Y.)q:>
100
.J!
'(lo~nb~J]
qld~p 10~P!JJnSfi!]0 Sln:>M~Sfi! ~fi!l(ns~J
-- .-- ----.
-'
.. ,
.'
112
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
some times used to form the weakened plane in parking lot and residential pavements. Delay its use until it
is assured that the depression it forms is permanent
and that a crack will form below it. Temporary inserts
are also used for forming the weakened planeo They
should not be removed until the danger of damage to
the concrete has passed. Somctimes these inserts are
removed by sawing after the concrete has hardened.
Make permanent inserts of material that will not
deteriorate under traffic and weather.
Asphaltimpregnated fiber board is econo-mical and has performed satisfactorily.
TlDling is critical for sawing contraction joints in
the hardened concrete. Experienced operators can
determine when to saw without causing excessive raveling of the concrete, but before uncontrolled cracks
develop. This timing varies with weather conditions,
concrete materials, and the type of pavement foundation. It is generally within 8 to 24 hr after concrete
placement, and may occur at any time, day or night.
Therefore, make sure adequate lighting is available for
night sawing, and that a standby saw is available in case
of equipment breakdown.
Expanslon Joints
Expansion joints consist of vertical, compressible
inserts, extending the full depth of the pavement to
permit movement of adjoining slabs or to isolate slab
movements from fixed structures, such as bridge
approach slabs or concrete walls and directional
changes and blockouts. Premolded expansion joint
material is installed to form these joints.
The expansion filler must be in contact with the
grade throughout its length and extend the full width of
the lane to exclude plugs of concrete from the expansion space. Keep the filler vertical during concrete
placement and hardening. Otherwise, when movement
occurs, one slab will tend to ride up over the other,
possibly causing joint faulting, spalling, or a blowup.
The expansion joint filler should extend to within
only about 1/2 in. of the pavement surface to provide
space for the joint sealant. This is often formed with a
removable insert on the top of the filler.
Pavement dowels
For heavy-duty pavements, mechanicalload transfer
may be specified for transverse joints. This is provided
by smooth, round steel dowel bars. Dowels in transverse joints are usually installed in wire basket assemblies that are staked in the grade ahead of pavil1g. The
dowels are intended to transfer loads across the joint
and reduce deflections at the joint. But at the same
time they must permit unrestricted horizontal movement as the joint opens and closes. Therefore, they
must be completely smooth and free of burrs. They are
painted and one half lightly oiled to prevent bond to
the concrete. Some dowels are manufactured with plastic coatings to reduce bond to the concrete and to
INSPECTION
prevent corrosion.
To function properly, the dowels must be instaUed
paraUel to the center line and surface of the pavement.
Specified tolerances often require that misalignment shaU
not exceed 1/8 inch in 12 inches. Alignment can be checked
by levels and measuring tapes and templates. Stiff concrete
can shove baskets and dowels out of alignment unless precautions are taken in the way the concrete is placed.
Special caps, designed to provide space for concrete
expansion are installed on the free-moving ends of dowels at
expansion joints (Fig. 13.14).
This space provides for
concrete movement without the buildup of critical stresses
that could shatter the concrete.
Machines are available for mechanicaUy inserting dowels
in transverse joints and in longitudinal construction joints
and contraction joints. The dowels are inserted from the
surface after the concrete has been placed. Some types of
dowel inserters do not function properly for longitudinal
construction joints in thick slipformed pavements. If the
inserters cannot be used for these pavements, cement the
dowels with epoxy resin into holes carefully drilled into the
hardened concrete. Check the dowel positioning frequently
for compliance with the specified tolerances.
Fig. 13.14-Dowe/s
- ---0"
112
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
sometimes used to form the weakened plane in parking lot and residential pavements. Delay its use until it
is assured that the depression it forms is permanent
and that a crack will form below it. Temporary inserts
are also used for forming the weakened planeo They
should not be removed until the danger of damage to
the concrete has passed. Sometimes these inserts are
removed by sawing after the concrete has hardened.
Make permanent inserts of material that wiU not
deteriorate under traffic and weather.
Asphaltimpregnated fiber board is econo-mical and has performed satisfactorily.
Tuning is critical for sawing contraction joints in
the hardened concrete. Experienced operators can
determine when to saw without causing excessive raveling of the concrete, but before uncontroUed cracks
develop. This timing varies with weather conditions,
concrete materials, and the type of pavement foundation. It is generaUy witbin 8 to 24 br after concrete
placement, and may occur at any time, day or nigbt.
Therefore, make sure adequate ligbting is available for
night sawing, and tbat a standby saw is available in case
of equipment breakdown.
Expanslon )olnts
Expansion joints consist of vertical, compressible
inserts, extending the full depth of the pavement to
permit movement of adjoining slabs or to isolate slab
movements from fixed structures, such as bridge
approacb slabs or concrete walls and directional
changes and blockouts. Premolded expansion joint
material is installed to form tbese joints.
The expansion filler must be in contact with the
grade througbout its length and extend the fuUwidth of
the lane to exc1ude plugs of concrete from the expansion space. Keep the filler vertical during concrete
placement and hardening. Otherwise, when movement
occurs, one slab will tend to ride up over the other,
possibly causing joint faulting, spalling, or a blowup.
The expansion joint filler should extend to within
only about 1/2 in. of the pavement surface to provide
space for the joint sealant. This is often formed with a
removable insert on the top of the filler.
Pavement dowels
For heavy-duty pavements, mechanicalload transfer
may be specified for transverse joints. This is provided
by smooth, round steel dowel bars. Dowels in transverse joints are usually installed in wire basket assemblies that are staked in the grade ahead of pavillg. 111e
dowels are intended to transfer loads across the joint
and reduce deflections at the joint. But at the same
time they must permit unrestricted horizontal movement as the joint opens and c1oses. Therefore, they
must be completely smooth and free of burrs. They are
painted and one half lightly oiled to prevent bond to
the concrete. Some dowels are manufactured with plastic coatings to reduce bond to the concrete and to
INSPECTION
prevent corrosion.
To function properly, the dowels must be instaUed
paraUel to the center line and surface of the pavement.
Specified tolerances often require that misalignment shall
not exceed 1/8 inch in 12 inches. Alignment can be checked
by levels and measuring tapes and templates. Stiff concrete
can shove baskets and dowels out of alignment unless precautions are taken in the way tbe concrete is placed.
Special caps, designed to provide space for concrete
expansion are installed on tbe free-moving ends of dowels at
expansion joints (Fig. 13.14). This space provides for
concrete movement without tbe buildup of critical stresses
that could shatter the concrete.
Machines are available for mechanicaUy inserting dowels
in transverse joints and in longitudinal construction joints
and contraction joints. The dowels are inserted from the
surface after the concrete has been placed. Some types of
dowel inserters do not function properly for longitudinal
construction joints in tbick slipformed pavements. If the
inserters cannot be used for these pavements, cement the
dowels witb epoxy resin into holes carefully drilled into the
hardened concrete. Check the dowel positioning frequently
for compliance with the specified tolerances.
Fig. 13.14-Dowels
PAVEMENT
113
114
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
potential paving time, including days when weather conditions may require special precautions to produce an acceptable product. When weather conditions occur that may adversely affect paving operations, notify the appropriate person to obtain instructions.
Requirements for concreting during botb bot and cold
weatber are described in Cbapter 10.
Before concreting operations start, aU materials neces
sary to protect tbe concrete sbould be in place. Agree upar
materials and procedures to be used in case of sudder
changes in weatber (rain, snow, wind, drastic temperatur~
change, etc.) before concreting commences.
Hot weather
During bot weather it is sometimes difficult to saw join~
soon enougb to prevent uncontroUed shrinkage cracking. 11
may be useful to minimize evaporation by wetting tbe surface by fog spraying. Forros, stabilized subbases, and
existing pavements being resurfaced may also be cooled b)
water before concrete placement. Set-retarding admixture~
often facilitate fmisbing during bot weatber.
Pavemenl
construction is sometimes limited to tbe cooler bours of tbe
day or nigbt.
Ral"
Wben newly placed concrete is exposed to unexpected
rain, tbe first priority is to get it under cover. Apply protective covers immediately. Keep materials sucb as plastic
sbeeting or burlap on band at all times. A roll of plastic
sbeeting is often carried on tbe curing macbine for sucb
emergencies.
It is sometimes specified tbat temporary side forros be
instaUed on slipform paving projects when it rains. How
ever, if tbis delays tbe placement of protective covering,
surface water may flow to tbe pavement edge and down be
tween tbe concrete and the forros, damaging the edge.
Temporary forms may be set for tbe repair of any edge
damage wben tbe rain stops.
If tbe rain stops before the concrete bas hardened, re
store texture damaged by the protective covers and apply additional curing compound. If tbe concrete has bardened,
leave it undisturbed until after the curing periodo Texturing
can tben be restored by sawing grooves in tbe surface.
PROTECTION
WEATHER
PROBLEMS
FROM PREMATURE
TRAFFIC
114
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
potential paving time, inc1uding days when weather conditions may require special precautions to produce an acceptable product. When weather conditions occur that may adversely affect paving operations, notify the appropriate person to obtain instructions.
Requirements for concreting during both hot and cold
weather are described in Chapter 10.
Before concreting operations start, al1 material s neces
sary to protect the concrete should be in place. Agree upor
material s and procedures to be used in case of sudder
changes in weather (rain, snow, wind, drastic temperatuH
change, etc.) before concreting commences.
Hot weather
During hot weather it is sometimes difficult to saw join~
socn enough to prevent uncontrol1ed shrinkage cracking. I1
may be useful to minimize evaporation by wetting the sur
face by fog spraying. Forms, stabilized subbases, and
existing pavements being resurfaced may also be cooled b}
water before concrete placcment. Set-retarding admixture~
often facilitate fmisbing during hot weather.
Pavemenl
construction is sometimes limited to the cooler hours of the
day or night.
Raln
WEATHER
PROBLEMS
FROM PREMATURE
TRAFFIC
PAVEMENT
BRIDGE DECKS
Fig.
13.17- Placzg
concrete
by
115
116
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
---------
INSPECTION
ARCHITECTURAL
117
CONCRETE
Architectural concrete also includes concrete elements designed with unusual, sornetimes cornplex, shapes
or esthetic appeal.
Architectural concrete rnay be either cast-in-place or
precast, either load-bearing structural elements or nonload-bearing facing units (Fig. 143).
Fig. 14.3-Mural
panels
Contract documents
118
-----------------------------------ARCHITECTURAL
CONCRETE
119
..----
120
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
PROCEDURES
UNlFORMlTY
Unifomuty is the key word for acceptable architectural concrete- uniformity of material S, uniformity of
equipment, uniformity of operations (ineluding scheduling), and uniformity of workmanship.
Where feasible, obtain each material from a single
source, and for manufactured or processed material S,
from a single production run. If possible, aU materials
should be obtained and stockpiled or stored at the site
before construction begins. The material s must be suitably stored to protect them from deterioration, contamination, intermingling or, in case of aggregates, segregation. The inspector should be constantly alert to detect
any change in quality or appearance of any material during progress of the work, as revealed by either test results
or by visual observation.
Uniformity of product is best attained by using the
same equipment in the same manner throughout the job.
Two concrete mixers may not mix materials with the
same degree of unifomuty. Changes of vibration equipment may affect the distribution of aggregate near the
surface. Altemate jet nozzles may produce different
sandblasted textures.
Workmanship is in the same category. Two laborers
with two vibrators can achieve different distributions of
aggregate near the surface if they have not be en trained
to use the vibrators in the identical manner. The concrete
must be mixed to the same consistency and must be
placed in the same manner day after day. For architectural concrete, the work force must be trained to work
as one body. Laborers on vibrators, on sandblasting
nozzles, on bushhammers, on rubbing blocks, or on any
operation affecting the appearance of the finished product, must be trained to perform their function with
equal ability. Indiscriminate replacement of work crew
members should not be tolerated.
Except as necessary to acconml0date varying conditions of weather and varying structural elements, the
operations of concrete batching, mixing, transporting,
placing, vibrating, form removal, finishing, and curing
should be performed in the same manner from day to
day with the same timing. Variation in the manner or
timing for any of these operations can cause variation in
appearance of the concrete surface.
An owner's inspector may not presume to advise a
FORMS
121
ARCHITECTURALCONCRETE
MATERIALS
~--------------
MANUAL
122
OF CONCRETE
contractor to loca te suitable materials to produce concrete with an appearance matching the design reference
sample.
Cement
Aggregates are usually required to meet quality requirements for ordinary concrete aggregates. Often additional requirements severely limit the presence of partieles which can cause staining on the concrete surface
(principally iron compounds) and those unstable materials which can produce popouts during weather changes.
The color of the fine aggregate has much more effect on
the color of the concrete than does the color of the
coarse aggregate. The grading of coarse aggregate should
be more elosely controlled for exposed architectural
concrete than for conventional concrete.
Admixtures
Air-entraining,
- Quality requirements
ordinary concrete.
INSPECTION
MlXlNG,
AND TRANSPORTlNG
AND CONSOLlDATlON
ARCHITECTURAL
SURFACE TREATMENT
123
CONCRETE
FINISH
-------~-------- ---~--------124
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Fig. 14.8-Appearance
ofthese smooth concrete panels is
spoiled by stains while the adjacent exposed aggregate
pallels are unsullied
CURING
Metbods used and timing of curing operations must be
maintained uniform in order to produce uniform color in the
concrete.
Be careful protective coverings do not mar tbe surface
of immature concrete. Uneven application of steam or water
can cause more or less temporary blotching. If plastic sheets
are used, tbey must not be allowed to wrinkJe. WrinkJes lead
to a dappled appearance caused by uneven moisture
condensation.
When wood forms are used, curing in the forms, witb
tbe forros maintained wet is a good method. The forro
surfaces must have be en sealed to prevent staining.
When using moist curing, be sure that tbe water is
nonstaining. No iron or steel pipes sbould be used. If plastic
sbeeting is used for curing, tbe sheets must fit tigbt against
tbe concrete at aU points; otberwise, mottling will occur
(greenhouse effect). When membrane curing is used, a colorless material, usually with a fugitive dye, sbould be used.
Try tbe material first on an unexposed surface to be sure it
do es not cause staining a few days after application.
ARCHITECTURALCONCRETE
REPAIRS
FINAL ACCEPTANCE
PROTECTION
AND ERECTION
--
----- --
125
126
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
CHAPTER 15-SPECIAL
VERTICAL STRUCTURES
INSPECTION
CONCRETING METHODS
Mix requirements
Concrete for slipforming may require a greater
percentage of sand than conventionally placed concrete.
The maximum size of aggregate should be less than the
thickness of the cover over the reinforcement.
When selecting a mix, the setting time is of prime
importance. A penetration resistance of between 50 and
200 psi measured in accordance with ASTM
403 is
normally required at the trailing edge of the formwork.
Concrete with a penetration resistance of below about
15 psi is susceptible to sagging or faUout. Concrete with
a penetration resistance of 500 psi has reached initial
set. As initial set is approached, frietion makes slipping
difficult and the form tends to lift the concrete, later
resulting in horizontal checks and cracks; the forms
tend to score wall faces, and surface finisbing becomes
difficult. Make laboratory tests to measure precisely the
setting rate for the chosen mix at the temperature the
concrete will have in the forms.
If needed, suitable retarders or accelerators may be
used to modify and control the setting of the concrete.40
Formwork
As concrete is placed, the forms are slowly jacked
upward at a predetermined rate based on the rate of
Fig. 15.1-Slipfonned
550
ft high
'"J
SPECIAL CONCRETING
Fig. 15.2-Slipfonning
- -------
127
METHODS
CAST-IN-PLACE
PIPE
------------------128
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
120 in.
Forms
Since the trench is a portion of the form, check its
shape, line, and grade frequently checked to assure
correct waU thickness of the pipe. The circular bottom
of the trench, which is the forming surface, should also
be frequently checked to insure that it is dense, clean,
and free of serious irregularities. Any standing water in
the trench should be removed. If the trench is very dry,
it should be dampened for better curing of the
concrete.
The inside of the pipe is formed either by metal
forms or a speciaUy designed inflated tube. The top of
the pipe is ordinarily hand fmished, but may be
partially formed at its sides.
Control of concrete placement
The concrete can be placed in a two-stage manual
operation or in a one- or two-stage mechanical operation. In the two-stage operation, the lower portion of
the pipe is placed frrst, foUowed shortly thereafter by
the top portion. Check the condition of the top of the
walls of the lower portion frequently before placement
of the upper portion. Laitance or foreign matter, which
may adversely affect watertightness of the construction
joint, should be removed.
Continuously inspect the concrete pipe as it leaves
the forms to detect and resolve problems in the
shortest possible travel distance. To properly inspect
the pipe, it must be viewed both from the outside and
from the inside. For additional information on slipfornng cast-in-place concrete pipe, see Reference 5,
ACI 346, and ACI 346R.
TILT-UP CONSTRUCTION
Forms
The only forms normaUy required in tilt-up construction
are around the waU edges and at openings. Edge forms
should be sufficiently stiff and weU braced to maintain the
edges in good alignment, particularly those forming the top
and bottom edges of the waU (Fig. 15.6).
Bond prevention
Liquid membrane curing compounds are commonly used
to prevent bonding of the tilt-up waUs to the floor slab. They
should be applied in two or more coatings, with the first coat
sealing the slab surface soon after placement and the final
coat applied shortly before placement of the waU concrete
to prevent bonding. The inspector should confirm that both
coats of the membrane are placed uniformIy and completely
cover the casting surface. Application of the bond breaker in
two directions is advisable.
Concrete
Concrete should be placed with the minimum practical
slump, and should be worked in place without injury to the
platform coating. Particular care should be taken to obtain
dense homogeneous concrete along aU edges of the panel.
Some special architectural surface treatments, such as a
pebble finish, should be cast face up to better control the
uniforDty of texture.
Erection
The inspector should verify that the erection procedure
used is the one designed for. Walls must develop sufficient
strength to prevent cracking during tilt-up. Cracking may
also be caused by lifting the panel at points other than those
indicated by the design; by lifting too strongly when it is
difficult to break bond; or by jerking or jarring the panel.
SPECIAL CONCRETING
METHODS
129
expression
o/
Fig. 15.5- Sandwich construction places rigid insulation over first layer o/
concrete, with a second layer o/ concrete cast over the insulation where a
durable interior surface is needed
130
MANUAL
Fig.
15.6- Wood
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
LlFT-SLAB
CONSTRUCTION
Fig. 15.7- Erecti/lg tilt-up panel with pipe bracing already attached.
The bracing stabilizes the waLl panel until the who/e structure is tied
together
SPECIAL
CONCRETING
METHODS
131
--
.. -- -- -
----
132
SPECIAL
CONCRETING
CONCRETE
METHODS
133
134
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Mlx requlrements
Although the ingredients of both pumped mixes
and those placed by other methods are the same, more
emphasis on reducing variability is essential to the
production of a successful pump mix.
The maximum size of angular coarse aggregate
should be Iimited to one-third of the mnimum inside
diameter of the pipe or hose, and the maximum size of
weU-rounded aggregate should be Iimited to 40 percent
of the inside diameter. Coarse normal weight aggregate
and sand should meet the grading requirements of
ASTM C 33, with the additional requirements that 15
to 30 percent of the sand particles pass the No. 50
screen and 5 to 10 percent pass the No. 100 screen.
Sands having a fineness modulus less than 2.40 or
greater than 3.0 should generaIly not be alIowed. To
improve pumpability, the volume of normal weight
coarse aggregate per unit volume of concrete may need
to be reduced by up to 10 percent, compared with
concrete placed by other methods, depending on
aggregate shape, cement and fly ash contents, or the
use of a pumping aid, and the capability of the
pumping equipment and operator.
Lightweight aggregates absorb more water than
normal weight aggregates, and under pumping
pressures may absorb considerably more. This can
result in water loss from the concrete in the line, and
thereby impair its pumpability. Lightweight aggregate
should be thoroughly presoaked prior to being used in
concrete for pumping. The minimum moisture content
after soaking should be equal to or in excess of the
average 24-hr absorption of the aggregate. AlIow free
water to drain from presoaked stockpiled aggregates for
2 to 4 hr before mixing to permit uniform slump
control.
Lightweight aggregates should meet the grading
limits stated in ASTM C 330, and, in addition, from 20
to 35 percent of the sand should pass the No. 50 screen
and 10 to 20 percent should pass the No. 100 screen.
Lightweight sand having a fineness modulus of less
than 2.20 or greater than 2.80 should generaIly not be
allowed. Much of the Iightweight concrete to be
pumped contains alI natural sand for the fme aggregate.
Gradation of tbis natural sand should conform to
requirements for sand for normal weight concrete.
Experience indicates that concrete with slumps
(measured at the intake) less than 2 in. are impractical
for pumping, while concrete with slumps above 6 in.
tend to segrega te. Because of the usuaUy higher range
in slump and aggregate sizes, and gradings requiring
more mixing water, pumped mixes usualIy require more
cement than conventionaIly placed concrete. Lightweight mixes normaUy require even more cement since
they usuaUy require even higher slump to compensate
for the slump losses under pumping pressure.
Admi.xJures frequently used in pump mixes are
INSPECTION
SPECIAL
CONCRETING
METHODS
135
- -------
136
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
ComparisOfl of processes-Either
process can produce
shotcrete suitable for normal construction requirements.
Differences in equipment, maintenance, and operational
features may make one or the other process more attractive
for a particular operation. However, the wet-mix application
is not subject to variation and to inclusion of lenses of
rebound to the degree that is often found in dry-mix
shotcrete. ACI 506R provides a comparison of the processes
(rabie 15.1).
Qualificatlons and dutles o, craftsmen
The quality of shotcrete in structures depends largely on
the skill of the application crew. AlI members of the crew
and the inspector should provide evidence of training and
experience in satisfactory work in similar capacities.
The inspector should observe the nozzlemen as they
perform the following duties:
1. Verify that all surfaces to be shot are clean and free
of laitance or loose material, using air, air and water, or
saodblast from the nozzle as required.
2. Verify that the operating air pressure is uniform and
provides proper nozzle velocity for good compaction.
3. Regulate the water conteot so that the mix will be
plastic enough to give good compaction and a low
percentage of rebound, but stiff eoough oot to sag. (In the
dry-mix process the oozzleman directly controls the mixing
water, while in the wet-mix process he calls for changes io
consistency as required.)
4. Hold the nozzle at the proper distance and as nearly
perpendicular to the surface as the type of work will permit,
to secure maxinlum compaction with minimum rebound (Fig.
15.12).
5. Follow a routine that fills corners with sound shotcrete and encase reinforcement without porous material
behiod it, using the maximum practical layer thickness.
SPECIAL
CONCRETING
DRY-MIX
PROCESS
riable
field
characterislics
are beller
wilh
aggregales.
and
for
grealer
nglh
ys.
of mix
al
properlies.
operalion.
bility.
Beller
Capable
suiled
forof placing
higher
slrenglhs.
mixes
Capable
of being
lransported
er mixing
WET-MIX
PROCESS
walerdusling
is
Ihoroughly
mixed
wilh
delivery
Mixing
accuralely
waler
e<juipmenl
is
measured.
controlled
and
can
al
beIhe
resulling
Normally
inof
less
has
malerial
lower
rebound
wasle.
Capable
Beller
olher
assurance
grealer
ingredients.
lhal
produclion.
Ihe
mixing
accompanies
Less
Ihe
gunning
and
cemenl
1055
--- ---
METHODS
137
Fig. 15.12-Shotcrete
(sprayed mortar) shou/d be builJ up
gradualJy in layers, without sagging. Blow pipe clears away
loose material
Mix proportlons
For dry-mix fine-aggregate shotcrete, the mix proportions should ordinarily be 1 part cement to 3 to 4 1/2 parts
damp sand, measured by volume. The sand should contain
3 to 6 percent moisture, both to assure a homogeneous mix
and to prevent discomfort to the nozzleman from buildup of
static electricity.
With either dry- or wet-mix coarse aggregate shotcrete,
weight batching is preferred. Mixes may contain 560 to 850
lb of portland cement per yd3 and generally contain more
_____
138
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
protection
should follow
SPECIAL CONCRETING
approved concrete practices, unless otherwise specified. Application of curing co01pounds is gellerally the
O1ost practical type of curillg procedure (see Chapter
10), but oot necessarily the best. Water curing is the
O1ost desirable.
Control testlng
There is no successful O1ethod of directly forong
test speci01ens by the shotcrete
O1ethod. The O1ost
reliable speci01ens are obtained fro01 cores either fro01
the structure or fro01 special test panels. These test
panels should be fabricated by the nozzle01an doing tbe
on-site work, holding tbe nozzle at the sa01e angle as
used 00 the structure. For fine aggregate sbotcrete, test
panels are generally about 18xl8x3 in. and tbe cores
about 3 inches in dia01eter with a finished length
so01ewhat less than 3 in. For coarse aggregate shotcrete, panels should be larger and at least 6 in. tbick.
The core dia01eter should be 3 in. When coring test
panels for test specimens, avoid areas near the edges of
the panel to obtain materials typical of that in the
structure. If test speci01ens are obtained fro01 panels,
cores should occasionally be taken fro01 the structure
to assure that the test paoels properly reflect the
quality of the concrete. Obtain and test the cores in
accordance with ASTM C 42.
Particularly for undergrouod
support structures, a
measure of strength withill less than 8 hr is desirable.
The shotcrete at tbis tender age usually cannot be
cored without damage to the speci01en. Promising research has indicated that the cone pullout apparatus
may have O1erit for the purpose. Good correlation
between pullout and formed cylinder strengths were
obtained.
Safety
Shotcreting requires special regard to safety. The
nozzle01an and crew should wear safety glasses with
side shields to preveot eye damage fro01 flying rebound.
In particularly
dusty situations,
such as sandblast
cIeanup, air-ventilated helmets may be required. It is
often necessary for the applicators to turo the nozzle
away fro01 the work during periods of unsatisfactory
feed conditions; they should be most careful to avoid
directing the nozzle at other O1e01bers of the crew. Care
should be taken to prevent caustic accelerators from
contact with the skin or eyes.
ACI 506R and Reference
49 are good general
references on shotcreting. References 47 and 48 are
special publications devoted to the use of shotcrete for
underground structural support, but they contain O1uch
information applicable to alI kinds of shotcreting. Reference 5 also contains pertinent information on shotcreting.
METHODS
139
140
MANUAL
CHAPTER 16 -
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
STRUCTURAL LlGHTWEIGHT
AGGREGATE CONCRETE
Structurallightweight aggregate concrete is generally used when reduced unit weight will produce economy in buildings and bridges. For most structures,
designs generally require the same compressive strength
levels as those used for normal weight concrete. Structural lightweight aggregate concrete is sometimes defined as having a 28-day compressive strength over 2500
psi and an air-dry unit weight less than 115 pcf. However, concretes having compressive strengths in excess
of 5000 psi can be economically produced with most
manufactured lightweight aggregates available in the
United States and Canada. A strength "ceiling" will
generally be found at higher strengths, the level depending on the particular aggregate. Some lightweight
aggregates are suitable to consistently produce concretes with strengths in excess of 5000 to 6000 psi.
There are two general c1asses of structural grade
lightweight aggregates:
Those produced by extruding, calcining, or sintering products such as blast furnace slag, c1ay,
diatomite, f1yash, shale, and slate
Those produced by processing natural materials
such as scoria, pumice, and tuff
Aggregates
Most structural grade lightweight aggregates are
produced using rotary kilns or sintering grates, with tbe
rotary kilns being preferred. Complete details of the
manufacture of structural lightweight aggregate are
found in ACI 213R.
To be acceptable for use in structural concrete,
lightweight aggregates must meet the requirements of
ASTM C 330. This specification covers such items as
grading, unit weight, deleterious substances, and concrete-making properties.
Although many structures have been built with concrete containing both coarse and fme lightweight aggregates to obtain the lowest possible unit weight at the
required strength level, much structural ligbtweight
aggregate concrete contains natural sand for the fine
aggregate. Natural sand is usually more economical
al1d also provides improvement for certain concrete
properties, such as tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, creep, and drying shrinkage.
Mixtura proportionlng and control
Mix proportioning methods for structural lightweight aggregate concrete generaUy differ somewhat
from those for normal weight concrete. The principal
properties that require modification of proportioning
and control procedures are the greater total water ab-
This factor can then be used for adjustment of proportions as if it were a true specific gravity. It cannot be
used to find water-cement ratio, since part of the total
water has been absorbed by the aggregate.
After a satisfactory set of proportions has been
achieved with one selected cement content, compressive
strength specimens should be cast for testing at 7 and
28 days and such other ages as desired, and specimens
for plastic (wet) unit weight and for air-dry unit weight
(see below) should be prepared.
Mixes with the other two selected cement contents
should then be made to obtain strengths and unit
weights for these cement contents. In establisbing the
proportions for these mixes, the weight of coarse
lightweight aggregate and total water will not change
appreciably. Absolute volume of sand sbould be varied
inversely as cement content is changed and the airentraining agent dosage adjusted as necessary for each
cement contento
Once tbe compressive strengtbs have been obtained, a curve of strength versus cement content can
be established. The proper cement content for the
-- --~=--------
141
142
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
143
Group I consists of aggregates made by expanding products such as perlite and verOliculite. They
generally produce concretes having air-dry unit weights
between 15 and 50 pcf.
Group 11aggregates consist of the same materals listed for structurallightweight concrete aggregates.
They generally produce concrete having air-dry unit
weigh15 between 45 and 90 pcr.
The most commonly used natural aggregates for
low-density insulating concretes are the expanded minerais, vermiculite, and perlite. Vermiculite is a micalike mineral. When expanded by heat, the particles are
accordion shaped. 115dry-Ioose unit weight is 6 to 10
pcf, and it is usually produced in graded sizes.
Perlite is a naturally occurrng glassy siliceous rock;
when expanded by heat it produces light-colored, generally spherical particles. The particles contain closed
air cells. Perlite aggregate, which has a dry- loose unit
weight of 7 112 to 12 pcf, is also produced in graded
sizes.
Other aggregates used to produce insulating concrete are primarily synthetic materals and ioclude
ceramic and glass granules, hoUow polystyrene beads,
ground paper, and sawdust. Most of these particles are
single sized.
Sand used in low-density concrete should meet the
requirements of ASTM 33 (concrete sand) or ASTM
144 (mortar sand). Aggregates used for insulating
concrete seldom exceed 3/8 in. maximum size and
frequently are less than 118 in. maxinlum size.
..-- --=~---=
144
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CONCRETE
3)
)O
7)"
**3.1)
4.8)
4.8)
to
2.6)
es
SPECIAL
TYPES OF CONCRETE
145
...
..
....
......
.....
70 100
95
lo .100
100
40
60
20
35
40
20
O
lo
10
lo
lo
80
lo
85
50
70
80
45
95
O
.loO10
.OlO
100
.10
4Gradalioo
2Gradatioo
320
100
O
O
275
O
10
Coovenliooal
90
50
lo
100
Gradalioo
10
lo
30
55
5215
placemeol
placemenl
Prepacked
Gradalioo
Boron
Boraled
addilives
dialomaceous
SYN1HE11C
Metalic
iron
products
Ferrophosphorus
Sheared
Ferrosilicon
Iron
Croshed
shol
bars
aggrqales
(6.5
(75
(7.7107.8)
(5.8
lo
to2.6)
7.0)
7.6)
106.3)
Boron
Ferroboron
earlh
frit
(2.4
(-1.0)
lO
(5.0)
Sleel
punchings
(7.7107.8)
Heavy
slags
(-5.0)
In general, the selection of an aggregate is de termined by physical properties, availability, and cost.
Heavyweight aggregates should be reasonably free of
deleterious material, oil, and foreign coatings that
affeet either the bonding of the paste to the aggregate
particle or hydration of the cemento They should also
be nonreactive with alkalies. For good workability,
maximum density, and economy, aggregates should be
roughly cubical in shape and free of flat or elongated
particles.
146
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
...
O
0105
O
lO
lo
10
550
1.30
20
1.00
2...
lo
lo
10
40
1.90
1.60
80
95
25
50
10
30
100
65
75
lo
lO
100
lO
lo
100
lO
10
...
100
30
85
60
95
90
Gradalion
5. 6.7,
10
lo
30
2.3 lo Gradalion
3.1
45
lo
65
Gradalion
Cine
grOUI
aggregale
sand
grOUI
sand
Nominal
modulus
318 in.
INSPECTION
8. Because of the high loads placed on mixing equipment, avoid stopping and starting while loading mixers.
ACI 211.1 gives additional details regarding the proportioning, batching, and mixing of high-density concrete.
Placlng, consolldatlon, and flnlshing
Methods used for normal weight concretes are generaUy
applicable, but because of high density, be careful not to
overload conveying equipment. Forms roust be designed to
withstand the high weights of the concretes. High-density
concretes can be pumped, but the height or distance is less
than for normal weight concretes.
Segregation of the dense coarse aggregates can occur.
Keep the slump low and avoid overvibration. Coarse aggregate is sometimes preplaced (see Chapter 15).
Puddling is another method used to obtain a uniform
coarse aggregate distribution. Mortar is placed in layers of
controUed thickness and a measured quantity of coarse
aggregate is placed over and vibrated into the mortar .
'Fineness
sample.
selcction of materials whose type and quantity will provide economy, low temperature rise potential, and adequate properties ofworkability, strength, durability, and
permeability. To achieve this objective, it is common
to use Types 11or IV portland cements along with pozzolans or portland-pozzolan cements. In gravity dams,
stresses are low and develop slowly; thus gravity dams
are usualIy designed for low strength concrete with low
cement content. The design compressive strength is
usualIy specified to be achieved at 90 days or 1 year.
Arch dams may require somewhat higher strengths at
these ages, but again stresses develop slowly. Waterreducing and air-entraining admixtures are used primarily to reduce cement content.
Experience has shown that a rather wide range of
coarse aggregate (maximum size 6 in.) grading may be
used. Grading limits are usualIy about 20 to 35 percent
retained 011 each of the 3-in., 1 l/2-in., 3/4-in., and
3/16-in. screens. Sand grading limits are generalIy
somewhat more restrictive in range than that provided
by ASTM C 33.
Trial mix proportions for mass concrete for dams
are generalIy selected folIowing the recommendations
of ACI 211.1 (see Chapter 6 of tbis manual). Slumps
are generalIy limited to 11/2 to 2 in. to prevent segregation. The ratio of Cineaggregate to total aggregate
by absolute volume may be as low as 21 percent with
natural aggregates; with crushed aggregate the ratio
may range from 25 to 27 percent.
Testing
Make some compressive strength specimens containing the ful! mass mix; they should have a diameter
not less than 3 times the maximum size aggregate and
should be tested at the specified design strength age.
Job-control cylinders of necessity must be tested at
earlier ages if they are to be useful in maintaining
control and uniformity of the concrete. For job-control
spccimens, wet screen or hand pick the fresh concrete
sample to remove alI aggregate larger than 1 1/2 in.,
and then mold standard 6 x 12 in. cylinders. Measure
slumps and air contents on similarly wet-screened or
hand-picked concrete.
Since 6 x 12 in. cylinders are used for job control
whereas design strength is confirmed with cylinders of
suitable diameter, correlation tests of the relative
strengths oe these specimens should be made in the laboratory welI ahead of construction (see References 5,
53, and ACI 207.1R).
Special equipment and procedures
Proper batching of mass concrete requires the same
accurate, uniform, reliable batching procedures that are
essential for other classes of concrete. Because of the
unusual!y low amount of mortar in mass concrete for
dams, the critical workability is more sensitive to usual
variations in batching. Fortunately it is economicalIy
feasible on large mass concrete jobs to specify the most
--
..
---
--_.
---
147
---- ----------------148
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
MASS CONCRETE
-. -=~------.- -.
Fig. 16.2 - Thick mat foundation with both top and bottom
reinforcement is an exampLe of structuraL mass concrete in
which mix ingredients shou/d be kept cooL and other speciaL
precautions shou/d be taken in hot weather
WITH POZZOLAN
149
CONCRETE
150
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
PORTLANO
CEMENT
CONCRETE
THE SHRINKAGE
COMPENSATlNG
CEMENT
r----------1
ORIGINAL
LENGTH
1-__
SHRIN~AGE
ORYING
rI
:=;::
L~"""'"""'
I
TENSILE
STRESS
OEVELOPS
" TENSIL[
ST~SS
15
GREATER
THAN
TENSILE
STRENGTH,CONCRETE
CRACKS
LENGTH
r--!.-~c~~--~
ON
ORIGINAL
~
I
TENSION
ANO
COMPRESSION
I EXPANSION
CONCRETE
PUTS
r---!'-$
STEEL
C ~
IN
IN
1--.1
~~--1
jI~I
l
STRESS
LOSS
RESIDUAL
OUE TO
EXPANSION
SHRIN~AGE
OR COULO
BE SMALL
CONTRACTlON
IN SHRINKAGE
COMPENSATlNG
CONCRETE
INSPECTION
concrete
Non-air-entrained
0.60-0.63
0.51-0.53
0.71-0.75
0.50-0.53
0.62-0.65
0.42-0.44
0.42-0.45
Air-entrained
Absolute
water-cement
ratio by weight
Compressive
days.
psi
Slump
5 in.
4 in.
6 in.
6 in.
4 in.
4 in.
151
152
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
80 ft
40 ft
CONSTRUCTlON
JOINTS
(column lines)
40 tI
120 tI
40 tI
40 ft
CONSTRUCTION
JOINTS
(column lines)
40 ft
40 ft
SAW CUT
JOINTS
(control joints)
INSPECTION
PRECAST/PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
153
CONCRETE
Fig. 17.1-Service
cores of airport traffic control tower are
assembled from hoL/ow precast modules
154
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
----------------------PRECAST/PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
155
Bearlngs
In addition to observing tolerances that may be
specified, bearing shoes which are to be anchored in the
concrete should be placed with the greatest accuracy. They
should be level, aligned properly, and ancho red in the exact
location shown in the contract documents.
Dimensional tolerances
If the contract documents do not specify tolerances,
Sections 55.1 througb 5.5.11 of the PCI quality control
manual (Reference 59) will serve as a guide to usuaUy
acceptable and reasonable practices.
Fig. 17.4-Fonn
for precast post-tensioned
trnss.
Reinforcing steel cage was fabricated separately and
dropped into the form before placing concrete
- -- ----- - ---
156
158
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
PRECAST PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
Quality control considerations for precast prestressed concrete differ from those of precast reinforced concrete in that:
1. Tendons require special handling for their
protection, to insure that they are properly placed and
tensioned, and for the safety of plant personnel;
2. Good quality control is essential if problems
such as excessive or inadequate camber are to be
avoided;
3. The finished product is quite resistant to
cracking when properly lifted or supported and
therefore is much easier to han die and transport.
Concrete materials
Concrete in prestressed members is usually of
higher strength and frequently of lower slump than
concrete in other precast members. The requirements
for concrete in prestressed members are covered
elsewhere in this chapter.
PRECAST/PRESTRESSED
-- -~,~- ---.--
CONCRETE
159
160
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
PRECAST/PRESTRESSED
-----=--
CONCRETE
161
162
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
tendons
INSPECTION
CONSTRUCTION
RELATED
CHAPTER 18-CONSTRUCTION
TO CONCRETING
163
RELATED TO CONCRETING
164
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
Damp-pack mortar
Packing with damp mortar is an efficient method
of setting heavy machillery on a concrete base and of
fastening anchor bolts in concrete. Damp-pack mortar
is usua11yone part of cement to three parts of weUgraded sand, by weight. Water content is adjusted so
that a mass of mortar tightly squeezed in the hand will
moisten but not significantly soil the hand and so the
mortar will retain its shape but will crumble easily with
slight disturbance. The cement and sand should be
thoroughly mixed dry, water added, and the whole
again thoroughly mixed.
Before tbe machine or base plate is set, the base
concrete should be roughened and chipped as necessary
to provide a strong, c1ean surface. All dust should be
removed, preferably by suction, and the base then
scrubbed with fiber brushes and water until the loose
material and coatings are removed. The base concrete
should be thoroughly saturated for 24 hr and then all
free water removed from the surface immediately prior
to placing damp-pack mortar. The damp-pack mortar
should be mixed ahead of time and allowed to age for
at least 30 min prior to use. This significantly reduces
the potential shrinkage of the mortar.
Packing under a machine or base plate is best
done by blocking one side of the open space and
placing aU the mortar from the other side. Packing
should be performed by ramm.ing small quantities at a
time with hard wood blocks of suitable size, shape, and
length. A hammer should be used with care to pound
the blocks to insure complete consolidation of the grout
without warping the base plate. Wben tbe space
between tbe plate and base has been filled, tbe backup
block sbould be removed, and tbe face of the mortar
ranmled from that side. Mortar around a bolt can be
packed effectively by hammering down on a section of
pipe that will fit tbe annular space between the bolt
and tbe walls of tbe hole.
Gas-formlng grouts
ALuminum powder grout (job miud)-Aluminum
powder added to concrete reacts cbellcally with the
soluble alkali constituel1ts of the cement and generates
hydrogen gas. The resultant expansion prior to setting
is intended to compensate for settlement shrinkage,
causing the grout to harden in contact with the plate it
is to support. Gas expansion from aluminum powder or
other source provides no compensation for bydration
shrinkage that oecurs as the grout gains strength after
initial set nor for later drying shrinkage.
The ground aluminum powder may be of any
variety that produces the desired expansion, but it
should contain no polishing agents such as stearates,
palmitates, and fatty acids. Tests should be performed
with the materials at job temperatures prior to using
them in the construction work to establish tbe required
amount and the effectiveness of the powder and
portland cement combination. Since it is the soluble
-----= -.------ .
INSPECTION
70 F
Sand-cement grout
Neat-cement grout
5.5
4.5
40 F
to
to
8.5
7.0
CONSTRUCTION
RELATED
- -==-- --'- -
TO CONCRETING
165
166
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
specifications.
Field testing of nonshrink grout
Proper
installation
practices
should
be
supplemented by adequate quality control testing of the
grout during placement to monitor performance and
provide test data in case of questionable service.
Minimum test requirements should include the determination of consistency at a specific water level,
expansion, bleeding, and compressive strength for the
as-mixed grout sampled at the mixer.
Standard tests such as ASTM C 109 strength test
(for job-mixed stiff mortars only) and ASTM C 939
flow test, will disc10se critical performance limits.
Plastic consistencies measured by the flow table from
110 to 125 percent at 5 drops are suitable for grouting
smalI plates. Flowable consistencies measured by the
flow table from 125 to 145 percent at 5 drops and fIuid
consistences of 25 to over 30 sec measured with the
flow cone (ASTM C 939) are commonly applied when
grouting medium to large size plates and bases, structural columns, and anchor OOlts.An arbitrary increase
of fluidity above the specified consistency at the job site
will probably cause bleeding, thus preventing contact
with the base plate and proper load distribution to the
grout.
A check of the contact between the grout and a
simulated or actual grouted plate (by sounding the
plate at various ages after the grout hardens) should be
made when using any type of grout to assure that:
The interface is not weakened by the coUection
of gas bubbles at the contact surface
AU bleeding has been absorbed or displaced so
that physical contact exists between grout and plate
over at least 90 percent of the area of the plate.
INSPECTION
Polymer system
In epoxy resin grouts, the cementing agent is a
resin and converter (polyamide curing agent) which
when mixed form a high-strength nonshrink thermosetting plastic, provided the epoxy resin is a 100 percent
solids system with no diluents. Epoxy resin grouts
should be mixed, placed, and cured in accordance with
the manufacturer's instructions.
Commercially preblended nonshrink grouts
SpeciaUy formulated grouts, preblended to compensate for shrinkage while providing the desired
control of volume change have the advantage of being
ready to use and will perform over a fairly wide range
of placing consistencies. These grouts are frequently
used in applications whose requirements cannot be met
by ordinary cement-sand grouts, for example, when high
fIuidity is required and bleeding is undesirable or when
nonshrink or expansive action is required. Preblended
grouts may be grouped according to their expansion
producing (shrinkage-compensating) characteristic as
foUows: (1) gas forming, (2) catalyzed metaUic grout,
- .~
-- ----~~----
CONSTRUCTION
RELATED
TO CONCRETING
167
168
MANUAL
CHAPTER 19-TESTING
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
MIXED CONCRETE
Conslstency
The coosistency of concrete is a measure of its
workability, which may be defined by its slump characteristics, settlement of a Kelly ball, or other slump indicators.
The two ASTM standard methods, the slump test and the
ball penetration test, are summarized below.
Slump test-ASTM
e 143
TESTING
169
OF CONCRETEJAGGREGATES
170
Temperature
Concrete temperature is taken when freshly mixed,
and also in place for monitoring of temperature rise.
The initial temperature is usually taken with an irnmersion thermometer that reads from about 32 F to about
150 F. The temperature rise of concrete is determined
best by the use of embedded electrical thermocouples.
STRENGTH TESTS
The standard method for detern1nation of concrete
strength during construction consists of making and
curing structural concrete compressive and flexural
strength specimens in the field. The number of
specimens and the evaluation and acceptance of the
concrete strength are discussed in Chapter 2. All
specimens should be made at or near the place of
initial curing to avoid the possible detrimental effects of
moving freshly made test specimens.
Compressive strength-ASTM C 31 and C 39
AS1M C 31 covers the requirements for molds and
making and curing the specimens.
Mo/dsMolds may be reusable or single-use, made of steel,
cast iron, plastic, coated cardboard, or other material s
that are nonabsorbent and nonreactive with cemeDt.
They must meet specified absorption, elongation, and
dimensional tolerances (AS1M C 470).
Making specimensTo make 6 x 12-in. cylindrical specimens according
to ASTM C 31 (field) and AS1M C 192 (laboratory),
the concrete must be sampled as described in AS1M C
172 and in the "sampling" SectiOD of tbis chapter.
Molding of the specimens must cornmence within 15
min after the sample is composited, as follows:
1. FiIJ the mold uniform1y in three approximately
--------TESTING
OF CONCRETElAGGREGATES
171
(acceptance testing)-
compression
172
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
corresponds to applying load that continuously mcreases at arate of 11,300 lb per mino
5. Ca1culate splitting tensile strengths.
ACCELERATED
INSPECTION
3. Testing of the cylinders and determination of compressive strength are essentially the same as for standard
cylinders of normal weight concrete.
UNIFORMITV
TESTS OF MIXERS
Truck mlxers
ASTM C 94 stipulates that concrete mixed completely in
a truck mixer, 70 to 100 revolutions at manufacturer's
specified mixing speed, must meet the uniformity requirements indicated in Table 19.1. A uniformity test compares
two samples of freshly mixed concrete, one from near the
front of the mixer drum and one from near the back. Concrete uniformity is satisfactory when at least five of the six
tests shown in Table 19.1 are within the specified limits.
Slump tests of individual samples taken after discharge of
approximately 15 percent and 85 percent of the load may be
made for a quick check of the probable degree of uniformity. These two samples should be obtained within an
elapsed tinle of not more than 15 mino If the slumps differ
more than that specified in Table 19-1, the mixer should not
be used unless the condition is corrected or the operation
changed to a longer mixing time, a smaller load, or more
efficient charging sequence that will permit the requirements
of Table 19.1 to be met.
Statlonary mlxers
ASTM C 94 specifies a mixing time based on mixer
capacity, requiring 1 min for the first cu yd plus 15 sec for
each cu yd, or fraction thereof, of additional capacity. These
minimum time requirements will produce uniformity, but
they are unnecessarily time-consuming for many large capacity mixers. Therefore, ASTM C 94 permits reduction in tbis
mixing time, provided that tests are conducted to show that
uniformity can be achieved in less time.
Tests can be made at any predetermined shorter time of
mixing. Samples can be taken from a discharging mixer after
15 percent and 85 percent of the batch have been discharged. Or the mixer can be stopped after the designated
mixing time without discharging, and samples can be removed from locations near the front and back of the drum.
If the mixer drum must be entered for this sampling, first
disconnect the electric power fuses and lag out the equipment in accordance with safety regulations. When the mixer
is found to meet specified uniformity requirements, the
mixing time can be reduced to the new shorter mixing time
that has proved satisfactory.
172
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
corresponds to applying load that continuously increases at arate of 11,300 lb per mino
5. Ca1culate splitting tensile strengths.
ACCELERATED
INSPECTION
3. Testing of the cylinders and determination of compressive strength are essentiaUy the same as for standard
cylinders of normal weight concrete.
UNIFORMITV
TESTS OF MIXER S
Truck mlxers
ASTM C 94 stipulates tbat concrete mixed completely in
a truck mixer, 70 to 100 revolutions at manufacturer's
specified mixing speed, must meet the uniformity requirements indicated in Table 19.1. A uniformity test compares
two samples of freshly mixed concrete, one from near the
front of the mixer drum and one from near the back. Concrete uniformity is satisfactory wben at least five of tbe six
tests shown in Table 19.1 are witbin the specified limits.
Slump tests of individual samples taken after discharge of
approximately 15 percent and 85 percent of tbe load may be
made for a quick check of the probable degree of uniformity. These two samples should be obtained within an
elapsed time of not more than 15 min. If tbe slumps differ
more than tbat specified in Table 19-1, tbe mixer sbould not
be used unless the condition is corrected or the operation
changed to a longer mixing time, a smaller load, or more
efficient charging sequence that will permit the requirements
of Table 19.1 to be meto
Statlonary mlxers
ASTM C 94 specifies a mixing time based on mixer
capacity, requiring 1 min for the first cu yd plus 15 sec for
eacb cu yd, or fraction thereof, of additional capacity. These
minimum time requirements will produce uniformity, but
they are unnecessarily time-consuming for many large capacity mixers. Therefore, ASTM C 94 permits reduction in tbis
mixing time, provided that tests are conducted to sbow that
uniformity can be achieved in less time.
Tests can be Olade at any predetermined shorter time of
mixing. Samples can be taken from a discharging mixer after
15 percent and 85 percent of the batch have been discharged. Or the mixer can be stopped after the designated
mixing time without discharging, and samples can be removed from locations near the front and back of the drum.
If tbe mixer drum must be entered for this sampling, first
disconl1ect the electric power fuses al1d lag out the equipment in accordance with safety regulatiol1s. When tbe mixer
is found to meet specified ul1iformity requirements, tbe
mixing tinte can be reduced to the new shorter mixing time
that has proved satisfactory.
TESTING
Table 19.1-Requirements
concrete
173
OF CONCRETE/AGGREGATES
for unlformity of
subtracting
the volume
volume of air.
of tbe coarse
aggregate
and tbe
Tesl
Maximum pennissible
difference in samples
laten from two localioDS
in concrele baIch
1.0 pcf
M =
b_-_c
V -(A
+ G XC62.3)
wbere
b
Slump:
is its
1.0 in.
1.5 in.
V = volume of sample, cu
A =
G
62.3
1.6 percenl'
percenl
7.5
} percenlage
difference
sieve
=
=
et
Varia
airfree
mortar
00 No.
4
Test
'Tenlalive approval rctaincd
of Ihe
mixer
may
be granled pending results of Ihe 7-day
compressive slrenglh leslS. Coa.-aggrcgate
132.2
2..5
6.0permissible
S2..5
Fran!
SS
1..5
ditreren""
Badt
rion
bctwceu
130.2
pcrccn.
pcrccnl
pcf
pcrceot
pcf
pcrccnl
1.6
maximum
OOD.enl.portion
cadt
sample of94
men
e>pressed
as
sampl
ASTM
Unil weigb' of
Specificarion require-
.4_
lUt
-4:'"
of
aIr-jrH__
"'" "'8<
130.22 132.2
131.2
poI
131.2
- 130.2~ 100
131.2
0.. ~
De
Tbe following example illustrates the metbod of determining unit weight of air-free mortar and coarse-aggregate
content.
Given: Concrete
sample containing
11f2-in. maximum
nominal size aggregate, witb an air content of 5.0 percent.
G = 2.65
b = 35 lb
V = V4 cu et
S = 12.0 lb (submerged weight oe aggregate
tained on No. 4 sieve)
Calculation:
SxG
c=-G -
12 x 2.65 = 19.27 lb
2.65 - 1
W = coarse aggregate content,percent
19.27
x 100 = 55.0percent
W = -35
= 0.25
cuft
100
x 5.0 = 0.0125
cuft
by weight
re-
174
M=
x 62.3 )
0.25 - ( 0.0125 + 2.6519.27
130.22 pcf
weigbt per cu ft
62.3 A
B-C
where
A = 28-day weight of concrete as dried, lb
B = saturated, surface-dry weight of cylinder, lb
= immersed weight of cylinder, lb
--
- -
132.2S
lioSO
12.00
(S.oo
(4.7S
18.47
16.69
IS.73
19.27
O.2SOO
0.237S
0.2381
3S.16
0.1262
0.1208
0.1167
0.1119
Cran
3S.OO
3S.oo
Cran
mixer
mixer
cufi
lb
Volumc,
mixer
orfrom
ponon
pcrcent)
of
Samplc
batch
last
dischargcd
back of
Wcigbt,
130.22 Sample Cran froot of
4samplc
material
scrccn
samplc
volwnc
rctaincd
ol
samplc
DO
No.
4
sample
in
&ir
meter
reprcscnting
>irfree
manar,
mortar
pcf
in
and
soIid
volume
of
plus
TESTING
175
OF CONCRETElAGGREGATES
description of concrete
measurements:
as indicated
PULSE VELOCITY
by pulse velocity
CONCRETE
QUALITY
Excellent
Good
Questionable
Poor
Very poor
176
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
Sampllng aggregates-ASTM
1. Sample size-Minimum
depend
D 75
composited
on nominal size, as follows:
COMPOSITED
samples
sizes
SAMPLE,
LB
No. 8
No. 4
25
25
318 in.
25
35
55
110
V. in.
3/4 in.
1 in.
IV. in.
2 in.
2V. in
165
220
275
1. Sample
aggregates
in
accordanee
with
appropriate method given in ASlM D 75.
2. Split sampie by quartering or using a sampie
splitter.
3. Use mininlUm test sample weights per ASlM
136.
and
3. Sampling from bins or belt discharge(a) Secure a mnimum of three samples of approximately
equal inerements selected at random from the unit being
sampled and composite to form the field sample.
(b) Obtain eaeh sample from the entire eross section of
material as it is being diseharged.
(e) Use a pan supported on rails or a similar deviee,
eapable of intereepting
the entire diseharge stream and
holding the material witbout overflowing.
e 117
1.
Prepare
a moist sample
and
TESTING
SIZE
MINIMUM WEIGHT, g
No. 8
100
No. 4
318 in.
3/4 in.
1'12 in. or larger
500
2000
2500
5000
B-C
A = 100 x --
where B
C
Fine aggregale
No. 4 lo 318 in.
318 lo 3/4 in.
No. 8
No. 4
No. 4
No. 4
where
SIZE OF PARTICLE
177
OF CONCRETE/AGGREGATES
178
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
of
coarse
INSPECTION
B+500-C
B+500-C
where:
where:
B = weight of SSD specimen in air, g
where
A = weight of oven-dry specimen in air, g.
and
e 128
absorptlon
10. Determine
moisture absorption of the Cine
aggregate; irnmediately weigh 500.0 g of the SSD fine aggregate and dry to constant weight at temperature of 212 to
230 F. Allow to cool, and weigh to the nearest 0.1 g.
Ca1culate the percentage of absorption as foIlows:
of
flne
MINIMUM WElGHT OF
TESTSAMPLE,KG
0.5
TESTING
318 in.
1.5
1(2 in.
3/4 in.
in.
OF CONCRETElAGGREGATES
4
6
1 1/2 in.
2 in.
100 (W - D)/D
where
W = weight of original wet sample, g
D = weight of dried sample, g
6. The surface moisture (free water) is the
difference between the total moisture oontent and the
known absorption of the aggregate.
179
180
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CHARTS
data is plotted to provide a grapbieal representation of quality trends. These cbarts are also used to establisb tbat tbe
specified strengtb eriteria have be en aehieved or to indieate
wben corrective action is required.
BATCH PLANT AND MIXING INSPECTION
RECORDS
PLACEMENT
AND REPORTS
o)
p)
q)
r)
181
182
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
e)
d)
e)
f)
g)
RETENTION
1'IME
ISMNolllt
A
TOTAL
oo. vos. AELEASE CAROTIME
PLACEMENT
NUMSERS
BAo
TCHING COMPL.ETED:
100n
OELlV(RY
rs-JrMI.11
,."
WOt> No
INSPECTlON ITEMS
Adm.SIOI'.
PLACEMENT
REMARICS
LOCATION:
FKili(,"
BATCH
PlANT
INSPECTlON
OF RECORDS
NOTES
..
.~...n'"n..,"".., ""'.U.n '"
~
..
..
O
U. L[VI!'L
"Fo
ftNE
""
'T MOI$TVAf,
GODO
.1.1"
CON
LfV(L
WATEA
CAIETE
AOO
A'.
TICKEr
NoI.JI
~.ER
O,s..
o.k
l1'li.,_
'II("&'IIIS
A
A Total
2.
No 01
l,nl
3.
dehveo'Y
.lllowlble.
IlCket
'rom ""ni)
t.t.le:I~t
,nformliltOl'l
le" ta~
from .IIowM>I
tht5 "'01111."'.
test.
t.
CHECK (1) APPLlCA8lE
RATlNG
1A...Plan!
Time1Mf\pJe
I.ken
101'mo,5tV'1!
EXClELl
Hot/Cold
O
Wu!het"
P'OII~
HouwkHP'f'19
Con(IIIIOn
Cotod'tion
A
Cond'lion
01
o,
c.m..,t
DeI,verv
A9IIr9te
SoIcK
TrUC&5
Slockplln
Reh.uil'ly
o,IerPerlorma'1C8
Pr,ntout
COARSE AGG.UtAn:
REPORT
aCI_,
lOCATION
CONTRACTOR
SIGNATURES
CONCRETE
CLASS
ACT ADMI N1STRATOR
RECORDS
183
AND REPORTS
PlACEMENT CARD
COCRETE
PREPlACEMENT
--
SAFETY RElATED
NO
VES
i S.R. FlNISH CRAFT TO
DATE
nc
DATE
ElEVATIDN
PLACEMENT
NO.
FORMSRelated)
OCA
PIPING
ElECTRICAl
WATER
CARPENTRY
OTHER
EMBEDMENTS
UNE (Safety
& STOP
GRADESTEEl
REINFORCING
FINAL
ClEARANCE
CHECKOUT RECDRD
><
CONTRACT
PLACEMENTNO.
DATE
, I,
Side)
Concrete
Placing
Started
RECORD
Hours.
Concrete
Plac1ng
Completed
Hours.
with Specifications.
COII1TIents:
Contractor's
INSTRUCTIONS:
Under
"COII1TIents"
affecting
the
the con tractor
account
placing
and
and action
for
a11
protection
taken.
unusual
of
Foreman
cond1tions
concrete;
and diff1cu1ties
a1so
any
special
encountered
instructions
to
UYSIS
So,,"pl.
184
j,
SOllnd u rlUlell
'7eell
Acc.pl.d/R..el.d 7e ..
2'00
e A SOU'CE:
TISIS
j .
-r-...
Bn.
J,_.ISeIlI"tiII
Lon
Vital
'Min.
Do,
Iloin
Vol.
Hn.-Min.
Srloe,
""01.
R7Day
""01
L
.
5.0
Maz.
28
Iy
Doy
COJllP
S",flgth
Sp.c;f'c
SQ.CMoJGM
J~OO
12.0
2S00
2800
1500
Kax.
Mino
Min.
Min.
Hax.
O.7S
6.0
3.0
6.0
3.0
Max.
Hax.
Max.
HAz.
Kax.
8.0
8.Hn
21.0
Min.
~
n.1n.
run.
DOIS
(A"'II.3
soc
O
'ni
DOES
NOya
(OIllP',
wilh $p,c.-p.i.)
opocil,cot;o"
.
In;hal
F'203
SO,
"ir
AI2O)
Hr~'Mi
U.IK1
Haz.
Conl,nI
IQC hd
Iodo
.
SiO,
".0
e,'
e,s
lil
hOn1en.
Tu" .1 C ,
M'.riol
..~
,,
'1
11
III .
hlll U,VIuuunl
Acc.pl.d/a..cl.,d
..
1.0
UIDO
U'IOO
,._.1
N.
10')0
1J.61)
.,0
"tIO
,.,
,ou
,-u
10-S'
...
100
.....
'" ,.,
U'60
'.0"_
.
1,0"
,"'LO,,"
"''1"1
.
...
67
S7
..
.,0
IIGGIIGIITI
'"
,., '00 001':
locoh."':
u-toa
'.100
....
010
10'U
1.0"
.
ht.
f.",.:SA""I'lING:
1.)1.1
10)0
010
fA
,SOU'CE:
,-",,.
,~\\.0100
d..u 01 I,oel",.,
U.UIS:
111'tul".
C "cnte
AUnl.te
Tutl eo".;d d occ.plobl.
5,
'.~.'
.s,
..
I.S".
"'0.'''''''''
;1
Ih
crl."ol fi" Iho IIUI
s.
s~.
Ih. NoTUl
200 U'
"."hollyun dv.
un_TI
"51111un
en'
IIUTtlllU
,unncn
If
aUUCnUlnUlIl
IllIt-IU.
"OOIlGIITt
51U
Ti
:Dal.:
locol"":
e
ARf""ARK!!:
S"~'lING:
lo
,.rI.1
soe
5., ;,
FRoNT
RECORDS
.1.
~,
.
...
l
N.'
.......
".Iu.
... " .....
...1u,.
-.101y
".1IMI'UIIIIU10.'1
t.ioD
acceatab
1.
A$'''''
to
'"'II",.I
'lI .n.e.UII
Cre.ter
thao.
)lO.
3 ataodard
,,.te.
",C
.due
"a,1
UIC
tic:
(hl,,,.
'"1111,,)
'.P'II'."'i"8
ti"lI
th
OIGANIC
(-.0
.
r11.
NNa
."'7s7.,
"'GOIfO
..
....
"N'
.
,....
".
"OOa.c.
. ..
1.1'1'
.
1.'''1.
1.'.1,
U"'II.
1.1"'11.
'.''''11
1."111.
...
,.
ti""
(,OM'
UG
" SlU p'IC"
pr
' lIU
fM. KS:
o,
111
."
11.
u ol coalproYlded
.ud li.Dite.
tb. dlu~:olor.Slandauf
G, la
loeol;OIl
fA SOU'C'"
0.'.5
.
,,1 .,
T."acceptable
Val
$'fC:
Na )
11
1. quaat.ihtl ,.,II.IIII.I"",.I,._U'.
tI,U
'ullda. 1, &""I.III-U"
UJS
tU)
AND REPORTS
185
--
"l.
C..ul
II.I,U
eue
un
TI.'4
C htl
'
11 II SClU .11 "eIlT'
I"HIU
""
Jiu
S 111
,
..
'CM
.u,u,us
yield computation
fonn
,.
.,(1)
0"'11
UII",
I.UI
...
"I.uu'
...
,UII"
"''lIU'''I
11111'
n.n.U"
,n
IOC
II"'I(WII
l.
@
~u
&
,.".In
lo,
1"AC'.
In
Isi,U
'.Itl."
...
. CIf "
Ir,
UU"JUUUII
.t ..., "ooII1C'Ot
rHfO. cn
nCUICIl
1.1111'0'''''
cunE TE'UtI
1111
l' No
186
CONCRETE
D"
T_ .
.f(M'.)
H
L_
Concrete
n_
Z
GENERAL
........
.-
-,
o..c._t......cf
Comptete1l
DATES
~
1 toWifIot
CURING RECORD
~-'-'~'
T.,...IC.' ..
LOCATlOH
, c...,
,~
1/
V/ .,
;I/;;
;/
1;;;
''/
11
P\,cement
lrd No.
COmpleted
o._
A'
.....
L_~ftd_
c._
...,...
r.
H.,.
peqb/f.
.....
",",no
.....
Sooe_
T_"::~hI",
eOOE
compownd
2poIy.ttlCl~~U
4 .-.mpburIKlOlIec.toc:
!o,pl'l'lp$.lrwlOO""'lh
,
at .
KW~ or pondl'"
7curi"tNP'"
'.il'rM.ll,tlonltMPlI
'.forom
10- nol
appollUOte
Hg. 20.6-Sample
on
tflt WcIo
o,
1M fOfM.
INSTRUCTIONS
G'.I
~tion
BuildiNJ
Member
- Enlername..,dloc.tlonof
Enlft
n.lme of building
lI.g. "south
EleYation -
~~~r
temps . re 1.1cen
T.mperature Recordalion Frequency
Temperaturt lo be rKorded min"~m
d.ily
membe
wall"
Type o, Concr.te
Check
,Ippliub
bo::c
twiu
(0F)
Type o, CUf"ing
01
surt.c~
0.'"
Enter month and <UV
Placement com~tlted
.t discontinued
F01rm R.mowed
e "'ring Comph!ted
~
If ,equired curir'M]temperaturei .re nol meto disc:uu exlenl 01 are.s nol meeting t~ required temj)efltures
and lhe corrective Iction imptemented.
If cullnq compound is uMd, record the tollowing:
MlnufllClurer:
_
Brand N.me:
_
Location (11nol enti,. plaamenl):
_
Ai, Temp . t Appliutton:
Surface Preparation:
PtJn~ SurtKtl Finish:
Rat. 01 Appliuton:
Numbet' ot COIIS:
Application Date:
_
_
_
_
_
01
187
,.
.u_
...
c"",,
IlbA/tI"'
TEW
...,
...
TE~.
WEIQHT
U'''T
TlCxn
rFl
tI...
. 1.
QC"''''""
CYL.
.A>
.,.con$
-;;:-c___
.....--
91'1,,,,",11'11\10 NOT .
e_
<=. ~Co<>tr.I.Q,ou
AlPORT
No
ES T
/Ufl'llol
.
IPEc:.tIIEQ'TS..
~I".1
~
CONCRETE
"""-
"""-
FIELD TESTlNG
DATA
SHEET
EQUf_IEN' LlSEO
m.
O'
"AACTUIU
.KT
REMARKS:
SIrUCC
.o.ug,.._
ac 11
COMPRESSIVE NUCLEAR
TESTS OF CONCRETE
.".. ,
Referencc
TM21 Spec'mefI$IDIO, (010 NOTIc:ona.l.CI_
An.m Requ le
CYl..
RI!:PORT or=-
...
IDIEN .
D.'
-'"--...
--..
"'..
.," La - Q
I
. . i-....
0:F c:::::,
I
'-,
I :;
~~
~
~
><
>C
)(
)(
)(
:lO(
>-
{ZJ
o6
o".,,
gQCO
xx x
TIEST.'"
x............
xoo
FRAC.
.VO
LOAO
.cAAEA
xT"'''IE
TEST
o2)c",,",.
nR.
TOTAL
OAYS
e"",c
",n.
;;
.0.0
,=
: }O(~x
1<
o o:'"
o
DAn
~-:
:,.."')0(_
Po c;.n:INo.
10:
>C
>-
::
WOIf
I,._txMKt> o',",o
.,.
o
Ne.
__
:~
::
>CK>(
>C
188
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
CHAPTER21-REFERENCES
1. Feld, Jacob, Lessons from Failures of Concrete
Strnctures, ACI Monograph No. 1, American Concrete
Institute/lowa State University Press, Oetroit, 1964, 179
pp.
2. McMillan, F. R., and Tuthill, Lewis H., Concrete
Primer, 4th Edition, SP-l, American Concrete Institute,
Oetroit, 1987, 96 pp.
3. Field Reference ManuaL' Specifications for Strnctural Concrete for Building with Selected ACI and ASTM
References, SP-15(89), American Concrete Institute,
REFERENCES
189
190
MANUAL OF CONCRETE
CHAPTER 22-STANDARDS,
INSPECTION
SPECIFICATIONS,
TEST METHODS,
AASI-ITO M 74
AASHTO T 103
AASHTO T 26
AASHTO
AASHTO T 33
AASHTO
ACI
AREA
ASTM
AWS
NRMCA
US
USBR
USCE
American
Association
of State
Highway and Transportation Officials,
444 N. Capitol Street, NW, Suite 225,
Washington, D.C. 20001
Phone: 202-624-5800
American Concrete Institute, P.O. Box
19150, Detroit, MI 48219-0150
Phone: 313-532-2600
American
Railway
Engineering
Association,
50 F Street,
NW,
Washington, DC 20001
Phone: 202-639-2190
American Society for Testing and
Materials, 1916 Race St., Philadelphia,
PA 19103 Phone: 215-299-5400
American Welding Society, 550 N.W.
LeJeune Road, P.O. Box 351040,
Miami, FL 33135
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, 900 Spring St., Silver Spring, MD
20910 Phone:301-587-1400
U.S.
Government
Printing
Office,
Washington, D.C. 20401
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, P.O. Box
25007, Denver, CO 80225
Corps
of Engineers,
U.S. Army
Waterways
Experiment
Station,
Vicksburg, MI 39180
ACI 116R
ACI 117
ACI 201.2R
ACI 207.1R
ACI211.1
ACI 211.2
ACI 211.3
ACI 212.3R
ACI 213R
ACI214
ACI 223
ACI 224.1R
ACI 301
ACI 302.1R
and REPORTS
ACI 303R
ACI 304R
ACI 304.1R
ACI 304.2R
ACI 305R
ACI 306R
ACI 308
ACI 309R
ACI311.4R
ACI 311.5R
STANDARDS
AND SPECIFICATIONS
Ready-Mixed Concrete
ACI316R
ASTM A 185
ASTM A 416
ASTM A 421
ASTM A 496
ASTM A 497
ASTM A 615
191
\.~'tc.~m~\\\
ASTM A 616 Specification tOI "Rau-Stee\ DetOIm~d and
Plaio Bars for Concrete Reioforcement
ASTM A 617 Specification for AxIe-Steel Deformed and
Plain Bars for Concrete Reioforcement
ASTM A 706 Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Deformed
Bars for Concrete Reioforcement
ASTM A 722 Specification for Uncoated High-Strength
Steel Bar for Prestressiog Concrete
ASTM A 775 Specification for Epoxy-Coated Reioforciog
Steel Bars
ASTM C 5
Specification for Quicklime for Structural
Purposes
ASTM C 14 Specification for Concrete Sewer, Storm
Draio, and Culvert Pipe
ASTM C 29 Test for Unit Weight and Voids io Aggregate
ASTM C 31
Practice for Making and Curing Concrete
Compression and Flexure Test Specimens
io the Field
ASTM C 33 Specification for Concrete Aggregates
ASTM C 39 Test for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical
Concrete Specimens
ASTM C 40
Test for Organic Impurities io Fioe Aggregates for Concrete
ASTM C 42
Method of Obtaioiog and Testiog Drilled
Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete
ASTM C 55
Specification for Concrete Building Brick
ASTM C 70 Test fOI Surface Moisture io Fioe Aggregate
ASTM C 76
Specification for Reioforced Concrete Culvert, Storm Draio, and Sewer Pipe
ASTM C 78 Test for FIexural Strength of Concrete
(Usiog Simple Beam with Third-Point
Loadiog)
ASTM C 87 Test for Effect of Organic Impurities io Fioe
Aggregate on Strengtb of Mortar
ASTM C 88 Test for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of
Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate
ASTM C 90 Specification for HoUow Load-Bearing Concrete Masonry Units
ASTM C 91 Specification for Masonry Cement
ASTM C 94 Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
ASTM C 109 Test for Compressive Strengtb of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars
1
192
ASTM C 114
ASTM C 115
ASTM C 116
ASTM C 117
ASTM C 118
ASTM C 123
ASTM C 125
ASTM C 127
ASTM C 128
ASTM C 129
ASTM C 131
ASTM C 136
ASTM C 138
ASTM C 139
ASTM C 140
ASTM C 141
ASTM C 142
ASTM C 143
ASTM C 144
ASTM C 145
ASTM C 150
ASTM C 151
ASTM C 156
ASTM C 157
ASTM C 171
ASTM C 172
ASTM C 173
STANDARDS
ASTM C 295
ASTM C 309
ASTM C 311
ASTM C 330
ASTM C 331
ASTM C 332
ASTM C 341
ASTM C 342
ASTM C 359
ASTM C 360
ASTM C 403
ASTM C 451
ASTM C 457
ASTM C 465
ASTM C 469
ASTM C 470
ASTM C 494
ASTM C 495
ASTM C 496
ASTM C 513
ASTM C 518
ASTM C 535
AND SPECIFICATIONS
Angeles Machine
Test Method for Total Moisture Content of
Aggregate by Drying
C 567 Test for Unit Weight of Structural
Lightweight Concrete
C 586 Test Method for Potential Alkali Reactivity
of Carbonate
Rocks for Concrete
Aggregates (Rock Cylinder Method)
C 595 Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cernents
C 597 Test Method for Unit Weight of Structural
Lightweight Concrete
C 617 Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens
C 618 Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or
Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a
Mineral Admixture in Portland Cernent
Concrete
C 666 Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to
Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C 682 Standard Practice for Evaluation of Frost
Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in AirEntrained Concrete by Critical Dilation
Procedures
C 684 Test for Making, Accelerated Curing, and
Testing
Concrete
Cornpression
Test
Specirnens
C 685 Specification
for Concrete
Made by
Volurnetric Batching and Continuous
Mixing
C 702 Standard Practice for Reducing Field
Sarnples of Aggregate to Testing Size
C 803 Test Method for Penetration Resistance of
Hardened Concrete
C 805 Test Method for Rebound Nurnber of
Hardened Concrete
C 845 Standard
Specification
for Expansive
Hydraulic Cement
C 851 Recommended
Practice for Estirnating
Scratch Hardness of Coarse Aggregate
Particles
C 878 Test Method for Restrained Expansion of
Shrinkage-Cornpensating Concrete
C 881 Specification for Epoxy-Resin-Base Bonding
Systerns for Concrete
C 939 Test Method for Flow of Grout for
Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete (Flow Cone
Method)
C 942 Test Method for Cornpressive Strength of
Grouts for Preplaced-Aggregate Concrete
in the Laboratory
C 1077 Practice for Laboratories Testing Concrete
and Concrete Aggregates for Use in
Construction and Criteria for Laboratory
Evaluation
C 1084 Test Method for Portland-Cernent Content
of Hardened Hydraulic-Cernent Concrete
D 75 Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates
D 98 Standard Specification for Calciurn CWoride
ASTM C 566
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
ASTM
STM
ASTM
ASTM
193
194
MANUAL
OF CONCRETE
INSPECTION
USCE CRD-C1l9
USCE CRD-C129
USCE CRD-C213
USCE CRD-C300
USCE CRD-C400
USCE CRD-C53
USCE CRD-C79
USCE CRD-C109
CHECKLlST
OF INSPECTION
CHAPTER 23-CHECKLIST
For convenient reference, this chapter lists the various items which might be covered by inspection. The list .
is intended as a reference, not for daily use. For a particular job, the inspector will find it necessary to have at
hand a similar list containing only those items that apply
to the given specifications, organization, and job con ditions. Detailed information regarding these items is contained in the foregoing chapters.
Preliminary
Study of pians and specifications; building codes
Division of duties between engineer's representatives
Permissible tolerances of measurement
Provision for records and reports
Contractor's plant, calibrations, equipment, organization,
and methods
Proportioning
Tests of aggregates
Proportioning of mix
Mix computations
Grading of mixed aggregates; batch quantities; yield;
air content
Materials
General (applies to all materials)
Identification; quantities (used, on hand); acceptability; uniformity; storage conditions; handling
methods; waste; schedule of testing
Cement and Pozzolan
Sampling for laboratory test
Protection fram dampness
Aggregates
Acceptability tests
Gradation; organic matter; deleterious substances; soundness; resistance to abrasion; other
tests
Control tests
Moisture; absorption; specific gravity; unit weights; voids
Admixtures
Reinforcing steel
Size; bending; surface condition
Accessories
Fixtures
Other materials
Before concreting
Lines and grades
Excavation; foundatons
Location, dimensions, shape; drainage; preparation
of surfaces
Forms
Specified type of form
Location
195
OF INSPECTION
196
Compacting
Thorough and uniform compaction; no ovelWorking
Contraction joint
Location
Forming or tooling
Dowels or ties (if any) in place and aligned
Construction and hinge joints
Location; preparation of surface
Dowels or ties (if any) in place and aligned
Expansion and isolation joints
Joint filler material; location; alignment; stability;
freedom from interference with subsequent
movement
Finishing of unformed surfaces
ShaUow surface layer of mortar; water gain; no overworking; first floating; alignment of surface; fmal
hard troweling; plastic sbrinkage cracks; rain
Finisbing of formed surfaces
Condition of surfaces upon removal of forms (honeycomb, peeling, ragged tie boles, ragged form
lines); repair of defects; surface treatment; no
surface drying
Scbedule of testing
After concretlng
Protection from damage
Impact; overloading; marring of surfaces
TIme of removal of forms
Curing
Surfaces continuously moist; time of beginning curing; length of curing period; see also concreting
in cold and bot weather
Joints
Clean and seal
Timing and alignment of sawn joints
Tests of concrete
Consistency tests
Tests for air content
Test for unit weight of fresb concrete
Analysis of proportions of fresb concrete
Strcngth tests
Molding specimcns; curing specimens (standard conditions, field conditions); field tests; sbipping
specimens to laboratory
Tests of bardened concrete
Cores
Impact bammer; probe
PuU-out
Other tests
Records and reports
Records: material s; mix computations; batcbing and mixing; placing and curing; special
Reports: daily; summary
Diary
Pbotographs
SPECIAL WORK
Cold weather concretlng
Limiting temperatures and times
Outdoor air; enc1osure; materials; concrete
Heating materials, contact surfaces, and enc1osure; protection from drying, carbonation, and carbon
monoxide
TIgbt enc10sure or insulated forms
Removal of forms; protection from too rapid cooling
Hot weather concretlng
Cooling materials; prewetting aggregates and contact surfaces; protecting concrete
Limiting combinations of wind, relative bumidity, and
ambient temperature
Filling under base plates
Preparation of base; proper mix; complete filling of
'lit
Pressure grouting
Holes (deptb, spacing, freedom from clogging)
Materials (acceptability, quantities used)
Injection (sequence, pressure, times, completeness of
penetration, no damage to structure)
Shotcrete
Materials (acceptability,
quantities);
condition of
equipment; preliminary mixing; pressures (air,
water); preparation of surfaces; application (tbickness, no sagging, construction joints); surface finisb;
curing; tests
Two-course floors
Preparation of surface of base course; materials; proportions and consistency; uniform screeding; rolling
or tamping; first floating; fmal troweling; curing
Terrazzo
Thickness of layers; uniformity; curing; dividing strips
Stucco
Mortar; preparation of backing surface; bonding to backing surface; uniform fmisb; curing eacb layer
Masonry
Units
Laboratory tests for strengtb and absorption
Field inspection for size, sbape, and soundness
Construction
Moisture content of units; completeness of bedding
in mortar; alignment; compliance witb building
code (mortar, mainimum waU tbickness, lateral
support, bonding courses, supports for beams,
openings in walls)
CHECKLIST
197
OF INSPECTION
Cast stone
Underwater
construction
Architectural concrete
Cleaning surface; neutralizing surface (if needed); uniform application; curing portland cement paints
Lightweight concrete
Times and rates of placement; avoidance of high or nonuniform temperatures; bonding of lifts; prevention of
aggregate breakage
Preplaced-aggregate
concrete
Gradation and placement of coarse aggregate; contamination prior to grouting; void content; compositon
and consistency of grout; sequence and pressures of
grouting; completeness of filling of voids; condition
of equipment
Air-entralned
concrete
Surface of casting platform; joints in sheet bondbreakers; timing and uniformity of liquid bondbreakers; alignment of edge forms; compaction of
concrete at bottom comers; connections to columns;
provision for expansion, if specified; strength of concrete at time of lifting; pick-up points; avoidance of
excessive pulling, jerking, or jarring
Vacuum concrete
Final thickness of slabs; timing and duration of application ofvacuum; uniformity of processing; condition
of mats
Prestressed
concrete
ACI 311.4R88
Claude E. Jaycox
Secretary
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
This guide discusses the need lor inspection 01 concrete construction and other related activities, the types 01 inspection activities involved. and the responsibilities 01 various individuals and organizations involved in these activities. Field testing activities are considered to be part 01 the inspection programo The Guide presents
recommended plans lor the various types 01 inspection activities and
means 01 implementing the plans. Recommended minimum levels 01
inspection lor various purposes and various types 01 projects are
given.
measurement;
Appendix I 311.4R7
Responsibilities,
p. 311.4R-7
p. 311.4R-3
Scope
Owner's responsibilities
Engineer's responsibilities
Contractor's responsibilities
Manufacturer's or fabricator's responsibilities
Chapter 3 -
References,
p. 311.4R1
Philosophy
General
Definitions
Functional classification of inspection
Inspection team
Chapter 2 2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
Introduction,
- Construction conferences
- Meetings
- Qualifications of personnel for inspection and testing duties
- Planning for inspection and testing
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 -
Deceased.
Chapter 4 -
James L. Trujillo
Stanley E. Turney
Lewis H. Tuthill
Bertold E. Weinberg
1.1 -
CHAPTER
Philosophy
1 -
INTRODUCTION
Individuals and organizations involved with inspection must recognize that needs and requirements will
vary and must be tailored to each individual project.
The actuallevel of inspection to be used will depend on
the type and complexity of the project, special features
involved, specific legal requirements, and the purpose
of the inspection programo Any of these may make
necessary the addition of more detailed inspection requirements, or may warrant lessening the requirements
shown.
3.1 - Scope
3.2 - Written Plan
198
199
1.2 - General
Inspection is not an end in itself. It is simply a subsystem of the quality assurance system and of a contractor or producer's quality control system. * In addition, inspection may be part of the activities of a governmental regulating body charged with enforcing legal
codes and other regulations. Inspection and testing by
themselves do not add quality to the product or process
being inspected. Inspection and testing only confirm
whether the product or process meets the criteria established. The information derived from the inspection
and testing process, however, when properly evaluated
and with concIusions and decisions implemented, wiII
result in improvement of the quality of the product or
process. It also must be recognized that quality is
achieved only by implementation of an adequate quality assurance program from planning through design
and construction to acceptance by the owner. Quality
during the construction phase is achieved almost entirely by the contractor or producer's quality control
programo This quality control program involves everyone from management to field supervisors to the workmen themselves. Quality control must have the strong
active support of top management, and the active concern and participation of everyone involved in the construction process. Again, inspection and testing are only
a part, although a very important part, of both quality
assurance and quality control programs.
1.3 - Definitions
1.3.1 Quality assurance (QA) - AIl those planned
and systematic actions necesssary to insure that the final product wiII perform its intended function. QA is a
management tool.
1.3.2 Quality control (QC) - Those actions related
to the physical characteristics of the materials, processes, and services, which provide a means to measure
and control the characteristics to predetermined quantitative criteria. QC is a production tool.
1.3.3 Owner - The individual or organization having financial and legal responsibility for construction of
a project, as weIl as bearing the ultimate responsibility
for the public health, welfare, and safety related to the
project. For many purposes in this report, the term
"owner" incIudes those organizations or individuals
acting as agent for the owner.
1.3.4 Engineer - The architectural or engineering
organization with responsibility to the owner to perform the structural design, produce design drawings,
define construction requirements, and prepare specifications for the project.
1.3.5 Con tractor - The organization with responsibility to construct a project according to the project
plans, specifications, and drawings.
1.3.6 Construction manager - The construction
management organization that becomes a member of
the team of owner-engineer-construction manager, in a
See Appendix I-Quality
Assurance Systems.
200
201
most effective when they report directly to the contractor's management. It is important that these activities
be actively supported by management. Inspection and
testing by or for the contractor, his subcontractors, or
concrete suppliers is separate and distinct from acceptance inspection for the owner.
2.4.3 In some construction contracts, the contractor
is required to provide a specified amount of inspection
(and testing) as part of a formal quality control programo When not contractually required, many contractors still maintain a quality control program, which ineludes inspection and testing forces separate from the
line of supervision, reporting directly to management.
The cost is often returned many times over through reduction of rejections and savings in replacements and
repairs. Sometimes this inspection work is an informal
and automatic part of the contractor's operations, performed by regular production supervisors.
2.4.4 Inspection performed by or for the contractor,
particularly when contractually required, will often be
much more detailed than is the usual practice for acceptance inspection. The contractor's forces will generally make a much more detailed inspection of form
alignment, reinforcing bar positioning, joints, eleanup
of forms, and other parts of the placements. Even if
not required by the project specifications, the contractor should use quality control inspection to insure
against later rejection of a complex placement. If such
items are not covered by a formal quality control inspection team, they should be covered by the contractor's supervisory personnel.
2.4.5 When the project specifications require extensive quality control inspection and testing by the contractor, the owner should not reduce or eliminate acceptance inspection. Otherwise the contractor's quality
control inspection program becomes the owner's acceptance inspection program and nuIlifies the system.
The objections are exactiy as stated previously against
the practice of having the contractor hire and pay an
inspection force to perform acceptance testing for the
owner. When the owner requires the contractor to have
a quality control inspection program, the owner should
still accept responsibility for acceptance inspection to
provide assurance that the contractor's quality control
program achieves its objectives.
2.4.6 Quality control inspection other than or in addition to that required by the project specifications will
be as directed by the contractor's management. These
inspection details and criteria will be based on management's judgment as to items and criteria necessary to
assure that all aspects of workmanship and the finished
product will meet the requirements of the project plans
and specifications and will thus be accepted by the
owner.
2.5 -
Manufacturer's
responsibilities
or fabricator's
3-
GUIDANCE
FOR ENGINEERS
3.1 - Scope
This section gives specific recommendations to the
engineer in implementing inspection and testing programs. General guidelines are also given for three categories of projects.
3.2 - Written plan
Even the smallest job can benefit from a written
plan. A small job may only require a list of items to be
inspected and tests to be conducted for acceptance purposes, but it becomes invaluable in developing adequate communication and understanding between the
owner, engineer, contractor , inspection organization,
and testing laboratory. It is recommended that all projects use so me form of written plan or checklist. On
complex projects, a written plan detailing responsibilities for acceptance inspection and testing, procedures
for documentation of inspections and tests, reporting
of results, handling of nonconformances and changes,
record retention, and auditing the process of the work
is a necessity.
3.4 - Meetings
Regular weekly meetings of the contractor, engineer,
ready-mixed concrete producer, inspection organization, and testing laboratory are also recommended.
These meetings provide for continuing communication
and an understanding of problem areas as they develop. The agenda should allow for review of the past
week's activity and a schedule of activities for the current week.
3.5 - Qualifications
3.5. t The qualifications of personnel conducting inspections and tests are critical to attaining the desired
level of quality, since erroneous results of tests and inspections can cause costly actions that are unwarranted.
3.5.2 The ACI certification program currently outlines training programs and certification of personnel in
the following areas: Concrete Field Testing Technician
202
- Grade I and Concrete Construction Inspector Level 11.Additional programs are under development.
It is recommended that all personnel doing concrete
inspection and testing work as described in this Guide
be certified in the appropriate ACI category.
203
activities recommended
established
intervals
during
with
to construction
and
established
intervals
durquired
complete
Parking
High-rise
properties.
prequalification
garage
construction
construction
ofconstruction
material
reSampling
and testing
of
concrete
material
Sampling
and
testing
of
concrete
material
construction
Industrial
andatand
commercial
building
Inspection
and
testing
Level
As tos for
ing
construction.
inspection
Inspection
testing Level
B s prior
activities
recommended
ment
turer.
blade
Dam
of
wear.
construction
reinforcement
and
dimensions
of
comSampling
and
testing
concrete
materials
at
Docks
construction
and
harbor
construction
mples
removal
ing
programo
construction
or
monitoring
with
of
checks
other
activities
yield.
such
activities
established
construction
recommended
tion.
ceptance
established
curing).
weather
National
pleted
ment,
struction,
calibration
with
oratory
ng.
Power
Major
AIso
regular
structures.
and
for
Special
or
concreting,
of
bridge
plant
Ready-Mixed
including
verification
the
post-placement
other
intervals
of
concrete
program
owner.
water
construction
attention
construction
qualified
tests
and
strength.
meters,
ofor
of
independent
Concrete
inspection
to
cold-weather
for
activities
personnel
mass
mixer
and
concrete,
inspection
Association'
during
uniformity,
testing
(including
on
acting
concretconhotlabas
construction
for acceptance agents
programs
tests
tion
phase
will
not
or
may
be
repeated
be
replaced
during
by
acceptance
the
construcof
for acceptance
cylinder
as
requirements
during
Interstate
post-tensioning,
test
or
program,
prior
primary
tosome
by
construction.
highway
means
atolerances
nondestructive
offor
aqualification
field-cured
testclose
material
weekly,
monitoring
monthly
reports
of
submitted
basis.
properties
Some
by
on
manufacaofplacedaily,
examples
ing.
facilities,
weather
ing
inspection
programs
curing).
construction
Special
concreting,
and
intervals
of
delivery
concreting
attention
with
Use
and
check
trucks
of
independent
cold
proven
activities
spersonnel
mas
for
prior
weather
sactivities
material
tofield-cured
testing
(including
construcconcretssuch
labhot
and
removal
or
monitoring
of
other
Small
bridge
construction
oratory
agents
ports
accepted
for
or
the
other
owner.
for
qualified
some
required
tests.
acting
as material test receptance
programo
of
concrete
strength.
as
cylinder
post-tensioning,
test
program,
by
or
means
ato
nondestructive
ofyieIds.
aconcrete,
testLow-rise
Arterial
streets
or
feeder
rou,te
Approval
of
concrete
mixes
based
ACI
301.
pe of
Laboratory
Sampling
Qualification
Monitoring
Full-time and
inspection
as
maturity
tests
program
testing
needed
of concrete
of
of
for
ofconcrete
preplacement,
concrete
batching
prior
inon
mixer
the
operation
tofield
for
trucks
placeform
acat Project
Inspection
and
certification
ofcylinders
batch
plant
to
Monitoring
maturity
of
concrete
prior
to
form
Sampling
Random
Inspectioninspection
and
testing
batch
plant
batching
storage,
operation
inonproduction
the
field
durat
Laboratory
of of
concrete
cylinders
for301.
acApproval
ofoftests
concrete
mixes
based
ACI
Scope of
Preplacement,
placement,
and
post-placement
activities recommended
Random
testing
ofconstruction
concrete
and
materials
ing
ofrecommended.
Residential
Use construction.
proven
material
sTesting
and
concrete
deSingle-family
homes
construction
signs
Inspection
and
Level
CmixdurRandom
inspection
of
concreting
activities.
structures
construction
some
Residential
construction
and gutters
acceptance
instances.
for
Catch
basins
and curbs,
small
drainage
ceptance
of streets,
concrete
strength.
Laboratory oftests
concrete
cylinders
for acSubmittal
test of
samples
by the
con tractor
in
214
Concrete
APPEN DIX
Concreting
4.2 -
may be obtained
fram the
Cited references
l. Quality Control Manual, National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring: Section 1, Ready Mixed Concrete Quality
Control Guide; Section 2, Ready Mixed Concrete Quality Control
Checklist; and Section 3, Certification of Ready Mixed Concrete
Production Facilities.
2 . Design and Construction
of Post- Tensioned Slabs on
Ground," Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, 1980, Section 9.8, Inspection, p. 26.
3. Post-Tensioning Manual, 3rd Edition, Post-Tensioning Institute, Phoenix, 1981,323 pp.
4.3 -
Additional references
(Revised 1983)
The preceding publications
following organization:
American Concrete Institute
P.O. Box 19150
Detroit, MI 48219-0150
7. ACI Manual 01 Concrete Practice, Part 2, Construction Practices and Inspection; Pavements, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1988, 592 pp.
8. ACI Manual 01 Concrete lnspection, 7th Edition, SP-2, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1981,400 pp.
9. 1988 Annual Book 01 ASTM Standards, ASTM, Philadelphia,
V. 04.01, Cement, Lime and Gypsum, 526 pp., and V. 04.02, Concrete and Mineral Aggregates, 718 pp.
lO. Dixon, Donald E., "Guidance in the Training and Qualification of Inspection Personnel," Concrete lnternational: Design &
Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 84-87.
11. Henry, Robert L., "Quality Control and Acceptance Inspection As Viewed by the Testing Laboratory," Concrete lnternational:
Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 75-78.
12. Jaycox, Claude E., "Guidance in the Establishment of an Inspection Program," Concrete lnternationa/: Design & Construction,
V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 79-83.
13. Keifer, Oswin, Jr., "Control Charts Catch Changes, Can Cut
Costs," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 3, No. 11,
Nov. 1981, pp. 12-16.
14. Mayer, Charles W., "Quality Control by the Contractor,"
Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept.
1982, pp. 72-74.
15. Prestera, Jay R., "Quality Control Inspection by the ReadyMixed Concrete Producer," Concrete lnternational: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 67-71.
16. Weinberg, Bertold E., "Product Control and Acceptance Inspection As Viewed by the Owner and Designer," Concrete International: Design & Construction, V. 4, No. 9, Sept. 1982, pp. 62-66.
205
9. Evaluate test/inspection data.
lO. Review the internal QA programs and quality of work of
the contractor, subcontractors, suppliers, and material
testing laboratory during the course of the project and report to the owner.
Con tractor
l. Comply with contract and specification documents.
2. Perform in accordance with an approved internal QA program of a level suitable for the project.
3. Require subcontractors' and suppliers' adherence to the
contract documents.
4. Verify that inspections and tests are performed.
Subcontractor(s)
l. Comply with the contract documents.
2. Perform and document an internal QA program of a level
suitable for the project.
3. Coordinate all work with the contractor and interface with
appropriate subcontractors.
Supplier(s)
l. Supply materials in accordance with the contract documents.
2. Perform and document an internal QA program of a level
suitable for the project.
Material testing laboratory
1. Perform the testing and inspections necessary for the level
of the QA program selected by the owner and as defined
by the engineer.
2. Perform and document an internal QA program to assure
the validity of the reported results.
3. Conduct all testing and inspection in accordance with industry standards and the contract documents.
4. Provide the owner and engineer with timely reports for all
testing and inspection performed.
5. Accept or reject workmanship and materials as defined by
the specification.
APPENDIX
11
Prequalification of materials
1. Coarse and Jine aggregate properties
a. Grading and fineness modulus, ASTM C 136
b. Amount of material finer than No. 200 sieve, ASTM C 117
c. Soundness, ASTM C 88
d. Lightweight particles, ASTM C 123
e. Specific gravity and absorption, ASTM C 127 or C 128
f. Water soluble chlorides, ASTM D 1411
g. Reactivity of aggregate, ASTM C 227, C 289, C 342, and
C 586
h. Bulk unit weight, ASTM C 29
i. Petrographic examination, ASTM C 295
2. Fine aggregate properties
a. Organic impurities, ASTM C 40
b. Effect of organic impurities on strength, ASTM C 87
3. Coarse aggregate properties
a. Abrasion, ASTM C 131 or C 535
b. Flat or elongated particles, Corps of Engineers CRD C 119
c. Friable particles, ASTM C 142
4. Cement
a. Physical properties as required by ASTM C 150 or C 595
b. Chemical properties as required by ASTM C 150 or C 595
S. Water
a. Strength versus control, ASTM C 109
b. Time of set versus control, ASTM C 191
c. Total solids content, ASTM D 1888
d. Total chlorides, ASTM D 512
e. Potable water (local health standards)
6. Admixtures
a. Air-entraining agents, ASTM C 260 as required
b. Water-reducing admixtures, ASTM C 494 as required
c. Mineral admixtures, ASTM C 618 as required
d. Review of test documentation and warnings
7. ReinJorcing steel
ASTM A 615, A 616, A 617. or A 706
a. Deformations: spacing, height, gap
b. Weight per linear foot
c. Bending properties
d. Tensile properties: yield, ultimate, elongation (percent)
e. Chemical properties
8. Prestressing steel
ASTM A 416, A 421, A 722, or A 779
a. Quantity (feet)
b. Diameter of strand
c. Grade of strand
d. Packaging
e. Special requirements
f. Item 7 requirements for bars
9. Concrete
Freezing and thawing resistance, ASTM C 682 and C 666.
Mix design approval
As defined by ACI 301.
Certificatlon of batch plants and truck mixers
Certification to National Ready-Mixed Concrete Association' prior
to construction.
Inspection of batch plants and truck mixers before or during construction
1. Aggregate storage areas
a. Cleanliness
b. Separation of material s
c. Handling of material s
d. Aggregate spray system and drainage
e. Approved sources
f. Cold-weather provisions (heat, cover)
g. Hot-weather provisions (cool, cover)
2. Cement silo storage
a. Weathertight
b. Temperature of shipment
c. Mili certification with bulk shipment
d. Retesting (if longer than 6 months mili storage)
3. Cement bag storage
a. Storage on pallets
b. Identification of type, brand, and manufacturer
c. Protection from moisture
d. Mili certification with bag shipment
e. Retesting (if longer than 3 months local storage)
4. Admixture storage and usage
a. Temperature control
b. Contamination control
c. Agitation
d. Retesting (if longer than 6 months manufacturer or vendor
storage)
e. !dentification of type, brand and manufacturer
206
5. Ba/ching equipmen/
a. Check of scales and measuring devices every 90 days
b. Dial and balance scales accurate within .20 percent of scale
capacity
c. Digital scales accurate within .25 percent of scale capacity
d. Return to zero indication
e. Adequate separation of bins
f. Free discharge of malerials wilh lighl closing gales
g. Weighing hoppers freely suspended
h. Conditions of fulcrum and pivot points
i. Water delivery syslem leak free
j. Measurement of water accurate 10 one percent
k. Separa te dispensers for each admixture
1. Admixture dispensing syslem leak free and accurale lo 3
percent
m. Indicating devices in full view of operalor
6. Ba/ching opera/ion
ASTM C 94
a. Cement and cementilious materials measured within one
percent of desired weighl
b. Aggregates measured wilhin Iwo percent of desired weighl
( one percent when a cumulative weighl is taken)
c. Allowable waler adjusled for free moisture in aggregates
d. Admixlures discharged separalely using a method which does
nOI allow concenlrated admixtures to conlact each other
e. Verificalion of balch lickel information 10 Ihe requirements
of ASTM C 94
7. Mixing opera/ion and qualifica/ion 01 mixers
a. Mixer blades free of buildup
b. Inspection of blades for holes or cracks
c. Height of mixer blades measured for wear
d. Mixer uniformity tesIS for stationary or Iruck mixers
e. Truck mixing 70-100 revs
f. Central mixing - a minimum of 1 minule for 1 yd' + 15 sec
for each yd'
g. Truck waler dispensers accurale to within one percenl
8. Sampling and /esting during construction
a. Sampling, ASTM D 75
b. Grading and fineness modulus, ASTM C 136
c. Friable particles, ASTM C 142
d. Coal and lignite, ASTM C 123
e. Specific gravity and absorption, ASTM C 127 or C 128
f. Organic impurities, ASTM C 40
Preplacement inspection
l. Unes and grades
a. Location
b. Elevalion
c. Dimensions
d. Shape
e. Drainage
f. Preparation of surface
g. Bearing
2. Forms
a. Specified type
b. Location
c. Dimensions
d. Tolerances
e. Alignment
f. Stability (bearing, shores, tees, and spacers)
g. Surface preparation
h. Tighlness
i. Chamfer strips
j. Inspeclion openings
k. Cleanliness
1. Temperature
m. Accessories (ties, cones, clamps, etc.)
3. Reinlorcing steel
a. Size (diameler, lenglh, bends, and anchorage)
b. Grade
c. Location (number of bars, spacing, cover)
d. Splicing (weld joinl, overlap, welder qualifications,
. welding procedures)
e. Slability (wiring, chairs, and spacers)
f. Cleanness (no loose rust. oil, paint, dried mortar, etc.)
g. Protective coating
and
no
207
g. Internal vibration (depth of insertion, spacing, time, vertical
insertion, no movement of concrete by vibration)
h. Even layering around openings and embedments
i. Removal of bleed water
j. Removal of temporary ties and spacers
Postplacement inspection and tests
Finishing, curing, and formwork and shore removal
a. Specified finish
l.
Specified and/or
recornrnended references
C 29-78
311.4R11
208
C 535-81
Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and 1mpact in the Los Angeles Machine
C 567-85
Standard Test Method for Unit Weight of
Structural Lightweight Concrete
C 586-69
Standard Tcst Method for Potential Alkali
(Reapproved 1986) Reactivity of Carbonate Rocks for Concrete
Aggregate (Rock Cylinder Method)
C 595-86
Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic
Cements
C 617-85b
Standard Practice for Capping Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
C 618-85
Standard Specification for Fly Ash and Raw or
Calcined Natural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture in Portland Cement Concrete
C 642-82
Standard Test Method for Specific Gravity, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete
C 666-84
Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and Thawing
C 682-87
Standard Recommended Practice for Evaluation
of Frost Resistance of Coarse Aggregates in AirEntrained Concrete by Critical Dilation Procedures
C 1018-85
Standard Test Method for Flexural Toughness
and First-Crack Strength of Fiber-Reinforced
Concrete (Using Beam with Third-Point Loading)
075-82
Standard Practice for Sampling Aggregates
0512-81
Standard Test Methods for Chloride Ion in Wa(Reapproved 1985) ter
O 1411-82
Standard Test Methods for Water-Soluble Chlorides Present as Admixes in Graded Aggregate
Road Mixes
Standard Test Methods for Particulate and Diso 1888-78
solved Matter in Water
U.S. Army Corps 01 Engineers
CRD C 119
Method of Test for Flat and Elongated Particles
in Coarse Aggregate
This repon was subrnined to lener ballot of the cornrninee and was approved in accordance with ACI balloting procedures.
ACI 311.5R-88
Robert L. Henry
Thomas A. Johnson
Francis W. J oyce
Oswin Keifer, Jr.
Ralph O. Lane
Charles W. Mayer
Jay R. Prestera*
Michael T. Russell
Chapter 3 -
concrete;
Relerences, p. 311.5R3
3.I-Specified references
3.2-Additional references
James L. Trujillo
Stanley E. Turney
Lewis H. Tuthill
Bertold E. Weinberg
tests.
Contents
This report provides recommended mmlmum requirements for inspection at the batch plant when required by specifications. It is intended for use by specifiers, architects, engineers, owners or other groups
interested in monitoring the ready-mixed concrete producers' activities at the batch plant through the use of
an independent inspection agency. This report also establishes recommended minimum inspector qualifications, duties and reports.
209
----------
----------------
--
--------
----
210
1.2-lnspector
The inspector should be qualified by education,
training, and experience to perform the minimum duties set forth in this reporto The inspector should have
a technical understanding of the principIes involved in
concrete batching and should know the basic operating
sequence of the concrete batch plant. The inspector
should be able to provide evidence of such training and
cxperience. The inspector should also be furnished with
and become familiar with published standards set forth
by this guide and with project specification requirements.
1.3- Duties
1.3.1 The inspector should observe that the facilities,
scales, and truck mixers meet the specified project requirements. The provisions of at least one of the following documents are normally incorporated in the
project specification:
1.3.1.1 ACI 304R, "Recommended
Practice for
Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and Placing Concrete. "
1.3.1.2 ASTM C 94, "Standard Specification for
Ready-Mixed Concrete"
1.3.1.3 Plant qualification in accordance with the
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA)
plant certification checklist for certification of readymixed concrete production facilities
1.3.1.4 Various state or federal department of transportation requirements
1.3.2 The inspector should be physicaIly present at
the batching console during the first batch and should
periodically (at least once per hour) observe that the
specificd type and amount of materials conforming to
the design mixture proportions are batched. Batch
weights should faIl within the allowable tolerances set
forth by the project specifications.
1.3.3 The inspector should, when not witnessing operation, conduct or witness the performance by the
concrete producer of the foIlowing tests at least once
daily:
1.3.3.1 Moisture content determination on fine and
coarse aggregates in accordance with ASTM C 566
1.3.3.2 Aggregate gradations, fine and coarse, in accordance with ASTM C 136
1.3.4 Aggregate test results should then be compared
to the project specifications for compliance. UsualIy
ASTM C 33 is specified as the gradation requirement
for both fine and coarse aggregates.
1.3.5 The inspector should observe that the concrete
producer is making adjustments to the approved mixture pro po rtio n batch quantities allowing for free
moisture contained in the fine and coarse aggregates.
1.3.6 The inspector should determine that the trucks
are in good opcrating condition and not loaded beyond
their mixer/agitator plate capacities.
1.4- Reports
1.4.1 The inspector should sign the delivery ticket or
supply other evidence that the concrete batching has
been inspected.
1.4.2 The inspector should issue a daily inspection
report showing all test results and documenting observations made during the day.
Chapter 2-Guide
mixed concrete
2.1-lntroduction
and scope
This report provides recommended minimum requirements for testing of ready-mixed concrete at the
project site when required by specifications. It includes
foIlow-up curing and testing of strength specimens and
testing laboratory qualifications. This document is intended for use by specifiers, architects, engineers, owners or other groups interested in monitoring the contractors' concreting activities at the project site through
the use of an independent inspection agency.
2.2-QuaJlfications
The field testing technician should be qualified by
education, training, and experience to perform the
minimum duties set forth in this reporto The technician
should have a technical understanding of the principIes
involved in ready-mixed concrete and should know how
to conduct the basic quality tests required. The technician should be able to provide evidence of such training and experience. ACI certification as a Concrete
Field Testing Technician-Grade
1 meets this requiremento The technician should also be furnished with and
become familiar with published standards as set forth
in this report and with project specification requirements.
2.4- Duties
2.4.1 Ir batch plant inspection is required by the
211
f:
Chapter 3- References
3.1-Specified references
The documents of the various standards-producing
organizations referred to in this document are listed
below with their serial designation, including year of
adoption or revision. The documents listed were the
212
latest effort at the time this document was written (revised). Since some of these documents are revised frequentiy, generally in minor detail only, the user of this
document should check directiy with the sponsoring
group if it is desired to refer to the latest revision.
American
116R-85
304R-85
301-84
(Revised 1987)
304.5R-82
311.4R-88
ASTM
C 31-87a
C 33-86
C 39-86
C 94-86a
C 136-84a
C 138-81
C 143-78
C 173-78
C 231-82
C 566-84
C 567-85
C 1064-86
C 1077-87
3.2-Additional
Concrete Institute
SP-2
305R-77
(Revised
306R-78
(Revised
318-83
(Revised
318.1-83
(Revised
references
1982)
Cold Weather Concreting
1983)
1986)
1987)
ASTM
C 70-79
Standard Test Method for Surface
(Reapproved 1985) Moisture in Fine Aggregate
C 125-86
Standard Definitions of Terms
Relating to Concrete and
Concrete Aggregates
C 127-84
Standard Test Method for
Specific Gravity and Absorption
of Coarse Aggregate
C 128-84
Standard Test Method for
Specific Gravity and Absorption
of Fine Aggregate
C 150-86
Standard Specification for
Portiand Cement
172-82
Standard Method of Sampling
Freshly Mixed Concrete
C494-86
Standard Specifications for
Chemical Admixtures for
Concrete
D 75-82
Standard Practice for Sampling
Aggregates
National
To convert
Crom
to
multiply by
newton-meter (N m)
newton-meter (Nm)
newton-meter (N m)
.
.
.
0.1130
\.356
9.807
.
.
.
.
28.34
0.4536
Mass
ounce-mass (avoirdupois)
pound-mass (avoirdupois)
ton (metric)
ton (short, 2000 Ibm)
gram (g)
kilogram (kg)
megagram (Mg)
megagram (Mg)
\.OOOE
0.9072
16.02
0.5933
119.8
Temperature
deg Fahrenheit (F)
deg Celsius (C)
te = (tF - 32)/1.8
tF = 1.8te + 32
*This selected Iist gives practical conversion factors of units found in concrete technology. The reference source for information on SI units and more exact con ve rsio n
factors is "Standard for Metric Practice" ASTM E 380. Symbols of metric units are
given in parentheses.
tE Indicates Ihat Ihe factor given is exacto
:j: One liter (cubic decimeter)
equals 0.001 m30r 1000 cm3.
These equations convert one temperature reading to another and inc1ude the necessary scale corrections. To convert a difference in temperature from Fahrenheit degrees
to Celsius degrees, divide by \.8 only, i.e., a change from 70 to 88 F represents a change
of 18 F or 1811.8 = 10 C deg.
214
.(:>IHJ.iW)
NOISH3J\NOO
INDEX
Bugholes, 125
BuIking, aggregates, 30
Bushharnmering, 123
Absolute volume, 47
Absorption
-Coarse aggregate, 178
-Fine aggregates, 178
-Tests, 28
Accelerated curing, 87, 172
Accelerators, 87
Acceptance, 110 '
-Architectural
concrete, 125
Admixtures, 31
-Batching, 57
-Handling and storage, 36
Aggregates, 24, 177, 194
-Handling and storage, 34
-Moisture and absorption, 28
-Properties
of, 31
-Proportioning,
44
-Sampling, 25
-Specific gravity, 29
-Tests, 24, 26, 27, 28, 30, 168, 178
-Tests for grading, 26
Air content, 169, 170,
Air entrainment, proportioning, 45
Air-free unit weight, 173
Anchorages, 161
Architectural concrete, 117
125
-Acceptance,
-Curing, 124
-Forms, 120
-Materials,
121
-Repairs, 91, 125
e
Cast-in-place pipc, 127
Cast-in-place prestressed concrete, 160
Catalyzed metallic group, 165
Cements, 23, 191
-Handling and storage, 34
-Proportioning,
43
-Sampling and testing, 24
Cementitious material, 45
Cementitious systems, 165
Central mixing, 58
Checklist, 195
Checkout forms, 72
Chloride ion limitations, 87
Calcium chloride accelerator, 887
Clay lumps, 177
Climbing forms, 66
Coarse aggregates, 46
Coarse aggregate contcnt, 173
Cold weather curing, 87
Compressive strength, 172
-Normal distribution, 11
-Test, 170
Completed structures, 174
Computations, yield, 52
Concrete, 38, 190
-Composition
of paste, 39
-Curing and protection, 41
-Delivery ticket, 181
-Epoxy resin, 93
-Finishing, 80
-Frost resistance, 41
-Hardening, 40
-Hydration,
40
-Mixing, 58
-Mix proportioning, 43
-Pavements,
105
-Placement cards, 181
-Placing, 76, 181
-Production,
180
-Settlement,
39
-Shrinkage and swclling, 42
-Slabs, 97
-Stain removal, 90
-Tests, 168
Concreting, 73
Concrete materials, control charts, 21
B
Ball penetration test, 63-64, 169
Base plates, grouting, 163
Batching, 54
-Adn1brtures, 57
-Architectural
concrete, 122
-Quaotities, 49, 50
-Ready-Mixed concrete, 60
- Tolerances, 54
-Shrinkage-compensating
concrete, 150
-Water, 57
Batching equipmeot, 54, 55
Batch plant inspection, 180
Bearings, 155
Bios, 55
Blemish repair, 89
Bond prevention, 131
Bridge decks, 102, 115
216
_ n
F
Field grouting, 165
Final inspection, 72
Fine aggregates, 46
Fine materials, 176
-Tests, 27
Finish demonstration, 119
Finishing, 80, 110
-Architectural
concrete, 123
-Formed surfaces, 81
-Unformed
surfaces, 80
Flexural strength test, 170
Foams (ceUular concrete), 143
Form coatings, 121
Form joints, 121
Form removal, 84
Forms, 66
-Architectural
concrete, 120
-Pavements,
120
-Precast concrete, 154
-Slipforms, 126
-Textures, 120
Form sealers, 121
Form support, 84
Formwor~ 126, 128, 130
Foundations, 65
-Pavements,
102
Freeze resistance, 41, 46
-Aggregates, 47
-Air entrainment, 47
-Paste, 46
Frequency distribution control charts, 13
Freshly mixed concrete, 168
Friable partic1es, 177
D
Damage, 85, 115
Damp-pack mortar, 164
Dams, 146
DefIection, 159
Design, 118
Design reference sample, 118
Detensioning, 159-160
Dowels, 112
Embedded fixtures, 71
Entrained air, 41
Epoxy resin
-Concrete 93
-Repairs, 93, 94
-Safety, 93
Equipment, 194
-Batching, 54
-Mass concrete, 147
-Pumping 133
Excavation, 65
Expansion joints, 71, 112
Expansive cement,149
H
Handling and storage, 34, 156, 158
-Admixture,36
-Cement, 34
-Pozzolanic material S, 36
Hardened concrete, 174
217
-Dams, 146
Materials, arcbitectural concrete, 121
Mernbrane curing, 86
Mixers, 172
Mixing, 54, 58
-Architectural
concrete, 122
Mixing inspection, 180
Mixing plants, inspection, 61
Mixing truck report, 181
Mix proportioning, 43, 126
-Architectural
concrete, 122
-Control, 49
-Exposure conditions, 46
-Freeze resistance, 46
-Specification, 43
-Specified strength, 44
-Strength, 43
-Water-cernent
ratio, 44
Mix requirernents, slabs, 97
Mockup, 119
Moist curing, 85
Moisture content by drying, 178
Moisture, tests, 28
Mortar, 166
-Epoxy resin, 93
Injection grouting, 95
Inserts, 155
In-service structures, repairs, 91
Inspection
-Chccklist, 195
-Defined, 1
-Final, 72
-Measurernents
and tolerances, 6
-Mixing plants, 61
-Organizations, 2
-Placing, 62
-Plants, 155
-Preliminary, 65
-Procedures,
120
-Responsibilities, 2
-Specifications, 2
Inspector
-Authority, 4
-Duties, 4
-Education
and certification, 4
-Qualifications, 4
Internal voids, 154
N
Nondestructive tests, 175
Nonshrink grouts, 166, 167
Normal distribution, 11, 18
J
Joint construction, 100
Joint rnaterials, 32
Joints, 71, 111, 121
Joint sealing, 113
Openings, 71
Organic impurities, 177
Organizations, inspection, 2
p
K
Paste
-Freeze resistance, 46
-Mix proportioning, 45
-Quantity, 45
Pavernents
-Concrete,
105
-Forrns, 103
-Foundations,
102
-Reinforcernent,
104
Pavers, 106
Paving, 106
Placing, 76, 127, 128, 138
-Arcbitectural
concrete, 122
-Purnped concrete, 134
Placing inspection, 62
Planned construction joints, 82
Plants, 154, 155
Plants(cont'd)
-Precast concrete, 154
PneumaticaIly sprayed concrete, 135
Polyethylene film, 86
Polymer system, 166
Post-tensioning, 153
Pozzolanic materials, handling and storage, 36
Pozzolans, 148
Prebatching inspection report, 180
Precast concrete 153, 154
-Curing, 156
Precast members, 125
Precast prestressed concrete, 158
Precast units, 191
Preliminary inspection, 65
Premature traffic, 112
Preplaced aggregate concrete, 131
Pressure grouting, 163
Pressure method, air content, 169
Prestressed concrete, 153, 191
Pretensioned bonded tendons, 158
Pretensioning, 153
Proportioning, 190
Protection, 85
-Architectural
concrete, 125
Pumping concrete, 133
Pumping equipment, 133
-Structural, 93
-Structural concrete, 91
Reports, 180
Reshoring, 84
Retention of records, 182
s
Sack rubbing, 90
Safety, 139, 160, 161
-Epoxy resin, 75, 93
Samples, 118
-Shipping and handling, 176
Sampling
-Aggregates, 24, 176
-Cements, 24
-Random,
15, 18, 19
-Methods, 123
Sandblasting, 123
Sand, tests for, 27
Scales, 55
Settlement, concrete, 39
Shoring
-Reshoring,84
Sieve or screen analysis, 178
Site
-Conditions, 73
-Handling, 73
-Mixing, 58
Shotcrete, 135
Shrinkage, concrete, 42
Shrinkage-compensating concrete, 149
Slabs, 97
-Reinforcement,
97
Slabs on grade, 97
-Curing, 99
Slipforming, 126, 127
-Cast-in-place pipe, 127
-Vertical structures, 126
Slump test, 63, 168
Spading, 79
Specific gravity
-Aggregates, 29
-Coarse aggregate, 178
-Fine aggregates, 178
-Tests for, 29
Specifications, 2
-Architectural
concrete, 117
-Mix proportions, 43
Specified strength,
proportioning
for,
Specimens
-Accelerated
curing, 172
-Cylindrical, 171
Splitting tensile strength, 171
Stabilized base, 102
Stain removal, 90
Standard deviation, 19
a
Quality assurance, 8
-Statistical concepts, 9
Quality control, 8
Quality control charts, 180
R
Rain, 75
Random numbers, 15
Ready-mixed concrete, 60
Records, 156, 180
Reinforcement, 126, 154
-Architectural
concrete, 121
-Pavements,
104
-Placing, 69
-Slabs, 97
Reinforcing steel, 32, 104, 191
Repairs
-Architectural
concrete, 91, 125
-Curing, 92
-Exposed concrete, 89
-Exposed surfaces, 89
-Holes, 90
-lnjection grouting, 95
-ln-service structures, 91
-Materials, 92
-Shotcrete,
135
219
44
Two-course construction, 99
Statistics, 9
Statistics( con t' d)
-Concepts, 9, 11
-Procedures,
9
- Tools, 12
Steam curing, 156
Steel reinforcement, 32
Strengtb, specified, 43
Strengtb tests, 170
-Control charts, 14
Structural concrete,
-Lightweight aggregate, 140
-Mass, 148
-Repairs, 91
Structural slabs, 100
Stucco, 166
Subbase, 102
Subgrade, 102
Surface defects, 125
Surface treatment, architectural concrete, 123
Swelling, concrete, 42
u
Underwater construction, 132
Unformed surfaces, 80
UniforDty
-Architectural
concrete, 120
-Tests, 172
Unit weight, 169
-Structural lightweight concrete, 174
-Tests for, 30
Unplanned construction joints, 83
v
Vacuum concrete, 132
Vertical structures, 126
Vibration, 79
Vibrators, 79, 80
Voids, tests for, 30
Volumetric batching, 57
Volumetric method, air content, 169
Water, 36
-Batching, 57
Water-cement ratio, specified, 44
Weather, paving, 114
Weigh hoppers, 54
Welding reinforcement, 155
Workability, 50
y
Yield, 52
220