Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), for the control of the exotic invasive eucalyptus pest; the
red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) in
Zimbabwe
Shepard Ndlela
On behalf of
Sustainable Afforestation Association (SAA)
Tobacco Research Board (TRB)
Forestry Commission of Zimbabwe
February 2016
Table of contents
Executive summary....
Introduction
Section One.
The red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae)
Taxonomy, origin and current distribution...
Life cycle..
Pest status.
Management and control of G. brimblecombei..
Monitoring using sticky yellow traps...
Cultural control.
Planting resistant eucalyptus varieties..
Chemical/pesticide control....
Biological control.
Biological control with parasitoids...
Section two..
Control of Glycaspis brimblecombei using the co-evolved parasitoid wasp
Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)..
Origin, Taxonomy and current distribution..
Life cycle..
Previous success stories of G. brimblecombei attributed to the use of P. bliteus.
Host range and specificity
Section three..
Assessment of potential risks...
To humans, animals and non-target hosts
To those handling the parasitoids.
Contaminants to be avoided.
Procedures for eliminating contaminants.
Hyperparasitoids of P. bliteus
Getting rid of pathogens and different pest biotypes
Challenges in P. bliteus establishment.
Dispersal
Section Four
Research objectives after acquiring import permit from DR & SS and conclusion.
Conclusion
References...
Annex 1: Confirmation of identification of the pest Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore
(Hemiptera: Psyllidae)..
Annex 2: Confirmation of availability of the natural enemy Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) at FABI in South Africa...
3
4
5
5
5
8
8
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
18
19
23
24
Executive summary
1. An invasive pest of Australian origin; the red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis
brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) was detected for the first time in
Zimbabwe in April 2014 and has since spread to various parts of the country causing
extensive defoliation, stunting and even death of susceptible Eucalyptus species
2. Eucalyptus camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are fast-growing, tough species that
form the backbone of the countrys initiative to produce a sustainable source of wood
fuel for rural domestic use and especially for curing tobacco. Most small scale
tobacco farmers are currently sourcing wood for curing tobacco from indigenous
woodlands, leading to large-scale deforestation. The scale of harvesting indigenous
woodlands is not sustainable, and the lack of a sustainable alternative directly
threatens the future of the tobacco industry. Both E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis
have been subject to a multi-generational selective breeding programme to improve
form and yield, and supply poles as well as firewood.
3. Since the pest is exotic, it therefore lacks resident co-evolved natural enemies that
normally would keep it under control in its native home. Indigenous natural enemies
are seemingly unable to adequately control this fast spreading pest. Chemical control
is inadequate (especially on mature trees), economically impracticable on plantation
forestry and poses challenges with regard to human and environmental health.
4. The only viable control strategy lies in importing the natural enemy Psyllaephagus
bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), which has been used elsewhere in the world
for example California, Brazil, Mexico, Italy, Chile and South Africa, with substantial
success.
5. Psyllaephagus bliteus is specific to attacking psyllids, efficient and poses no risk to
non-target organisms, humans and the environment.
6. The importation, quarantine, pre-release testing, release and post release evaluation of
P. bliteus will be done in accordance with guidelines for the export, shipment, import
and release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms (FAO, 2006),
code of conduct for the import and release of biological control agents (FAO, 1996)
and recommendations laid down by the Department of Research and Specialist
Services (DR&SS) in Zimbabwe.
Introduction
In April 2014, an exotic sap sucking insect pest causing white dome like structures on the
leaves of eucalyptus trees, secretion of large amounts of honeydew which promoted growth
of sooty moulds and subsequent leaf drop and dying of shoots was reported in the southern
part of Zimbabwe for the first time. The damage caused by this pest was similar to what had
been observed across the border in South Africa, in 2012 when the pest causing such damage
was identified as the Red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore
(Hemiptera:Psyllidae). Entomologists have since positively identified the pest in Zimbabwe
as the same insect in South Africa: Glycaspis brimblecombei (Hemiptera:Psyllidae) (see
annex 1). The red gum lerp psyllid has rapidly spread to various parts of Zimbabwe causing
exclusive widespread damage to eucalyptus tree species especially Eucalyptus tereticornis,
and E. camaldulensis and to a lesser extent E. grandis No indigenous natural enemy is
available to control this pest. Pesticide control using contact sprays offers poor control as the
developing stages of the pest are enclosed and protected in the dome like structures (lerps). In
addition, even though neonicotinoid insecticides such as imidacloprid and acetamiprid have
shown some form of control, their use is not viable because of the costs involved especially
in forestry plantation systems. Their widespread use might lead to insecticide resistance and
irreversible environmental and human health pollution.
In Zimbabwe E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are key components of the Forestry
Commissions exotic plantations for poles, wood and other purposes. Eucalyptus has been
identified as highly adaptable, fast growing exotic plantation trees that could be grown for
firewood harvesting to ease the catastrophic loss of forests through tobacco curing activities
among other reasons. The most readily available source of heat for curing tobacco in the
country is wood, harvested from the vast indigenous forests which are slowly disappearing as
a result of cutting trees without replacing them. The government of Zimbabwe through the
Tobacco Wood Energy Programme (TWEP) spearheaded training to encourage tobacco
farmers to plant wood lots to cater for their fuel requirements and minimise the indiscriminate
cutting down of indigenous trees. In addition, the Zimbabwe tobacco merchants launched the
Sustainable Afforestation Association (SAA), an initiative meant to reduce deforestation
related to tobacco curing activities, through planting millions of eucalypts around the country.
It is evident that G. brimblecombei is fast spreading, has no indigenous natural enemies, that
pesticide applications are not viable, especially on large trees, and that eucalyptus plantations
are highly important to Zimbabwe; thus we propose to import the host specific natural enemy
Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from the Forestry and Agricultural
Biotechnology Institute (FABI) in South Africa for release in Zimbabwe to manage the pest
(See Annex 2).
Section One
The red gum lerp psyllid; Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae)
Life cycle
Adult red gum lerp psyllids are extremely mobile and readily hop away from foliage when
disturbed. Females lay between 50 and 70 eggs during their lifetime (CABI, 2012). The eggs
are ovoid/spindle shaped, stalked, orange/yellowish/creamish in colour and are laid
perpendicular to the leaf surface (see Fig 6 for life stages). Young-mature and succulent
leaves are usually preferred as egg laying sites (Laudonia & Garonna, 2010). The period from
egg laying to egg hatch varies depending on temperature and other environmental conditions.
Eggs hatch into nymphs which pass through four stages of growth before they become adults.
Their body colour is yellowish orange, with dark-brown coloration on the wing pads, legs,
antennae, last abdominal segments, and in blotches on the dorsal areas of the head and
thorax. The wing pads and other parts of the body have bright white spots associated with
setal positions (Laudonia & Garonna, 2010; CABI, 2012). Nymphs shelter in white conical/
dome shaped lerps which they construct using wax and honeydew secretions. They are
protected in this lerp and only leave it upon reaching adulthood. The adults are yellow or
light green with contrasting dark eyes and sometimes dark brown markings (Laudonia &
Garonna, 2010; CABI, 2012). The original description of G. brimblecombei is published in
Moore (1964) and further descriptions in Halbert et al., (2001).
Fig 6: Life stages of the red gum lerp psyllid include, (left to right) large nymph, row of eggs,
winged adult and small lerp (the protective covering produced by nymphs) (Dahlsten et al.,
2005).
Pest status
As of 2006, the number of psyllids naturally occurring in Australia stood at 354 described
species in 58 genera with an additional 21 awaiting description (Taylor, 2006). Those that are
associated with eucalyptus are constantly kept in check by natural enemies that co-evolved
with them, but assume major pest status once they are accidentally introduced into new
territories where their natural enemies are absent. This has been the case with G.
brimblecombei when it was introduced in territories outside Australia (Hodkinson, 1991; Gill,
1998; Brennan & Gill, 1999; Tsagkarakis et al., 2014; Attia & Rapisarda, 2014). The pest is
capable of defoliating whole trees and is perceived as the most damaging of all eucalyptus
psyllids because of the broad range of eucalyptus trees it infests (Brennan & Gill, 1999).
Nymphs and adults constitute the damaging stage; through their piercing and sucking mouth
8
parts which are inserted into the xylem and phloem of eucalyptus plants for the purpose of
absorbing nutrients (de Queiroz et al., 2012). Both nymphs and adults secrete excess fluids
absorbed from the plant as copious amounts of honeydew onto the leaves where unsightly
sooty moulds subsequently develop (CABI, 2012). This leads to leaf discolouration, leaf drop
and twig die back. In heavy infestations, the nymphal lerps cover the whole leaf area, making
it difficult for the leaf to photosynthesise. Outbreaks in South American countries have
caused severe defoliation and death of eucalyptus trees resulting in serious economic losses
(de Queiroz et al., 2012) (see Fig 7 for damage caused by the pest).
A
Fig 8: Yellow sticky trap for monitoring red gum lerp psyllid populations
Cultural control
The ultimate aim of cultural control activities is to make the plantation crop less suitable for
the red gum lerp psyllid. In the native home of the pest, substantial economic damage has
been observed only when plants are physiologically stressed following low rainfall in
eucalypt forests (White, 1969). Drought related stress causes elevated levels of nitrogen in
the soil and subsequently in the leaves, which encourages the build-up of G. brimblecombei
populations (de Queiroz et al., 2012). It is, therefore, encouraged to supplement water
requirements during stressful periods (which might be costly and not feasible for plantation
crops), and to avoid applying any fertilizers at all times. Pruning sometimes lessens
infestations, but soon new growth usually appears which is preferred by psyllids, thus striking
the right balance is often difficult to achieve.
10
11
Section two
Control of Glycaspis brimblecombei using the co-evolved parasitoid wasp Psyllaephagus
bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)
first 22 days of the female wasps life (Daane et al., 2005). The eggs develop inside the
nymph and developmental time depends on weather conditions. The adult parasitoid emerges
from the lerp through a circular exit hole (Fig 7) mates and repeats the cycle. Generally the
entire life cycle is completed in about 16-41 days (Plascencia et al., 2005).
done on important parasitoids of the American agro-industry and were found to be negative
(Dahlsten et al., 2003). This shows that P. bliteus is specific to G. brimblecombei and will
only attack psyllids. However, experience has shown that sometimes exotic species are
capable of forming new associations with native species they encounter in their new home.
Furthermore, it is important to note that intraguild predation, a phenomenon in which
predators reduce the efficacy of the control agent, can negatively impact on the progress of
the bio-control programme. Studies have shown that a bug Anthocoris nemoralis (Fabricius)
(Heteroptera: Anthocoridae) can significantly predate on P. bliteus and mummified G.
brimblecombei, thus reducing the efficacy of the parasitoid (Erbilgin et al., 2004).
15
Section Three
Assessment of potential risks
To humans, animals and non-target hosts
Psyllaephagus bliteus poses no threat to human and animal health since its life cycle is
specific to psyllids (Daane, 2004). The use of this wasp in many parts of the world has not
resulted in the parasitoid becoming adapted to developing on man, livestock, wild animals,
non-target insect species or any plant species. Currently it is being reared, multiplied and
released in South Africa without any adverse effect on Human and environmental health.
To those handling the parasitoids
As mentioned above, P. bliteus presents no risk to human health, thus those handling the
wasp are safe. Generally, some people have developed allergies in instances where insects
and plants are kept in confinement (Cross & Noyes, 1995). Thus high levels of sanitation
should be maintained in the rearing facility.
Contaminants to be avoided
During the importation process, there are risks of bringing the target organism together with
contaminants on the container, accompanying plants or personnel accompanying the
consignment. Such contaminants include pathogens, hyperparasitoids and biotypes of the
organism of interest. Collaboration with FABI at source will ensure that acceptable scientific
packaging standards are adhered to.
Procedures for eliminating contaminants
The importation, quarantine, pre-release testing, release and post release evaluation of P.
bliteus will be done in accordance with guidelines for the export, shipment, import and
release of biological control agents and other beneficial organisms (FAO, 2006), code of
conduct for the import and release of biological control agents (FAO, 1996) and
recommendations laid down by the Department of Research and Specialist Services
(DR&SS) in Zimbabwe.
Hyperparasitoids of P. bliteus
Researchers in California determined that the hymenopteran wasp Psyllaephagus Faustus
Riek, is a hyperparasite and will attack mummies of G. brimblecombei as well as mummies
of the blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina eucalypti (Maskell) (Dahlsten et al., 2003). It will be
important to screen for such hyperparasitoids before P. bliteus can be released, as they could
cause unforeseen problems on the fauna and flora of Zimbabwe.
16
17
Section Four
Research objectives after acquiring import permit from DR & SS and conclusion
18
References
ATTIA, S. B., & RAPISARD, A. C. 2014. First record of the red gum lerp psyllid,
Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera:Psyllidae), in Tunisia. Phytoparasitica 42: 535539.
BAMI R., 2011 Au secours de leucalyptus. - Le matin, 9Juin 2011: 6
BELLA, S. & RAPISARDA, C. 2013. First record from Greece of the invasive red gum lerp
psyllid Glycaspis brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) and its associated parasitoid
Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Redia, XCVI, 33-35
BELLA, S. 2014. Invasive insect pests and their associated parasitoids on ornamental urban
plants on Corfu island-Phytoliriomyza jacarandae Steyskal and Spencer 1978 (Diptera,
Agromyzidae) a new record in Greece. Hellenic Plant Protection Journal 7: 53-59.
BERRY, J. A. 2007. Key to the New Zealand species of Psyllaephagus Ashmead
(Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) with descriptions of three new species and a new record of the
psyllid hyperparasitoid Coccidoctonus psyllae Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). Australian
Journal of Entomology 46: 99-105.
BERTI-FILHO, E., COSTA, V.A., ZUPARKO, R.L. & LASALLE, J. 2003. Ocorrncia
de Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encytidae) no Brasil. Revista de Agricultura.
Piracicaba 78: 304
BRENNAN, E B & GILL, R.J. 1999. First record of Glycaspis brimblecombei (Moore)
(Homoptera: Psyllidae) in North America: Initial observations and predator associations of a
potentially serious new pest of Eucalyptus in California. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 75: 55-57.
BRENNAN, E.B., GILL, R.J., HRUSA, G.F., WEINBAUM, S.A. 1999. First record of
Glycaspis brimblecombei (Moore) (Homoptera: Psyllidae) in North America: initial
observations and predator associations of a potentially serious new pest of eucalyptus in
California. Pan-Pacific Entomologist 75:55-57.
BURCKHARDT, D., & OUVRARD, D. 2012. A revised classification of the jumping
plant-lice (Hemiptera: Psylloidea). Zootaxa 3509: 1-34.
CABI. 2012. Invasive Species Compendium report Glycaspis brimblecombei (red gum lerp
psyllid). Available at: http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/25242. (Accessed 6 February 2016)
CALECA, V., LO VERDE, G., & MALTESE, M. (2011). First record in Italy of
Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera Encyrtidae) parasitoid of Glycaspis brimblecombei
Moore (HemipteraPsyllidae). Il Naturalista siciliano 35:435-444.
19
CROSS, A. E., & NOYES, J. S. 1995. Dossier on Anagyrus kamali Moursi biological
control agent for the pink mealybug, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, in Grenada. CABI
Publishing, Wallingford, UK
DAANE, K. 2004. The red gum lerp psyllid in California a parasitoid natural enemy of the
lerp psyllid is now being released. University of California at Berkeley, College of Natural
Resources, http://nature.berkeley.edu/biocon/dahlsten/rglp/RLP-para.htm
DAANE, K. M., SIME, K. R., DAHLSTEN, D. L., ANDREWS, J. W., & ZUPARKO, R.
L. 2005. The biology of Psyllaephagus bliteus Riek (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), a parasitoid
of the red gum lerp psyllid (Hemiptera: Psylloidea). Biological Control 32: 228-235.
DAHLSTEN, D. L., ROWNEY, D. L., ROBB, K. L., DOWNER, J. A., SHAW, D. A., &
KABASHIMA, J. N. 2003. Biological control of introduced psyllids on Eucalyptus.
Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Biological Control Arthropod spp. 356361.
DAHLSTEN, D., DAANE, K., PAINE, T., SIME, K., LAWSON, A., ROWNEY, D.,
ROLTSCH, W., JOHN, A., KABASHIMA, J., SHAW, D. & ROBB, K., 2005. Imported
parasitic wasp helps control red gum lerp psyllid. California Agriculture 59:229-235.
DE QUEIROZ, D. L., BURCKHARDT, D., & MAJER, J. 2012. Integrated Pest
Management of Eucalypt Psyllids(Insecta, Hemiptera, Psylloidea). INTECH Open Access
Publisher. http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/29614.pdf. (Accessed 6 February 2016).
DREISTADT, S.H., CLARK, J.K., & FLINT, M.L. 2004. Pests of Landscape Trees and
Shrubs: An Integrated Pest Management Guide. UCANR Publications, Nature. 501 pp.
ERBILGIN, N, DAHLSTEN, DL & CHEN, PY. 2004. Intraguild interactions between
generalist predators and an introduced parasitold of Glycaspis brimblecombei (Homoptera:
Psylloidea). Biological Control 31: 329-337.
FABI. 2015. TPCP researchers release biocontrol agent for the red gum lerp psyllid. Forestry
and biotechnological research Institute. http://www.fabinet.up.ac.za/index.php/newsitem?id=271. Accessed 8 February 2016.
FAO. 1996. International standards for phytosanitary measures. Code of conduct for the
import and release of exotic biological control agents. Publication No. 3. Secretariat of the
International Plant Protection Convention. Rome, 23 pp.
FAO. 2006. International standards for phytosanitary measures; ISPM no. 3: Guidelines for
the export, shipment, import and release of biological control agents and other beneficial
organisms. Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention. Rome, 12 pp.
GILL R. 1998. Redgum lerp psyllid. California Plant Pest and Disease Report 17: 7-8.
20
HALBERT, S.E., GILL, R.J. & NISSON, J.N. 2001. Two Eucalyptus psyllids new to
Florida (Homoptera: Psyllidae). Florida Department of Agriculture Entomology Circular
407: 1-2.
HODKINSON I.D. 1991. First record of the Australian psyllid Blastopsylla occidentalis
Taylor (Homoptera; Psylloidea) on Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) in Mexico. Pan-Pacific
Entomologist 67: 72.
HOLLIS, D. 2004. Australian psylloidea: Jumping plant lice and lerp insects. Australian
Government, Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.
HUERTA, A., JARAMILLO, J., & ARAYA, J. E. 2011. Establishment of the red gum
psyllid parasitoid. Forest Systems 20: 339-347.
HURLEY, B. 2012. Pest Alert: Glycaspis brimblecombei Red Gum Lerp Psyllid. Forestry
and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute.University of Pretoria. (Accessed 6 February 2016).
http://www.forestry.co.za/uploads/File/fsa%20notices/Glycaspis%20Pest%20Alert%20%20July%202012.pdf
KAREIVA, P. 1994. Higher order interactions as a foil to reductionist ecology. Ecology
75:1527-1528.
LAUDONIA, S. & GARONNA, A.P. 2010.The red gum lerp psyllid, Glycaspis
brimblecombei, a new exotic pest of Eucalyptus camaldulensis in Italy. Bulletin of
Insectology 63:233-236.
MOORE, K.M. 1964. Observations on some Australian forest insects. Four new species of
Glycaspis (Homoptera: Psyllidae) from Queensland. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of
New South Wales 89:163-166.
MORGAN, F.D, 1984. Psylloidea of South Australia. Adelaide, South Australia; Handbooks
Committee, 136 pp.
NOYES, J. S. 2000. Encyrtidae of Costa Rica (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) the subfamily
Tetracneminae, parasitoids of mealybugs (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Memoirs of the
American Entomological Institute 62: 1-355.
NOYES, J.S., & HANSON, P. 1996. Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) of Costa
Rica: the genera and species associated with jumping plant-lice (Homoptera: Psylloidea).
Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History) Entomology 65:105-164.
OLIVEIRA, K. N., JESUS, F. M. D., SILVA, J. O., ESPRITO-SANTO, M. M. D., &
FARIA, M. L. 2012. An experimental test of rainfall as a control agent of Glycaspis
brimblecombei Moore (Hemiptera, Psyllidae) on seedlings of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn
(Myrtaceae). Revista Brasileira de Entomologia 56:101-105.
PAINE T.D., DAHLSTEN D.L., MILLAR J.G., HODDLE M.S. & HANKS L.M. 2000.
UC scientists apply IPM techniques to new eucalyptus pests. California Agriculture 54: 8-13.
21
22
23
24