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Yeats and Cuchulain

William Butler Yeats is considered a central figure in the Irish Literary Revival of the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.Being one of the founders of the Abbey Theatre , Yeats
helped banish the overbearing idea that the English culture was superior to the Irish. Yeatss aim
was to inspire the new generations of Irish people by reclaiming some of the ancient Celtic myths
and legends, unlike the earlier poets, whose main goal was political. Even though the revival had
a strong impact on the growth of political nationalism, Yeats was not interested in restoring the
Gaelic language and customs, as the earlier Irish poets had. He says, When we remember the
majesty of Cuchullin and the beauty of sorrowing Deirdre we should not forget that it is that
majesty and that beauty which is immortal, and not the perishing tongue that first told of them.
From early on in his career, Yeats drew inspiration from legends and myths of pre-Christian
Ireland. Poems such as Fergus and the Druid and The Lake Isle of Innisfree display Yeatss
use of ancient Irish mythology as themes to convey ideas and emotions that can be experienced
by his contemporary audience in a similar way than what the earlier generations of Irish people
experienced. One particular legend, that of Cuchulain was not only a major theme in Yeatss
work, but it was present in his poetry and drama throughout his career: Yeats used Cuchulain as a
character in his poems and plays from 1892 to 1939.
By closely examining the political but also personal circumstances surrounding Yeatss
output one can understand the poets reasons for continually using the legend of Cuchulain as a
theme in his work. Not only did he use Cuchulain extensively in his work, but one can actually
trace the Yeatss progress as a writer in his use of the legend. The cycle of Cuchulain in Yeatss
work began with the 1892 poem The Death of Cuchulain and ended in 1939, just before Yeatss
death with the poem Cuchulain Comforted.
The Cuchulain plays, which are one-act reveal Yeatss preoccupation with limiting the
time and space in which the action unfolds. Yeats was not interested in recounting the legend of
Cuchulain for informational motives, but rather he used the legend of Cuchulain as theme to
communicate moments of intense feeling where the heros plight resonates with the struggles the
Irish faced in their day-to-day lives. Even if Cuchulain is portrayed as a hero and warrior in
Yeatss work, the context surrounding the events are not entirely magical: we see Cuchulain as a
man who has flaws, makes mistakes, and ultimately dies.
Although a nationalistic context was behind Yeatss interest in the ancient Celtic legends,
Yeats was not interested in reclaiming those legends as mere accounts of Irelands history.
According to Reg Skene, Historical reading of the old sagas tended to obscure their
mythological significance and dull their power to stir the imagination . What Yeats ultimately
wished to accomplish by using those old legends and myths as themes in his work was to provide
his audience with ideas and emotions that would spark a new faith in Ireland, instead of focusing
on reviving the history of Ireland as a static movement; Yeats was not interested in making his
audience aware of what had already happened to Ireland, but rather in using Irelands past as a
starting point to inspire new feelings about modern Ireland.

One obstacle Yeats faced when trying to interpret the ancient legends was the fact that
they were available mostly in the oral format, which allowed those familiar with the stories to
shape them according to their own experiences and interpretations. he respite from such obstacle
came from Lady Gregory, who surmised a language grounded firmly upon the syntax and
diction of peasant Ireland but flexible enough to encompass other and subtler purposes(Flanagan
53). In 1902 she produced one of the crucial texts of the Irish Literary Revival, Cuchulain of
Muirthemne, which draws together into a coherent narrative the fragmentary accounts of
[Cuchulains] the heros life, battles, and death(Flanagan 54).
Once in the possession of Gregorys translation of the legend of Cuchulain, Yeats began to
interweave the folkloric material he believed would not only enhance the impact of Cuchulains
legend on his audience, but also contribute to his initial intent to inspire the new generations in
Ireland. It was within that framework that Yeats began to shape the legend of Cuchulain as a
prominent subject for much of his material; it is clear the poet identified with Cuchulain, and
although a discussion of Yeatss personal connections with Cuchulain is beyond the scope of this
paper, it is still valuable to mention Yeatss delicate relationship with his father as a possible
subtext to the father-son conundrum present in the legend of Cuchulain.
One aspect of Yeatss use of Cuchulain as a character is his work is his interest in utilizing
theatre as a vehicle to communicate the legend in what seems like a more effective manner due to
the audiences direct exposure to the hero; although Yeats was still using the lyrical format in
most of his plays, by showing the actual characters on a stage Yeats emphasized his point of
inspiring the audience instead of merely stating the characters beliefs and motivations.
In The Rebirth of Tragedy, Michael Valdez Moses explains that for Yeats, The defining
features of European modernity might be resisted by bringing about a cultural rebirth of the spirit
of ancient tragic drama(561). Moses goes on to say that the state of the arts in Europe in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was stagnant; the works produced by artists of the time
were politically irrelevant.
This brings forth the more technical aspects of Yeatss craft, as the members of his
audience can identify with Cuchulain because he is in a sense reduced from hero to mortal; as a
character, Cuchulain is immersed in the actions and interactions Yeats constructs in order to
communicate larger issues of nation and politics. Yeats uses Cuchulain as an individual to shed
light into the struggles of the Irish people, since the Irish nation is after all made up of
individuals.
Yeatss 1903 play On Bailes Strand tells the story of Cuchulans conquering of his son,
ending in the heros own death as he rushes against the waves of the sea in combat.
While Cuchilain exclaims he will not change his carefree demeanor, which allows him to
dance or hung, or quarrel or make love (Finneran 172), Conchubar expresses his desire for a
strong and settled country (Finneran 172) to his children. That can be interpreted as the English
design to create the most comfortable, stable nation for their descendents, despite the price:
colonization would assure the colonizers of new locations rich in resources, but the inherent
culture of the place might be crushed in the name of the imperialistic design.
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The English may consider their culture superior to that of Ireland, but that does not mean the
Irish should accept that imposition, given the fact that their culture was just as rich as the English
culture imposed upon the colony. The manner in which Yeats accomplishes his purpose in this
play is by showing his audience the contrast between the two figures: Cuchulains disposition
represents the Irish nationalism overshadowed by the English culture, and while Yeats recognizes
the English motives as potentially coming from a valid emotional source, he still places emphasis
on the idea that a focus on the national interest would ultimately satisfy the Irish pride, for it
stems from a local effort.
Still in On Bailes Strand, Conchubar and Cuchulain reconcile before Cuchulains fight
with his son, and yet Conchubar is the cause of Cuchulains death. If Conchubar had not
persuaded Cuchulain to fight the unknown warrior who was wasting the shores of Ulster,
Cuchulain would never have done so, and would in fact have been a friend to the young man.
Finally, in his grief on discovering that he has killed his own son, Cuchulain confuses the waves
with his antagonist Conchubar and dies raging and striking against them.
Once again, we can see Yeatss subtle reference to the ambivalent relationship between
England and Ireland: although the two nations are reconciled, the poet warns of the perils of
turning against ones nation, which might result in the ultimate demise of that nations members.
The symbolism of having a father unknowingly kill his own son represents the danger of turning
against ones inherent nature; becoming engrossed by another nations interests might blind one
to the interests of his/her own nation, and the use of violence might lead one to unknowingly
destroy his/her own co-patriots.
In another of Yeatss plays, At the Hawks Well we see the Cuchulain legend explored in a
different manner. Although the Noh influence in this play can signify a departure from Yeatss
earlier craft, it also provides Yeats with a new venue to explore the legend of Cuchulain. In this
play we see the audience and setting as supporting figures to the heros journey. The Cuchulain
legend is then evoked by the Musicians who initiate the action by announcing the scene in which
Cuchulains adventure is to unfold.
The Musicians actually invite the audience to physically participate in the action, which
echoes Yeatss intention to inspire the Irish to take charge of their cultural experience. Because
the Noh tradition requires a more subjective reading of the subject matter, one may wonder if
Yeatss device of having the Musicians evoke the Cuchulain legend as his way of assuring the
audience would still recognize the ancient legend as a theme.
The opening verse of the play sets up the tone for the rest of the experience. The audience
is immediately invited to participate in the action because the verse actually calls upon the eye
of the mind. The audience is asked to imagine the well, which according to the stage directions
is represented by a cloth. Despite the Noh tradition with emphasizes minimal setting, Yeatss
invocation of the audiences imagination also echoes his own trajectory towards the mystical
world.
Yeats uses the Old man as a plot device to unfold the action. As a character, he is not
unlike the setting, which is desolate, weak, and helpless. But he describes the Guardian to
Cuchulain; the Old man is like an omniscient narrator. The Old man says, There falls a curse/
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On all who have gazed in her unmoistened eyes; / So get you gone while you have that proud
step1 foreshadowing the action that follows.
According to Maeve Good, when Cuchulain is finally placed in conflict with the Sidhe,
the possessed Guardian parallels the position of man in conflict with this other world. Good
continues, As the poet facing his muse, or as the hero facing his doom, she stands in relation to
her other self as hawk, dancer, and woman of the Sidhe 2. Referring back to the idea of
nationalism, a connection can be drawn between Cuchulain facing his doomas the awareness
of the existence of the other selfand Irelands awareness that its cultural life should not
necessarily depend on the English culture.
By the end of his career, as he finished the first version of the play The Only Jealousy of
Emer, Yeats seemed to have lost that earlier fervor regarding the Irish nationalism.
Yet, Yeats remains one of the most important figures in the Irish Literay Revival of the
late nineteenth and early twentieth century. He in fact became the most influential and most
celebrated Irish poet to this day.
Although William Butler Yeatss did not intend to use ancient Celtic legends and myths to
communicate politics, his effort to revive the state of the Irish cultural world resonated with the
political battles surrounding the creation of the Irish Free State. Despite his failure in shaping the
Irish National Theatre, Yeats was successful in inspiring the Irish people to look at the past
history of the country in order to take pride in the present and future of the nation. Through his
craft and sensibility to infuse the old legends with more contemporary aspects to which his
audience could better relate, Yeats reclaimed the legend of Cuchulain and in so doing also helped
to reclaim the culture of his own country, which stands apart from the English culture that was
forced upon Ireland for so many years.
The Death of Cuchulainis full of significance since Yeats had continued to improve it until
the day of his death , on the 28 th of January 1939.The play was performed in December 1949 and
the source for the play were two chapters from Ladys Gregorys Cuchulain of Muithenne.
We can find among the protagonist an old man who may very easily be taken as Yeats
himself. As Richard Allen Cave expressed it we should take him as an amalgam of individuals
among Yeats acqueintances who had an involvement in the theatre at a given moment, including
a sky look at himself.
Being analysed from the point of view of the narrative context , the play represents the end of
the mythological Irish hero.
Briefly, The Death of Cuchulain drastically re-envisions the legendary account of Cuchulains
last hours, turning it into a short play of four significant scenes with a prose prologue and poetic
epilogue. The plays action begins with Cuchulain, the central hero of pre-Chrisitian Irish
mythology, preparing to ride out from his home at Muirthemne to meet the armies of Queen
Maeve. He is interrupted by Eithne, who comes bearing twin, contradictory messages.
1 Finneran page 225
2 Finneran page 44
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The first is from Cuchulains wife, warning him not to go, the second, uttered by Eithne under
compulsion from Maeve, tells him he must race into battle. The confusion is not wholly resolved
before Cuchulain determines to follow his previous instinct and take up the conflict. The second
scene presents Cuchulains wounding in battle as a fait accompli. Intending to die on his feet,
defending a key pass, he receives help in tying himself to a stone from Aoife, mother of his only
son, a boy he unknowingly slew in battle some years before. Aoife has come for revenge but
before she can do more than reminisce with Cuchulain, she hears a noise and departs. The third
scene begins with the arrival of the Blind Man, who has come to behead the hero for the twelve
pennies Maeve has promised.
He completes his task, freeing Cuchulains soul to transcend the flesh as a soft feathery
shape. The war goddess then introduces the heros wife, Emer, who performs a wild dance
around the heads of Cuchulain and the six warriors who wounded him. Finally, the play
concludes with the singer promised in the prologue. She ties the past to the future the Easter
Rising of 1916 with a poem containing the famous lines, Are those things that men adore and
loathe/ Their sole reality?/ What stood in the Post Office/ With Pearse and Connolly?
Long before Ulster became infamous for sectarian murder and martyrs, it knew the slaughter of
Celtic warriors attacking one another's stony forts. Raising that bloodshed to the level of legend,
unknown bards forged the myth of Cuchulain, a physically perfect, irresistibly powerful
superhero who charged into battle in brightly colored raiment and glowing jewelry, bristling hair
shining in the sun.
Born of the sun and a mortal woman, Cuchulain was an effortless and ruthless Iron Age
fighter. He could also traffic with the witches and ghosts of the Otherworld (as well as the many
mortal women drawn to him). His exploits (compiled in the 12th-century manuscript The Book of
the Dun Cow and later sources) taught young Celtic noblemen a rapacious warrior creed. If his
myth was inspired by an actual killer, it soon incarnated a violent era's battle ethic.
When Ireland later faced an equally primitive struggle--the 1916 Rebellion and the ensuing
civil war--it seemed right that a modern bard, William Butler Yeats, would revive the tales of the
"Hound of Ulster." Yeats wrote three chronologically linked one-acts based on these legends for
Lady Gregory's Abbey Theatre, which played a major role in rekindling interest in Ireland's pagan
past after it opened in 1904. These works are rich with gorgeous cadenced verse that combines
the force of prophecy with the pathos of an elegy--rhapsodic, if occasionally dense and cryptic.
On Baile's Strand, the earliest and best known, premiered in 1904; The Only Jealousy of Emer in
1922; and The Death of Cuchulain in 1939, the year of Yeats's death. All three rarely seen poem
plays have been revived by Arc Entertainment Group, the company's ambitious first production.
On Baile's Strand, a portrait of a family's self-destruction, inevitably recalls Oedipus Rex.
Unwittingly completing a curse, Cuchulain tragically agrees to circumscribe his power by
swearing an oath to obey the edicts of Ireland's King Conchubar. One order is to fight a young
man who has terrorized the kingdom. Seeing in the boy a family resemblance, Cuchulain for once
resists the urge to kill, but his oath compels him. Then realizing he has killed his own son by his
lost love Queen Aoife, Cuchulain attacks the ocean in an abject rage. Providing tedious comic
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relief are the clownish antics of a Fool and a Blind Man, Yeats's less-than-ribald attempt to give a
common touch to uncommon heroics.
In The Only Jealousy of Emer Cuchulain is rescued from death by the sacrifice of his dogged
wife Emer. Shown by the trickster Bricriu an image of Cuchulain's spirit being seduced by a
woman from the Otherworld, Emer agrees to renounce his love, a costly lie that breaks a death
spell.
In The Death of Cuchulain the hero achieves victory in battle but defeat at the hands of the
now-aged Aoife. Emer defends him by slaying six of his enemies, but it's too late: his head was
cut off as a souvenir by the Blind Man. After the death goddess Morrigu takes his spirit to the
Celtic Valhalla, Yeats's chorus compares Cuchulain to the heroes of the 1916 battle at the Dublin
post office, where the first blood of the Rebellion was shed (and suddenly this saga sounds a bit
like propaganda).
Erica Luketic's 90-minute staging--with its smoky fog, ethereal folk music, and
impressionistic lighting--is intended to convey the ease with which the legend's hero can move
from the real world to the spirit realm. But it would be nice if the nine actors could manage a
clean journey through Yeats's ornate verse. Too many of them, including Dejan Avramovich's
Conchubar, founder because of a tentative, half-hearted recitation; their hesitation makes you
wonder how well they grasp, let alone feel, their language.
Brian Amidei at least brings confidence to his blustering Cuchulain (if not the muscular
presence the legend demands); his deft impersonation of the shape-shifting Bricriu is even more
accomplished. Patricia Gallagher makes much of Aoife's final confrontation with her lost hero.
Most committed to Yeats's imagery is Danielle Brothers, who plays Emer from the inside out
with a lyricism as lush as her lines.
A small but constant problem is the set's clashing cloth pieces, the clutter of which impedes
the action and the scene changes.
Yeats believed that art and politics were intrinsically linked and used his writing to express
his attitudes toward Irish politics, as well as to educate his readers about Irish cultural history.
From an early age, Yeats felt a deep connection to Ireland and his national identity, and he
thought that British rule negatively impacted Irish politics and social life. His early compilation
of folklore sought to teach a literary history that had been suppressed by British rule, and his
early poems were odes to the beauty and mystery of the Irish countryside. This work frequently
integrated references to myths and mythic figures, including Oisin and Cuchulain. As Yeats
became more involved in Irish politicsthrough his relationships with the Irish National Theatre,
the Irish Literary Society, the Irish Republican Brotherhood, and Maud Gonnehis poems
increasingly resembled political manifestos. Yeats believed that art could serve a political
function: poems could both critique and comment on political events, as well as educate and
inform a population.
Throughout his literary career, Yeats incorporated distinctly Irish themes and issues into his
work. He used his writing as a tool to comment on Irish politics and the home rule movement and
to educate and inform people about Irish history and culture. Yeats also used the backdrop of the
Irish countryside to retell stories and legends from Irish folklore. As he became increasingly
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involved in nationalist politics, his poems took on a patriotic tone. Yeats addressed Irish politics
in a variety of ways: sometimes his statements are explicit political commentary, as in An Irish
Airman Foresees His Death, in which he addresses the hypocrisy of the British use of Irish
soldiers in World War I. Such poems as Easter1916 and In Memory of Eva Gore Booth and
Con Markiewicz address individuals and events connected to Irish nationalist politics, while
The Second Coming and Leda and the Swan subtly include the idea of Irish nationalism. In
these poems, a sense of cultural crisis and conflict seeps through, even though the poems are not
explicitly about Ireland. By using images of chaos, disorder, and war, Yeats engaged in an
understated commentary on the political situations in Ireland and abroad. Yeatss active
participation in Irish politics informed his poetry, and he used his work to further comment on the
nationalist issues of his day.
In 1921 Yeats introduced his Four Plays for Dancers and by doing so he underlined the
importance of developing an artificial way of presenting his plays to an audience and the creative
possibilities that are offered by the use of masks.
On Bailes Stand is one of the first plays from the cycle of plays dealing with
Cuchulain,with his friends and enemies and in this drama of Cuchulains tragedy-the killing of
his son and the madness that follows-is framed by the comedy of a Fool and a Blind Man, which
took advantage of the chaotic situation to secure some food.
The Green Helment is the play originally written in prose and called The Golden
Helment,and Yeats does not point out the need of a mask for the hero in it, Cuchulain being the
central authority and an outlaw in conflict with the conventional wisdom of society.
While adopting the Noh theatre model as his own Yeats found many ways of bringing back
both poetry and imagination to the contemporary theatre, mostly by the descriptions and poems
of the chorus, through the dancers and the unrealistic scenery and stage props.
Cuchulains mask, being so rich in associations, entered Lady Cunards house in London in
April 1916, where At the Haws Well was staged.In this play Cuchulain was not the only
character that wore a mask,as an Old Man, his counterpart wore a mask too.
In The Only Jealousy of Emer,the mask had both a functional and an essential part in the
drama of the play.Here we can see the use of a mask with a distorted face that depicted the state
of Cuchulain,him being possessed by a spirit.
The last play of the Irish hero The Death of Cuchulain is one in which we can observe the
distance in the last scene of the play.The mask is rendered more symbolical and the human dancer
is instrumental in giving meaning and depth to the mask by bringing the audience to see the
head of Cuchulain in the black parallelogram, the size of a mans head.

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