Section 1: Vector Space, Matrix Mechanics, and Representation Theory

Section 1: Vector Space,
Matrix Mechanics, and

Representation Theory
X.Bai
1. Probability Amplitudes
and Their Compositions
Section 1: Vector Space, Matrix

Mechanics, and Representation Theory
2. Hilbert Space and

Dirac Notations
(Textbook: Chapter 9, Chapter 10, Chapter 15)
Xinhua Bai
SDSM&T
1 / 22

1.1 Probability Amplitudes and Their Compositions

The expansion postulate of Quantum Mechanics: Every physical
with
quantity can be represented by a Hermitian operator (A)
eigenfunctions
1 , 2 , ..., n , ... and every physical state by a
P
sum R i ci i , where the coefficients are defined as
ci = i (x)(x)dx.
More specifically, the eigenvalue equation for the Hermitian
reads:
operator A
n (x) = An n (x),
A
X.Bai
Dirac Notations
(1)
th
where An denotes the n eigenvalue. The eigenfunctions satisfy

the orthonormality (orthogonality & normalization!) condition:
Z
n (x)k (x)dx = nk
(2)
And arbitrary state function (x) can be expressed as the series:
X
(x) =
cn n (x)
(3)
n
2 / 22

with the expansion coefficients given by:

Z
cn = n (x)(x)dx
X.Bai
(4)

Dirac Notations
The coefficients cn are called the probability amplitudes. We

have to distinguish two cases:
will give
1. An is a simple eigenvalue. Then measurements of A
2
the result An with probability |cn | . If (x) = n (x) then
will yield An with
|cn |2 = 1, i.e. a measurement of A
certainty.
2. An is not a simple eigenvalue, i.e. it corresponds to more
than one linearly independent eigenfunctions. In this case
alone
additional labeling is required, i.e. measurements of A
will not unambiguously identify all the terms in Eq. (3)
expansion.
3 / 22
In Case 2, how do we do the additional labeling of the

such
eigenstates? We have to find another Hermitian operator B
that these two operators have a common set of eigenstates.
These operators are called compatible or simultaneously
and B
to be
measurable. We will prove that in order for A
compatible it is necessary and sufficient that they commute, i.e.
B]=0.
[A,
Then we can label the eigenstates of A using different
If the ambiguity still remains we will have to
eigenvalues of B.
until a complete set of
find another Hermitian operator C
compatible Hermitian operators is found.

X.Bai
Dirac Notations
The maximum information about the outcome of physical

measurements on a physical system is contained in the
probability amplitudes that belong to a complete set of
observables for the system.
Example: Particle in a spherical potential. Complete set of
L
2 , L
2z }. Corresponding quantum numbers are
operators are {H,
{n, l, m}.
4 / 22

X.Bai
1.2 Properties of the Probability Amplitudes
Dirac Notations
DiracRnotations. It is convenient to replace an integral

cn = R n (x)(x)dx with a short notation
cn = n (x)(x)dx hAn |i.
The corresponding probability amplitude is hAn |i.
on
|hAn |i|2 gives the probability that a measurement of A
will yield An .
P
2
In this notation, the completeness:
n |hAn |i| = 1.
In this notation, the orthonormality: hAn |Am i = nm .
We will introduce more about the Dirac notation of quantum

quantities/states later on.
5 / 22
1.3 Composition Rule for the Probability Amplitudes

To see the relation between amplitudes for two sets of
observables, we start from the fact that an arbitrary state
function can be equally well specified with eigenstates of any
complete set of observables, for example,
n = An n
by {n } that belong to A
Or
k = Bk k .
by {k } that belong to B
It reads like this:
X
X
(x) =
hBk |ik (x).
hAn |in (x) =
n

X.Bai
Dirac Notations
On the other hand: k (x) = n hAn |Bk in (x). Insert this to

previous expression, we find:
X
X
X
hAn |Bk in (x)
hAn |in (x) =
hBk |i
n
X
n
XX
hAn |Bk ihBk |in (x)
hAn |in (x) =
n
k
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This leads to the composition rule:

X
hAn |i =
hAn |Bk ihBk |i

X.Bai
(5)
Equation (5) embodies the strangeness of quantum mechanics.

on
Indeed, one can calculate the probability of measuring A
using Eq. (5):
Dirac Notations

2
X

|hAn |i| = hAn |Bk ihBk |i

2
This differs drastically from a conventional rule for the

calculation of probabilities:
X
2
2
|hAn |Bk i| |hBk |i|
k
This is because there are interference terms in quantum

superposition.
7 / 22
One can replace with j in Eq. (5):

X
hAn |Bk ihBk |Aj i = hAn |Aj i = nj

X.Bai
(6)

Dirac Notations
On the other hand,

X
X
2
|hAn |Bk i| =
hAn |Bk i hAn |Bk i = 1
k
Comparing these equations we obtain

hAn |Bk i = hBk |An i
(7)
and
2
|hAn |Bk i| = |hBk |An i|
(8)
this is a so-called reciprocal relationship: The conditional

in a state that is known to have
probability of finding An for A
the sharp value of Bk for B equals to the probability of finding Bk

in a state that is known to have a sharp value of An for A.
for B
8 / 22

The probability amplitudes hAn |Bk i define a matrix

Snk = hAn |Bk i. This is a unitary matrix because
X
Snk Skj = nj
X.Bai
(9)

Dirac Notations
or
SS = 1
(10)
where S is a Hermitian conjugate (i.e. transpose and complex

conjugate) of S.
I
The unitary matrix is inverse to its own Hermitian conjugate.
Real unitary matrices are called orthogonal, they are inverse

to their transpose matrices.
Orthogonal matrices describe rotations in Euclidean space.
Similarly, unitary matrices describe rotations in Hilbert

space.
9 / 22
2.1 Bra and Ket vectors

Consider a probability amplitude:
X.Bai
Z
hA|Bi h|i =

(x)(x)dx

Dirac Notations
We call this quantity inner product. Using the integral

definition of the inner product we can establish the following
properties, for a complex number a:
Z
h|ai = adx = ah|i
Z
ha|i = (a) dx = a h|i
h|i = h|i ,
By analogy with dot product of two conventional 3D vectors
a b, we will follow Dirac and call notations h| - bra-vector, and
|i - ket-vector (bra, ket both stem from bracket).
10 / 22

From linearity of the integral we derive the following properties of

ket- and bra-vectors:
|a1 i + |b2 i = a|1 i + b|2 i
X.Bai
Dirac Notations
ha1 | + hb2 | = a h1 | + b h2 |
Question: What kind of mathematical objects are these bra- and
ket-vectors?
Before we proceed let us discuss properties of vectors in 3D
Euclidean space R 3 . A vector ~a is defined by three scalars:
~a = (ax , ay , az ) = ax i + ay j + az k
We say that three unit vectors i, j, k span a linear vector space
R 3 . The numbers ax , ay , az define a vector ~a in a particular
coordinate system (basis).
11 / 22

However we can consider an abstract vector ~a and establish

vector calculus without any reference to a particular basis, simply
~a R 3 . What are the essential attributes of R 3 (or any other
linear vector space)?
X.Bai
Dirac Notations
Mathematically, the Definition of a linear vector space is A set of

objects with the following properties is called a linear vector
space:
I If ~
a R 3 and ~b R 3 then ~a + ~b R 3
I
I
I
For any two vectors we can introduce a dot product

~a ~b = ax bx + ay by + az bz = ab cos
every vector has a length (norm): |~a| = ~a ~a

R 3 is complete, i.e. contains all its limiting points (there are
no holes).
We can straightforwardly generalize this definition for any

number of dimensions.
12 / 22
In general, we can consider a space of infinite dimension, which

will lead to the notion of the Hilbert space. The elements of the
Hilbert space are functions.
The idea is based on the fact that any function can be expanded
in an infinite series with respect to a complete, orthonormal set
of (base) functions. Consider a familiar example: a particle in a
box have eigenstates described by:
p
n (x) = 2/L sin(nx/L).
Every function (x) with
represented as:
RL
0

X.Bai
Dirac Notations
||2 dx < can be uniquely
an n ,
n=1
p
RL
where an = 2/L 0 sin(nx/L)(x)dx. So, we P
can define an
infinite vector |i (a1 , a2 , ..., an , ...) {an } n=1 an |n i,

where an = hn |i.
13 / 22
An abstract Hilbert space L is a set of vectors (functions) that

have the following properties:
1. Linearity. If |i L and |i L then
|i + |i = |i + |i L.
2. There is an inner product for any two elements of space (the
operation):
Z
(, ) h|i = (x)(x)dx

X.Bai
Dirac Notations
3. Every element has a length or norm |||| defined as

follows:
||||2 = h|i
4. L is complete. Every Cauchy sequence of functions in L
converges to an element of L.
Note: A Cauchy sequence is a sequence whose elements
become arbitrarily close to each other as the sequence
progresses.
14 / 22

X.Bai
That is P
to say, the completeness requires that, if a series of
vectors
k=0 uk converges absolutely in the sense that
P
||u
||
< , then the series converges in L, in the sense
k
k=0
that the partial sums converge to an element of L.
Dirac Notations
In other words, Hilbert space contains all of its limit points. You
will see how this may affect in the actual applications of quantum
mechanics in a strict (as it has to be) mathematical manner.
The elements of the space L are the ket vectors |i. We call L a
ket-space.
Why is the completeness is needed from physics point of view?
(Look at the example of a particle in a box.)
15 / 22

X.Bai
2.2 Two Definitions: Functional & Operator

Linear functional: , defined on the kets |i L, is a linear
mapping which associates a complex number with every ket |i
(a function!):
Dirac Notations
|i L complex number (|i)

(1 |1 i + 2 |2 i) = 1 (|1 i) + 2 (|2 i)
Note. Linear functionals and linear operators (see below) must
not be confused. They both deal with linear operations, but
I
A linear function associates each ket with a complex number
A linear operator associates each ket with another ket.
A set of linear functionals defined on the kets |i L constitutes

a vector space, which is called the dual space L of L.
16 / 22

X.Bai
Every element of the dual space L is called a bra-vector or

simply bra. It is symbolized as h|. Thus
Dirac Notations
(|i) = h|i
is the number obtained by causing the linear functional h| L
to act on the ket |i L. We do require:
I
To every ket corresponds a bra.
The correspondence is anti-linear, i.e.

(1 |1 i + 2 |2 i, |i) = (1 h1 | + 2 h2 |)|i
or
1 |1 i + 2 |2 i
corresponding to
1 h1 | + 2 h2 |
17 / 22

X.Bai
Note: If |i is a ket and is a complex number then |i is

another ket. Sometimes we write
Dirac Notations
|i = |i
The corresponding bra is (please verify yourself):
h| = h|
The Geometrical Properties
I
Cauchy-Schwartz inequality: |h|i| |||| ||||
Triangle inequality: || + || |||| + ||||
18 / 22

Proof of the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality. We start from the

inequality:
2
|| || = h | i 0
X.Bai
Dirac Notations
which gives
|| ||2 = h|i h|i h|i + ||2 h|i 0
Let us take =
h|i
||||2 .
Then we have
|| ||2 = ||||2
|h|i|2
0
||||2
||||2 ||||2 |h|i|2

|||||||| |h|i|
Q. E. D.
19 / 22

is a map between two sets of ket

Operators: An operator A
vectors:
| 0 i = A|i
X.Bai
We will consider only linear operators such that:

Dirac Notations
A(|
1 i + |2 i) = A|1 i + A|2 i
We need to answer this question: We can write A|i

= |Ai.
So, what is hA|?

The quantity
Z
h|A|i = (x)A(x)dx
between |i and |i. This is a
is called a matrix element of A
familiar integral which can be used to define an adjoint operator
as following:
A
Z

Z
Z

(x)A (x)dx = (x) A(x) dx =

(x)A(x)dx
(11)
20 / 22
Rewriting Eq. (11) in Dirac notations we obtain:

|i = h|A|i

h|A
This formula defines an adjoint operator in Dirac notations.
Thus a Hermitian (or self-adjoint) operator is such that (in terms
of elements of the matrix)

X.Bai
Dirac Notations

h|A|i
= h|A|i
We now can find the bra-vector corresponding to A|i:

Z

Z
|i
hA|i
= (A(x))
(x)dx =
(x)A(x))dx
= h|A
Thus
= h|A
hA|
and we have an association
A|i
h|A
21 / 22

X.Bai
Consider an operator:
= |ih|
P
Dirac Notations
This operator is called a projector or projection operator. Indeed
P|i
= h|i|i
= |i, which
gives a projection of |i onto |i. Also P|i
means that
2 = P
P
Such operators are also called idempotent operators.
Lets take a look at the Hermitian Adjoint again and summarize
a lit bit. (Review01 Hermitian.pdf)
22 / 22

Section 1: Vector Space, Matrix Mechanics, and Representation Theory

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