Wlf 315 Wildlife Ecology I Lab

Fall 2010

Sampling Methods for the Study of Animal Behavioral Ecology:

Scavenger Ecology
Lab Objectives:
1.
Introduce field methods for sampling animal behavior.
2.
Facilitate understanding of how behavioral research is conducted.
3.
Gather behavioral data in the field to test hypotheses and associated
predictions.
In any study of behavior that involves watching the animals, selecting the
appropriate method(s) of sampling behavior is important. In most field studies of
animal behavior, it is impossible to observe and record every behavior of every
animal in the group. Therefore, you need to make decisions about which animals to
observe and which behaviors are of interest. Those decisions will form the basis for
selection of specific behavioral sampling methods. Whether you are interested in
behavioral states (e.g., lying, standing, walking) or behavioral events (e.g.,
grooming, nursing, fighting) also will affect the sampling method you choose. See
handouts for examples and illustrations of of behavioral states and events
frequently recorded for avian scavengers.
For behavioral state data, we are often interested in the amount of time that an
animal spends doing different activities. So, data are usually collected and
analyzed to represent the proportion of time during which animals were observed
that they were doing a particular activity (e.g feeding, walking, etc.). In contrast,
behavioral event data is usually recorded as a frequency (number of times the
event occurred over the time that the animals were observed).
Examples of behavior sampling methods:
1.

Ad-libitum Sampling: The researcher records the behaviors of individuals

or groups s/he encounters, with little or no reference to specific, well-defined
methods. This is a good method for initial observations and question
formation for later research, but is limited in the quantity and quality of data
produced.

2.

Focal Animal Sampling: The researcher selects one individual to be the

primary focus of observation. The researcher records either 1) all behaviors
of that individual, or 2) all occurrences of specific behaviors of interest that
the focal animal exhibits, during a set period of time. Individuals may be
chosen randomly from all members of the population, or may be chosen with
some specific criteria in mind (by age, sex, or reproductive status). This
technique is useful for providing data on specific behaviors and is more
reproducible than ad-libitum sampling.

3.

All-Occurrences Sampling: The researcher selects one or a few specific

behavioral events and records every occurrence of that (those) behavior(s)
within the animal group (every occurrence of grooming, chasing, etc.). This
technique is especially useful in determining the rate, frequency, or
synchrony of occurrence of specific behaviors.

Wlf 315 Wildlife Ecology I Lab

Fall 2010
One-Zero Sampling: The researcher records whether specific behaviors did
(1) or did not (0) occur during a given time interval. It does not matter
whether the behavior occurred once or several times during the time interval.
Either individuals or groups can be observed with this method. The time
interval is usually short (15 seconds) and samples are usually taken
frequently. This method is somewhat limited in its usefulness because
information is lost by categorizing the occurrence of behaviors so rigidly.
However, this method may have less observer bias.
5. Scan Sampling: The researcher records the instantaneous activity or
behavioral state of all animals in the group at predetermined time intervals
(e.g., once per minute). It is impossible to record the behavior of all
individuals instantaneously, but the researcher attempts to do so in as short
a time period as possible. The behaviors should be well defined so that
scanning is made easier. This method is useful for understanding the
frequency with which all animals in the group display certain behaviors or
behavioral states.
4.

Lab Exercise: Sampling Behavior of Avian Scavengers

In this exercise, you will gather behavioral data from 2 avian scavengers, Common
Ravens (Corvus corax) and Black-billed Magpies (Pica hudsonai), at carcasses.
Research on scavenging behavior suggests that many factors can influence the how
efficiently (how much and how fast) food is obtained by scavengers at a kill
including the size and state of decomposition of the carcass, species and number of
scavengers present at the carcass, aggressive interactions within and among
species, and habitat type (some scavengers are more effective in wooded vs. open
habitats). In this exercise, we will examine relationships among feeding rates,
vigilance, and group size for a smaller scavenger (Magpies), and also ask whether
the presence of a larger scavenger (Ravens) influences their behavior.
Exercise Expectations:
1. Understand how each selected sampling method works, the differences
between the methods, and the advantages & disadvantages of each method.
2. Plan a hypothesis and predictions that follow logically from the hypothesis,
and discuss the ideas with the TA or instructor before beginning your data
collection.
3. Gather behavioral data, and share your data with the class.
4. Complete a lab report using the shared class data to evaluate predictions and
test the hypothesis of your choice.
Methods:
1. Form groups of 3 students for the behavioral observations. The lab write-up
must be completed individually even though you may share data with others
in the class!!
2. Develop one hypothesis and a couple of predictions that you will test.
Assigned reading:

Wlf 315 Wildlife Ecology I Lab

Fall 2010
McKinstry, M.C., and R.L. Knight. 1993. Foraging ecology of
wintering Black-billed Magpies.
Auk 110:632-635.
Examples of hypotheses and predictions are provided in the reading
(McKinstry and Knight 1993)
Be sure you are clear about the difference between hypotheses and
predictions
Please talk with the instructor or TA about your hypothesis and prediction
before you do the exercise.

3. Use appropriate behavioral sampling methods for the different behaviors:

- Select one Magpie (focal animal) that is within 1 m of the carcass one
observer will observe vigilance and another will observing feeding and
agonistic interactions; the 3rd team member will record the data. Be
sure to switch activities.
- Use scan-sampling methods to record vigilance (activity state) of the
focal animal at 1-min intervals and also record the number of Magpies
at the carcass (within 1 m). These data will be analyzed as proportion
of time within 1-m of carcass spent feeding. Also, record the number
of Ravens around the carcass.
- Use all-occurrences sampling for feeding pecks and agonistic
interactions (behavioral events) per 1-minute interval between pecks.
These data will be number of events per time observed.
- When your animal is no longer at the carcass or active, then stop
observations, and record total time that the animal was observed.
Then select another bird and continue.
- Before beginning observations, spend some time watching your study
animals. Make sure all members of the group agree on the definitions
of the behavioral states/activities.
Written Assignment
Your lab report should include the following sections:
Draft Lab Report
Due Oct 5
Title
Final Version
Due Oct
Introduction
Hypothesis & Predictions
Methods
Results (include at least 1 figure or table with your data). Do not repeat
information in the text if it is provided in the figure or table. Also, note that
figures should have a figure legend and tables should have a table caption that
explains the data presented in the figure/table). You should be able to calculate
mean values and 95% confidence intervals (or standard error values) to evaluate

Wlf 315 Wildlife Ecology I Lab

Fall 2010
predictions. We will not expect a statistical treatment of the data for this lab.
Discussion (Did you support your hypothesis or not? What assumptions did you
make? What other factors might also influence your results? What problems did
you encounter?)
Some more information
Use 12 point font, and double space the lab report. Max. page limit = 4-5
pages for text and 1 or 2 pages for your figure(s) and/or table(s).
See information on the lab web-site about how to write the different
sections of a paper/lab report. There are short (few pages each) chapters
from:
Robert A. Day. 1998. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 5th
edition.

You will not need to do a literature review for this lab report, so you might
have only a few references. If you do reference any published literature (like
published papers, field guides, your text, etc.), you should include the
citations in a References section.
Be sure to list the other members of your observation team on your lab
report.