DlSTRlBUTlQN FEEDER RECONFIGURATION AND COMPENSATION FOR

LOSS REDUCTION UNDER NONSlNUSOlDAL CONDITIONS

Onier GUL andddnan KAYPUAZ

Faculty of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
IstanbulTechnical University, 80626 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
gul@elk.itii.edu.tr

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the effect of harmonic currents and
reactive currents on losses. Current-related power losses
may be significant, overheating wiring and reducing
capacity of the power system. Harmonic reduction and
reactive power compensation will save energy and release
additional capacity to serve components of distribution
systems.
In this study, a numerical example is given for
compensation that is one of the loss reduction method,
eliminating harmonics and feeder reconfiguration in
distribution systems.

1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, customer are expecting economic and
quality power, same as for all products
The term "power quality" has been used for describing
the variation of voltage, current and frequency on the power
system. With the increase of non-linear loads on utility
distribution systems, the voltage and current waveforms are
becoming more distorted and the power quality is
de!e:icrating [I].
Common sources of harmonics in distribution systems
are as follows: Arc Furnaces, Static Var Generators,
Rectifiers, Converters, Adjustable Frequency A.C. Motor
Drives, etc.[2].
As Known, distortion on voltage and current of the
system causes parallel and series resonance problems,
over voltage and over current caused by resonance,
increase of voltage drops, failure of power factor correction
banks and insulation breakdown, overheating of the
components of power systems because of overloading
(transformer, machines, lines. buses) and low power
factor[ 1-41,
In order to meet the increase in power demand, new
power plants are being bdilt and more energy is being tried

0-7803-3879-0 I 98 I $10.00

-1008

to produce from the present systems. Therefore our

network must be used more efficiently with lower losses,
than before. Reduction of the losses and usage of the
network more efficiently can supply financial support for
new investment. We can summarize the technique of
reducing the losses like reconstruction , compensation,
load balancing, higher transmission voltage 2nd distribution
and feeder automation[l,5-91.
The amount of active energy of the system can be
increased by reducing the reactive power consumption.
Today, reactive power compensation is appeared as an
optimization problem determined capacitor bank location,
size and number without causing over vo!tsge and
capacitive load due to over compensation[? (3-121.
Harmonics disturbing the power qualiti, affect the power
components(apparent, active arid reactive power) power
factor and compensatory. They cause additional losses.
Capacitor banks in systems including harmonic cause
resonance circuit to increase the harmonic ecect.
Compensation and reduction of the harmonic problems
must be analyzed together in order to prevent this
effect[ 13-161.
On the other hand, reduction of the harmonics and
compensation both reduce the losses and improve the
power quality[l,3].
In this paper, feeder automation, compensation and
harmonic elimination are analyzed together in order to
reduce the losses in distribution systems.
2. LOSSES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The calculation of losses in distribution systems has

always been important for a line designer and a system
planner. The cost of supplying these losses has recently
increased in concern because of generally higher charge
rates of losses and growing sophistication by users in
evaluating alternative systems.

Harmonic currents injected by nonlinear load cause

many undesirable effects[l,2].
Nonsinusoidal currents produce nonsinusoidal voltage
drops across the network's line impedance and
Many electrical loads,
nonsinusoidal bus voltages.
equipments and various instrumentation units require
nearly sinusoidal input voltage for satisfactory performance.
The electrical utilities are committed to maintain the total
harmonic distortion of the voltage (VTHD), at the user's
utilization bus at levels on more than 5%. This can be
accomplished by means of harmonic filters, usually
purchased and installed by the owners of the large
nonlinear loads[l.2].
Harmonic currents may cause a significant increase in
the r.m.s. line currents, thus produce additional 12.R
losses in overhead conductors, underground cables and
transformer winding.

2.1 Harmonic-Related loss Mechanisms in Power Wiring

Joule losses refer to the heating of the conductor due to
effects of load current and include joule, magnetic, skin and
proximity effects.
For a homogeneous, cylindrical
conductor with constant thermal conductivity, uniform
surface temperature and uniform current distribution, the
heat gain by joule heating is given by

PJ= ke.12.Rdc.(l+ao.T)

(1)

Where I i s the r.m.s. current of the conducting, Rdc is the

J.c. resistance per unit length at OC , and a0 is the
temperature coefficient of resistance between 0

OC

and

T I the mean temperature of the conducting section of the

conductor factor k , accounts for the increase of the
resistance due to skin and proximity effects[l,5].
The only power loss Component for the cable is 12.R,
where I could be augmented by the harmonic distortion,
and R value is determined by its dc values plus a.c. skin
and proximity effects. The rms. value including harmonic
current, I, can be obtained from individual harmonic
contents.
Separating the fundamental component I1from the
harmonic component Ih, the rms current is:

I*=If+I;
ITHD can provide a good idea of how much extra heat will
be realized when a distorted voltage is applied across a
resistive load. Likewise, it can give an indication of the
addition losses caused by the current flowing through a
conductor.

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ITHD is irelated to r.m.s. value of the waveform as ?allows:

(3)
taking into account the frequency-related effects, a ratio of
a.c. to d.c. resistance, k , , can be defined as

(4)
where k,,,is the resistance gain due to skin effect, and k,,
is the rea,istancegain to proximity effects[l,5].
2.2 Harmonic-Related loss Mechanisms in Power
Transformer
If the transformer is not designed to carry load current
with a significant percentage of higher-order harmonics, it
may overheat while appearing to be operating at less than
its rating. There are several reasons why this phenomenon
can hapipen. First, the higher-order harmonics induce
larger voltages in the transformer winding and core, which
cause thle losses due to eddy currents and hysteresis to
increase. Second, the higher-order harmonics of the loads
current cause an increase in the a.c. resistance of the
winding due to "skin effect" and "proximity effects". Third,
the third and multiples of third harmonics will circulate in
the delta connected windings and not appear in the input
line current to the transformer. Thus, the transformer must
be sized ito this circulating[l,4,16].
Transformer losses consist of no-load or core loss aod
load lossi~s.This can be expressed by the equation below

P-r= Pc+ PR+ P s ~PEL

i
Where
pT total IOSS,
Pc core loss or no load loss

(5)

PR loss due to load current and d.c. resistance of the

windings,
PELwinding eddy loss
PsL stray losses in clamps, tanks, etc.,
With nonlinear loads, the maximum loading of
transformer should be reduced to less than name plate
capacity tip to avoid overheating the transformer and to
avoid causing excessive output voltage distortion.
The K-factor commonly found in power quality literature
concerning transformer departing can be defined solely in
terms of ihe harmonic currents It should be noted that Kfactor transformers are now available, with winding and a
magnetic structure which is specifically designed to reduce
the heatinlg effects of harmonic load current distortion[4].

3. REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION IN

NONSINUSOIDAL SITUATIONS
Ideally, the voltage supplied to customer equipment and
the resulting load current are perfect sine waves. However,
conditions are never ideal in practice, so these waveforms
are often distorted. The deviation from perfect sinusoids is
usually expressed in terms of harmonic distortion of the
voltage and current waveforms.
The WR ratio of the utility distribution feeder is generally
low.
Therefore, the accentuation of harmonics by
resonance with feeder bank is usually mild. However, it
may be very noticeable when a capacitor bank is energized
and can still cause equipment malfunctions.
Utility
distribution engineers can usually place feeder banks
where they wish without excessive concern about
harmonics. When problems do occur, the usual solution is
to move the bank or change the capacitor size[l-31.
Harmonic distortion complicates the computation of
power and power factor because many of the
simplifications that power engineers use for power
frequency analysis do not apply. When both voltage and
current are sinusoidal, it is feasible to resolve voltage,
current, or power into in-phase and quadrature
components. Thus we can define complex apparent power
as,

S =P+jQ

(6)

If either the voltage or the current is nonsinusoidal, there

are two basic approaches to the problem of "apparent" and
"reactive" power.
The nonsinusoidal variables can be expanded in a
Fourier series and reactive power can be defined either by
a sum of products or in terms of fundamental components
only. The research for efficient power factor compensation
methods in nonsinusoidal situations has been discussed
extensively [13,14]. These methods, based on various
decomposition of the apparent power into different
components, aim at minimizing one or more of these
components, well-established decomposiiion have been
demonstrated to be misleading and counter productive
since the compensation of a "reactive power" component
could lead to the deterioration rather than the improvement
of the power factor.
Other decomposition based on the time-domain
approach, although advantageous from the instrumentation
aspect, have not led to methods of power factor
improvement other than the addition of a shunt capacitance
and/or a shunt inductance. Time domain approach was
also used to develop methods of dynamic compensation of
the power factor[l3-141.
A non-linear foad draw a non-sinusoidal current when a
sinusoidal voltage is applied. The distorted loads current
then cause distorted bus voltages to appear throughout the
system.
Two criteria are now used to evaluate harmonic
distortion. The first is a limitation in the harmonic current
that a user can transmit into the utility system. The second
limitation recommends the maximum allowable harmonic
voltage distortion that is acceptable from the utility systems
to a user.

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Harmonic studies should be performed on any large

capacitor banks installed in distribution substation. One
can not count on system losses to damp out resonance at
this point OR the systems. Placing a filter at the substation
bank will not necessarily resolve the problems on the
feeder unless the problem was based on resonance with a
substation capacitor bank
First, determine if a different size of capacitor can be
used. Sometimes, there are so many capacitors switched
with loads that it is impossible to control the value of
capacitance.
However, with switched capacitors and
automatic power factor controllers, it may be possible to
select a control scheme that avoids the configuration that
gives customer problems.
The primary object of a harmonic filter is to reduce the
amplitude of one or more fixed frequency currents
or voltages.
The size of a filter is defined as the reactive power that
the filter supplies at fundamental frequency, it is
substantially equal to the fundamental reactive power
supplied by the capacitors. The total size of all the
branches of a filters is determined by the the reactive
power requirements of the harmonic source and by how
much this requirement can be supplied by the a.c. network
A more practical criterion suggests reducing the
problem to an acceptable level at the point of common
coupling with other consumers, the problem being
expressed in terms of harmonic current, harmonic voltage,
or both. A criterion based on harmonic voltage is more
convenient for filter design, because it is easier to
quarantine staying within a reasonable voltage limit than to
limit the current levels as the a.c. networks impedance
changes.
Shunt capacitors., either at the customer location for
power factor correction, or on the utility distribution system
are used for vaiiation system impedance with frequency.
Capacitors do not create harmonics, but severe harmonic
distortion can sometimes be attributed to their presence.

4. DISTRIBUTION FEEDER RECONFlGURATiON FOR

LOSS REDUCTION

Radial networks have some advantages over meshed

networks such as lower short circuit currents and simpler
switching and protecting equipment. On the other hand,
:he radial structure provides lower overall reliability.
Therefore, to use the benefits of the radial s!ructure, and at
the same time to overcome the difficuliies, distribution
systems are planned and built as weakly meshed networks,
but operated as radial networks.
The radial structure of distribution networks is achieved
by placing a number of sectionalizing switches in the
network used to open the loops that would otherwise exist.
The greater the number of switches togethet with the circuit
breakers at the network, the greater are the network, the
greater are the possibilities for reconfiguration and the
better are the affects.
The early studies on the network reconfiguration were
directed to the planning stage. In planning, the main

objective is to minimize the cost of construction. An early

work on network reconfiguration for loss reduction In a
study, an equivalent linear resistive network model is used
to determine the branches to be opened. Civanlar et al [6]
presented a computationally attractive solution procedure
for power loss reduction through network reconfiguration
assumption to calculate the loss reduction as a result of
load transfer between two feeders[6-91.
In this paper, we consider the reconfiguration problem
for loss reduction. We follow the solution amroach
proposed by Civanlar et al. However, here we ihroduce
new algorithms for loss reduction in nonsinusoidal
situations.

efforts the change in losses resulting from feeder

reconfiguration and criteria that may be used to eliminate
undesirable switching options in order to alleviate the
dimensionally problem[6].
The amount of loss change resolution from transferring

Compensation of reactive power, reducing harmonics and

feeder automation are analyzed both individually and
together in order to reduce the losses. The results of these
analysis are given in table 1.
In these calculations, we assume that harmonics are
neglected. line resistance is constant(with no harmonic
effect) arid no harmonic effect on reactive power.
q= 95mni2(Cu).

I 150m
3\w1.........-....-

35m

1'"'

55m .. 100m II
.............
-]8kV

Loss(MW)

1.263
1.346

only filter

Ioss(MW)
only a m p .

1.231
1.312

0.839
0.896

loss(MW)

loss(MW)

comp+filt.
together
0.827
0.882

6,. CONCLUSIONS

h max

AP= CAP),
h=O

m: tie bus of Feeder I to which loads from Feeder II will be

connected
n: tie bus of Feeder 11 which will be connected to bus m via
a tie switch
h: h-th harmonic
D: set of buses are disconnected from Feeder II and
connected to Feeder I
Iih : h-th complex bus current at bus i
Rhloop: series h-th harmonic series resistance of the path
connecting the two substation buses of feeder.
Emh:harmonic voltage of bus m for feeder I
Enh:harmonic voltage of bus m for feeder II

Harmonic currents injected by non-linear load cause

non-sinusoidal voltage drops across the networYs line
impedance and non-sinusoidal bus vol!ages. Harmonic
currents inay cause a significant increase in the r.m.s. !ine
current, thus producing additional losses in cverhead
conductoirs, under ground cables and transformer windings.
Reactive currents may cause increase in the active power
loss and reduce system reliability.
Compensation and reduction of the harmonics are
considered together because of reasons like increasing
losse effect cause harmonics and reactive current, effect of
harmonics to the compensation systems and reactive
power and resonance effect caused harmonics in
compensation systems.
In this paper, both two methods are also considered
together io reduce the losses. Maximization the reducing
losses is shown in simple example by this subject and the
feeder automation to reduce the losses
On ihe other hand, reduction harmonics and
compensation both reduce the loses and improve the
power quiality.

5. NUMERICAL EXAMPLE

This numerical example is given for radial distribution

network including harmonics and reactive current.

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7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to thank Istanbul Technical University
(ITU) Institute of Science and Technology for the financial
support.

[I61 R.D. Henderson, "Harmonic: The effects on Power

Quality and Transformer", IEEE Transaction on
Ind.App., Vo1.30, No.3, MayIJune 1994
I171 H. Ying-Yi, "Optimal Harmonic Power Flow". IEEE
Transaction on Power Delivery, V01.12, No.3, July
1997

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L.W. Pierce, "Transformer Design and Application
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G.J. Anders, "Minimization of Losses in Transmission
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