In ancient Chinese philosophy, one of the more comprehensive expositions on the nature of mind is to be found in the Book of Xun-zi.

It depicts not only the basic operations of the human mind, but also suggests ways of overcoming problems that have often hampered its clarity of judgment, disturbed its serenity and interfered with rational principles.
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Xun-zi on The Human Mind and Its Problems

An excerpt from The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism Author: Peter .!. Chan All rights reserved
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According to "un#$i, when the work of Heaven is completed and Its duty is done, bodies are formed and consciousness ( ) came into being, giving rise to pleasure and anger, sorrow and oy, as well as en oyment and aversion! These are called natural feelings! The ear, the eye, the nose, the mouth, and the body are able to respond "to external things# in their distinctive ways! These are called natural organs! The mind occupies the void in the center so as to control the five organs! This is called the natural ruler! (
!"#$% &'()*+,-&. Ibid. Chapter 17)

%ith respect to the wor&ings of this natural ruler that we call the human mind, he also offered the following observations:
$an is born with awareness! Having awareness, there are intentions and ideas ( / )! Intentions and ideas are stored "in memory#! %ut the mind is still considered vacuous (* )! &hat this means is that what has previously

been stored is not able to interfere with what is being received "by the mind#! (0!11!//%2%34!5*3#+567
859:* Ibid. 21)

$ind came into being with awareness! To be aware is to be aware of differences! 'wareness of differences consists in being aware of more than one thing! 'wareness of two things at the same time entails duality! %ut the mind is still one unified whole! (ot allowing one thing to damage another is called its unity! ('!11!;;%2<=>13
<=>1?%34!5@#+@8A@B Ibid.)

'urther, the mind recruits knowledge by way of the senses, such as knowing sound by way of ears and shapes by way of eyes! %ut this recruitment of knowledge is dependent on the discrimination of the natural organs in accordance to the peculiarity of their different natures!
('!C1C1DE1FG%E1G%4C1H9I& J K L M 4 N G % 3 Ibid. Chapter 22) &hen the mind sleeps, it dreams! &hen it relaxes, it moves of its own! &hen it is active, it plans! ( 'ODP DQRSDT3 Ibid. Chapter 21) It never stops moving, but is still able to find what is called tran)uility! ('UV#W%4!5X Ibid.) (ot

allowing dreams and fantasies to disrupt awareness is called tran)uility! (#+PYZ1X Ibid.) It is possible to sits at home and visuali*e all within the four seas! It is also possible to live in the present, and discuss what is remote in space and time! The mind is ac)uainted with the nature of myriad things! It can create order out of chaos, and understands their relationships! It can traverse Heaven and +arth and take many things into consideration, so as to map out the great principle of the universe! ([\]^_`a\b
cdefghi1Ljk,ZlLmnopq&hir stuvw Ibid.)

In short, the mind is the lord of the body and the master of cognitive intelligence! It issues orders but does not receive commands! It forbids itself, orders itself, renounces itself, obliges itself, as well as initiates and stops on its own accord! Thus, the mouth can be forced to be silent or to speak! The body can be forced to crouch down or stretch out! %ut the

mind cannot be forced to change its ideas! It accepts what it affirms, and Q re ects what it denies! ('2.%xy%3z{|5:{
}%QS%Q~%Q%QR%Q%GSRG S3'#GSD:D Ibid.) This is why it

is said that the mind is able to choose freely! 'lthough its contents are varied and diverse, it knows what it is about! &hen fully aroused, it is singular in purpose! ('L%|}HQ^Li%L
%# Ibid.)

(owever, said "un#$i, when the mind is not employed, one will not see even when black and white is in front of one,s eyes! -ne will also not hear even when thundering drums are sounding on both ears! ('#SD#^3 # Ibid.) Another thing to note is that different things are bound to interfere with each other in the mind! Such problems are common to the mind,s operation! (hi;D#$A' % Ibid.) )f these, according to "un#$i, three of their &inds in particular have tended to hamper the clarity and judgment of the human mind, namely: perceptual illusions, the disturbing effects of desires and emotions, and what could be referred to as intellectual blindness. (a) Perceptual illusions %ith respect to the first problem, it is to be observed that when the mind is not settled and perception is uncertain, external things will appear unclear! 's such, it is not possible to determine what is or is not really the case! (gi!)'# Di#3#DUG4% Ibid.) 'or instance:
Someone walking in the dark may see a stationary boulder and take it to be a crouching tiger, or he may see a tree and take it to be a man! The darkness has obscured the clarity of his vision! ( R2^+ -%^+N0%3Lx% Ibid.) *imilarly, a drunk may leap across a ditch a hundred paces wide, taking it to be a drain barely a step across! He may also stoop down going out the city gate, taking it to be a small doorway! &ine has distorted his awareness! (2

+ %3z+%3ZL% Ibid!) 'or what is

also &nown, when water is moving and reflections waver, people do not use it to determine beauty or ugliness! The water makes things look mysterious! (W0#+3% Ibid.) 'urther, pressing the eye while looking at an ob ect will make it appear double. covering the ears when listening will make silence sound like a murmur! It is possible to distort the functions of our sensory organs! (
2 @ + ? 3 2 + 3 Z L & % Ibid.)

Another case in point is that looking at a cow from the top of a hill will make it appear no bigger than a sheep! The distance has distorted its true si*e! /ooking from the foot of a mountain, trees that are ten meters high would look like chopsticks! The height "of the mountain# has distorted their true length! (22#%3eLt%
22#%3L% Ibid.)

+ow, said "un#$i: 'nyone who uses occasions such as these to determine the nature of things would certainly become a fool in the world! -nly a fool would try to determine the nature of things on the basis of doubt and uncertainty! Those who do so would surely make mistakes! ( !0+A=iD
2% 2i+H#J #J| ? Ibid.)

,a&e the case of this man living south of the capital of 0ia! He was both foolish and prone to fright! -ne evening, he was out walking when the moon was bright! /ooking down, he saw his own shadow and took it to be a crouching ghost! 1aising his head, he caught sight of his own hair and took it to be a phantom! Thereupon, he turned and ran until he reached his home where he lost his breath and died! That was really sad xR^L indeed2 (!0 L0%
+%3L+%3L# Ibid.)

%hat this shows is that when people are startled or confused, they would tend to believe in the existence of ghosts! This is how they have come to take what does not exist as existing, and what exists as not existing! They settle such

matters on the basis of their sub ective experience! !!! 'lthough they do not live south of the capital 0ia, there is no difference between them and the man who did! (0!%H+L
=A05+|!!|=%+. # D | + ; Ibid.) 's it is said3 a distracted mind is without

knowledge! -ne that goes astray is not sharp, and one that is not focused is sub ect to doubts and delusions! ('D|1
D#D Ibid.)

(b) The disturbin e!!ects o! emotions and desires As to the second problem, said "un#$i, anyone who slights the importance of rational principles would attach great importance to things! 'nyone who attaches great importance to external things would become inwardly anxious! 'nyone who abandons rational principles is bound to encounter danger from without! 'nd anyone who faces danger from without is inwardly filled with fear! (/ u# i2|!%3 i# 2|
! % R u # 2 | ! % 3 # 2 | ! % Ibid. Chapter 22) 'urther, when the mind is anxious and filled with fear,

the mouth will become unaware of the tastes of fine meat. the ears will not hear the sounds of bells and drums. the eye will not capture the fine patterns of embroidery. and the body will become unaware of the comfort of lying on a mat! (' D
#1L #1LF #1L # 1 L Ibid.) 4nder these circumstances, such a man is not able

to employ and en oy the beauty of anything! That being the case, what is the point of wanting to possess, to nurture life, or longing for longevity5 ( hi >hi 8 A2
Li% % % Ibid.)

In this connection, it is to be observed that wanting to nurture desires is to indulge in emotions. wanting to follow inborn nature is to endanger the body. wanting to inculcate pleasures is to endanger the mind. and wanting to promote one,s reputation will result in disorderly conduct! 6or such a person, even if he were to be enthroned as king, his state of

mind is still no better than that a thief! +ven if he were to ride in a carriage and be adorned with a ceremonial hat, his lot is still no different from that of a legless man! This is called making oneself to become a servant of things! ( L L L
L L L' L ZLR A2 !"# . L $ % |+;3 &'( L $ | ) |+;+i * Ibid.)

's it is said3 a kingly person employs things, but an inferior man is enslaved by them! (+ . ,* i0 * \iIbid. Chapter 2) )n the other hand, for a mind that is serene and happy, colors that are less than ordinary is already sufficient to nurture the eye! Sounds that are less than average are already sufficient to please the ear! ' diet of vegetables is already sufficient to satisfy the mouth! Clothes and shoes of rough hemp are already sufficient to comfort the body! 'nd a bed of dried straw is already sufficient for the body to find rest! Such a mind is able to en oy happiness without beautiful things! It will also en oy reputation without official rank or position of authority! In the case of such a man, it would mean little to his happiness even if he were given the whole world with everything that is in it! This is called valuing oneself by making use of things. (' - D . #
/0 G+ F# /0 G+ L 1234 G+ 56 78 59 : G+ |hiG+ | ; < G+ = L > L ? @ * iIbid. Chapter 22)

-nder this light, note should also be ta&en that the human mind is like a basin of water! If it is upright and not stirred, the mud will stay at the bottom! 's such, the water on top will be clear enough for one to see the details of one,s beard and eyebrows! %ut if a slight wind blows over its surface, the mud below will be stirred up! &hen the clarity and purity of water at the top is disturbed, it would be impossible to obtain even the correct and general outline "of anything#! (0' AB C
D WD EF xD ) +^ GH I u JK EF W xZ\D#G+ L t%Ibid. Chapter 21)

The mind is )uite analogous to this! &hen it is guided by rational principle and nurtured with clarity, nothing will be able to tilt or disturb it! 's such, it will be competent in determining right and wrong, as well as overcoming doubt and uncertainty! %ut if the mind is attracted to small things, its inner working and correct relation with the external world is bound to alter! 4nder such conditions, it will become inade)uate to decipher even the most basic of principles! (' M N +u +
iD ) + O i P DLL' D# ) + Q u Ibid.) ,his is why a kingly person would evaluate

things in terms of the &ay! In so doing, his udgment will be correct and his observation discerning! %y observing and evaluating things with the right frame of mind " / or intention#, he will become the controller of all things! (. , B\ R + S k
iB\ R D+ S kiD I 3+/R I cDhi& Ibid.)

.oes it mean that one must try to eliminate all desires/ +o, said "un#$i. It is the inborn nature of man to have desires. It only means that when desires are excessive, the mind should stop their activities! There is no harm in having desires that are reasonable even if these are numerous! %ut if what the mind permits were unreasonable, even a few desires would become unmanageable7 4nder this light, no one should demand that desires do not exist! -ne can only strive for their cessation! (
W# / '%'5G)uD > TU \, . '5G uD V T \Z . #L5#L5 W Ibid. Chapter 22) ,hat is to say, desires that are udged to be attainable

can be pursued! +motions that are inevitable should be accepted! (+5 +G L 5H# X %3 Ibid.) +ven though it is not possible to be free of desires or satisfy all of them, a thinking person would want to moderate his pursuits! ( #G Y 5 # L 2 Z % Ibid.) 0i&ewise, a sage would follow his desires and fulfill his emotions, but keep them under control by way of rational principle! ([ 0 L >Lr2u Ibid.) %hat this means is that when actions do not contribute to success, when search does not lead to attainment, and when

distress and anxiety do not contribute to resolving the crisis, one should cast them completely aside! 8o not let them get in your way or stir in your chest in any fashion! 8o not long for what has gone by. do not worry about what is to come. and do not allow your mind to become regretful! 'ct, if it is the proper time to act! 1espond to things as they arrive! 'ttend to matters as they occur! In this way, order and disorder as well as possibilities and impossibilities will become clearly evident! (
| \ \%| \ \ L % ] | \ \ ^ %D _ ` #+Q a %# @bc d )# ef # gh | ij 'J=DWi k l m , Z G n 4 x Ibid. Chapter 21) ,his is why only a

clear9minded kingly person is able to know the signs of danger! (J ^ o x. , N1 Ibid.) &hile the thought of a humane person is reverent, that of the sage is oyous! This is the way to manage the mind! (p 2 q % r [ 0 q %A,' R % Ibid.) 'urther, said "un#$i, the way to nourish one,s mind is to control chi "or vital energy#! &hen chi in the blood is too strong, soften it down to harmonious e)uilibrium! &hen the intellect is troubled by worry, it could be improved by concentration! &hen temper is out of control, guide and pacify it with the &ay! !!!'nd feelings of inferiority, la*iness, and greediness should be overcome by sheer determination! (, '3 s tu D v
+ wx 3y z{ D@+ | 3}~ D + R 3. 88 D + / 3 Ibid. Chapter 2) This is called the method of nurturing the mind and controlling chi! ( , '% Ibid.)

It should thus be seen that for a kingly person to nurture his mind, nothing is better than being conscientious! To be absolutely conscientious is not to be concerned with other things except to uphold humaneness and practice righteousness! To uphold humaneness with conscientiousness is to give it form! :iving it form is to be enlightened! %eing enlightened is to be able to transform7! 'nd to change and transform is to revive! This is called the ;irtue of Heaven! 1 . , '\ D|
p R ' p DDD 3

This is what is meant by the saying that a kingly person is able to overcome his personal desires with what is right! (A . , + ? % Ibid. Chapter 2)
Ibid. Chapter 3)

(c) Intellectual blindness As to the third problem, said "un#$i, it is the common flaw of men to be blinded by some point of view and shut their minds to great principles! (0\@ \tu Ibid. Chapter 21) 'or example, rulers of disorderly states and men from disorderly schools "of thought# are all sincere from their points of view as to what is right! %eing partial to their own experience, they are afraid of hearing about their own faults as well as what is splendid about other methods7 How indeed could they not be blinded by their own point of view and miss what is really correct5 (Z .Z0AL '#+Q% ? L5
L% L5 ? +g; t%.#\@ % Ibid.) As a matter of fact, those who gauge the &ay from

one single point of view are not able to recogni*e the &ay! They believed that what they have elaborated upon is already sufficient! In so doing, they brought disorder upon themselves and deluded others as well! !!!! Such are the misfortunes of intellectual blindness! ( 10g\ R @ U %+
) +QZ+ 0 ..... A % Ibid.)

'or instance, /ao9*i had insight about stupidity, but not about intelligence7! If everyone ust follows with no one to lead, the multitude will have nothing to go by! 6urther, if everyone is ignorant and without intelligence, honor and disgrace will remain undifferentiated! (, !^\|^\ . !N| D |!| D # Ibid. Chapter 17) $oh9*i had insight about e)uality but not about differences! If everyone is e)ual without social distinctions, administrative decrees will ! | D {# be unable to carry out! ( , !^\ |^\ Ibid.) He was also blinded by benefits and was ignorant of culture. In identifying usefulness with the &ay, he ustifies

everything in terms of benefits! ( , \ #1 ..! R

3 Ibid. Chapter 21)

)n the other hand" <huan9*i was blinded by (ature and was ignorant of what it is to be human! In taking (ature to be the &ay, he believed that everything is thus taken care of and explained! ( - , \ # 1 0 .. R Ibid.) As to Shen9*i, 1a precursor of the 0egalist school, which advocated administrative techni2ues solely for purpose of enhancing the power of state for the benefit of the ruler alone3, he was blinded by methods with no regard for the worthy! *imilarly, Shen9bu9 hai 1another 0egalist3 was blinded by the idea of exerting control without proper understanding! And Hui Shi 1the leader of the school of debaters3 was blinded by propositions and was ignorant of actualities! (, \ #1 , \#11 , \#1 Ibid.) %ut each of these views has only touched upon one aspect of the &ay, which is not sufficient to reveal Its constancy in the midst of change! (A 2 R @ % R 2
@ # ) + Ibid.)

'or what "un#$i had come to see therefore, as things come and go, they should be responded to in a coherent way! &hen reasoning is applied on a consistent basis, nothing will become disorderly! Those who are incoherent do not know how to respond systematically to changing conditions! ( @ @ l k +
u # Z # 1 # 1 k t U V W % Ibid. Chapter 17)

Hence, what is good and appropriate according to the &ay "of humanity# should be followed! To deviate from it could only lead to great confusions! ( R 5 )D G D# G Dt Ibid.) This is why the mind has got to know the &ay! If the mind does not know the &ay, it will incorporate what is contrary to the &ay. ('#G+#1 R 3'#1 R D#G R G R Ibid. Chapter 21) Hence, knowing the &ay is the deciding factor . (1 \1
R Ibid.)

,herefore, as to what humane persons today are supposed to do, "un#$i4s answer is that they should first follow the system

of Shun and =u, and then emulate the righteousness of Confucius and T*e9:ong 1a leading disciple of Confucius3 so as to silence the teachings of the twelve philosophers 1some of whom were mentioned above3. &hen this is done, wickedness in the world will be eliminated, the undertakings of those who are humane would be complete, and the footprints of sage9kings would become visible! ( b p 0%9 D rD
8, + , D8 p 0 [ 0 Ibid. Chapter 6)

In the view of "un#$i, only Confucius was humane, wise, and not intellectually blind. His way of dealing with disorder was sufficient to rank him with the ancient kings! His was the only one that is not blinded by success, but has retained and adopted the &ay of the <hou dynasty! This is why his virtuous accomplishments are e)ual to the 8uke of <hou, and his reputation is e)ual to the three "ancient sage# kings! Such are the blessings of not being intellectually blind! ( ,p 1 #
Z ) + 2% @ LR #\ % $ $ 3A# % Ibid. Chapter 21)

(owever, said "un#$i, there were some who had tried to emulate the ancient kings in some ways without knowing their unifying principle! !!!! They decorated their words with respectability, and claimed to represent the genuine words of former kings and kingly persons! This was the tune sang by T*e9 Ser (the grandson of Confucius) and echoed by $encius! Confucians of the ordinary variety have enthusiastically embraced their deluded notions, and are unaware of their blunders! Instead, they have come to believe that these were really be)ueathed by Confucius and T*e9=u (another disciple of Confucius) for the benefit of later generations! This is the crime of T*e9Ser and $encius! ( #1L ........ L
A . , % ,q x 4#1 L5% : + + 8 , \ND ,q8 % Ibid. Chapter 6)

Comment: 'rom a statement such as this, it is rather clear that by the time of "un#$i, the legacy of Confucius was by then already under serious dispute 5 between those who followed the disciples of Confucius and those who followed ,$e#*er 5 the grandson of Confucius, who was also the teacher of those who taught encius. As a matter of fact, for what historians are able to tell, Confucianism was by then already harboring at least half a do$en splinter groups.
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Peter .!. Chan is the author of The $ystery of $ind 1published 78893, and Soul, :od, and $orality 1published 788:3. ;ecently, he has also competed another wor& titled The Six Patriarchs of Chinese Humanism 1copyrighted and available in eboo&s, but not yet in print3. 'or details regarding the above, please visit http#$$sites. oo le.com$site$pm%chan$home http#$$sites. oo le.com$site$patriarchso!chinesephilosoph&$home http#$$'''.lulu.com$spotli ht$peterm%chan
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