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In algebra you spend lots of time solving polynomial equations or factoring polynomials (which is the
same thing). It would be easy to get lost in all the techniques, but this paper ties them all together in a
coherent whole.
Contents:
Factor = Root
Make sure you arent confused by the terminology. All of these are the same:
Solving a polynomial equation p(x) = 0
Finding roots of a polynomial equation p(x) = 0
Finding zeroes of a polynomial function p(x)
Factoring a polynomial function p(x)
Theres a factor for every root, and vice versa. (xr) is a factor if and only if r is a root. This is the Factor Theorem:
nding the roots or nding the factors is essentially the same thing. (The main dierence is how you treat a constant
factor.)
Exact or Approximate?
Most often when we talk about solving an equation or factoring a polynomial, we mean an exact (or analytic) solution.
The other type, approximate (or numeric) solution, is always possible and sometimes is the only possibility.
When you can nd it, an exact solution is beIer. You can always nd a numerical approximation to an exact
solution, but going the other way is much more dicult. This page spends most of its time on methods for exact
solutions, but also tells you what to do when analytic methods fail.
Step by Step
How do you nd the factors or zeroes of a polynomial (or the roots of a polynomial equation)? Basically, you whiIle.
Every time you chip a factor or root o the polynomial, youre left with a polynomial that is one degree simpler. Use
that new reduced polynomial to nd the remaining factors or roots.
At any stage in the procedure, if you get to a cubic or quartic equation (degree 3 or 4), you have a choice of
continuing with factoring or using the cubic or quartic formulas. These formulas are a lot of work, so most people
prefer to keep factoring.
Follow this procedure step by step:
1. If solving an equation, put it in standard form with 0 on one side and simplify. [ details ]
2. Know how many roots to expect. [ details ]
3. If youre down to a linear or quadratic equation (degree 1 or 2), solve by inspection or the quadratic formula.
[ details ]
Then go to step 7.
4. Find one rational factor or root. This is the hard part, but there are lots of techniques to help you. [ details ]
If you can nd a factor or root, continue with step 5 below; if you cant, go to step 6.
5. Divide by your factor. This leaves you with a new reduced polynomial whose degree is 1 less. [ details ]
For the rest of the problem, youll work with the reduced polynomial and not the original. Continue at step 3.
6. If you cant nd a factor or root, turn to numerical methods. [ details ]
Then go to step 7.
7. If this was an equation to solve, write down the roots. If it was a polynomial to factor, write it in factored
form, including any constant factors you took out in step 1.
This is an example of an algorithm, a set of steps that will lead to a desired result in a nite number of operations. Its
an iterative strategy, because the middle steps are repeated as long as necessary.
negative
complex
not real
rst possibility
second possibility
third possibility
Complex Roots
If a polynomial has real coecients, then either all roots are real or there are an even number of non-real complex
roots, in conjugate pairs.
For example, if 5+2i is a zero of a polynomial with real coecients, then 52i must also be a zero of that
polynomial. It is equally true that if (x52i) is a factor then (x5+2i) is also a factor.
Why is this true? Because when you have a factor with an imaginary part and multiply it by its complex conjugate
you get a real result:
(x52i)(x5+2i) = x10x+254i = x10x+29
If (x52i) was a factor but (x5+2i) was not, then the polynomial would end up with imaginaries in its coecients, no
maier what the other factors might be. If the polynomial has only real coecients, then any complex roots must occur
in conjugate pairs.
Irrational Roots
For similar reasons, if the polynomial has rational coecients then the irrational roots involving square roots occur (if
at all) in conjugate pairs. If (x2+3) is a factor of a polynomial with rational coecients, then (x23) must also be a
factor. (To see why, remember how you rationalize a binomial denominator; or just check what happens when you
multiply those two factors.)
As Je Beckman pointed out (20 June 2006), this is emphatically not true for odd roots. For instance, x2 = 0 has
three roots, 2^(1/3) and two complex roots.
Its an interesting problem whether irrationals involving even roots of order 4 must also occur in conjugate pairs.
I dont have an immediate answer. Im working on a proof, as I have time.
Multiple Roots
When a given factor (xr) occurs m times in a polynomial, r is called a multiple root or a root of multiplicity m
If the multiplicity m is an even number, the graph touches the x axis at x=r but does not cross it.
If the multiplicity m is an odd number, the graph crosses the x axis at x=r. If the multiplicity is 3, 5, 7, and so
on, the graph is horizontal at the point where it crosses the axis.
Examples: Compare these two polynomials and their graphs:
f(x) = (x1)(x4)2 = x3 9x2 + 24x 16
g(x) = (x1)3(x4)2 = x5 11x4 + 43x3 73x2 + 56x 16
These polynomials have the same zeroes, but the root 1 occurs with dierent multiplicities. Look at the graphs:
Both polynomials have zeroes at 1 and 4 only. f(x) has degree 3, which means three roots. You see from the factors that
1 is a root of multiplicity 1 and 4 is a root of multiplicity 2. Therefore the graph crosses the axis at x=1 (but is not
horizontal there) and touches at x=4 without crossing.
By contrast, g(x) has degree 5. (g(x) = f(x) times (x-1)2.) Of the ve roots, 1 occurs with multiplicity 3: the graph
crosses the axis at x=1 and is horizontal there; 4 occurs with multiplicity 2, and the graph touches the axis at x=4
without crossing.
This step is the heart of factoring a polynomial or solving a polynomial equation. There are a lot of techniques that can
help you to nd a factor.
Sometimes you can nd factors by inspection (see the rst two sections that follow). This provides a great
shortcut, so check for easy factors before starting more strenuous methods.
Monomial Factors
Always start by looking for any monomial factors you can see. For instance, if your function is
f(x) = 4x6 + 12x5 + 12x4 + 4x3
you should immediately factor it as
f(x) = 4x3(x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1)
Geiing the 4 out of there simplies the remaining numbers, the x3 gives you a root of x = 0 (with multiplicity 3), and
now you have only a cubic polynomial (degree 3) instead of a sextic (degree 6). In fact, you should now recognize that
cubic as a special product, the perfect cube (x+1)3.
When you factor out a common variable factor, be sure you remember it at the end when youre listing the factor or
roots. x+3x+3x+1 = 0 has certain roots, but x(x+3x+3x+1) = 0 has those same roots and also a root at x=0.
Special Products
Be alert for applications of the Special Products. If you can apply them, your task becomes much easier. The Special
Products are
perfect square (2 forms): A 2AB + B = (A B)
sum of squares: A + B cannot be factored on the reals, in general (for exceptional cases see Factoring the
Sum of Squares)
dierence of squares: A B = (A + B)(A B)
perfect cube (2 forms): A 3AB + 3AB B = (A B)
sum of cubes: A + B = (A + B)(A AB + B)
dierence of cubes: A B = (A B)(A + AB + B)
The expressions for the sum or dierence of two cubes look as though they ought to factor further, but they dont. A
AB+B is prime over the reals.
Consider
p(x) = 27x 64
You should recognize this as
p(x) = (3x) 4
You know how to factor the dierence of two cubes:
p(x) = (3x4)(9x+12x+16)
Bingo! As soon as you get down to a quadratic, you can apply the Quadratic Formula and youre done.
Heres another example:
q(x) = x6 + 16x3 + 64
This is just a perfect square trinomial, but in x3 instead of x. You factor it exactly the same way:
q(x) = (x3)2 + 2(8)(x3) + 82
q(x) = (x3 + 8)2
And you can easily factor (x3+8)2 as (x+2)2(x22x+4)2.
Rational Roots
Assuming youve already factored out the easy monomial factors and special products, what do you do if youve still
got a polynomial of degree 3 or higher?
The answer is the Rational Root Test. It can show you some candidate roots when you dont see how to factor the
polynomial, as follows.
Consider a polynomial in standard form, wriien from highest degree to lowest and with only integer coecients:
the Rational Root Theorem applies only when all coecients of the polynomial are integers.
Graphical Clues
By graphing the functioneither by hand or with a graphing calculatoryou can get a sense of where the roots are,
approximately, and how many real roots exist.
Example: If the Rational Root Test tells you that 2 are possible rational roots, you can look at the graph to see if it
crosses (or touches) the x axis at 2 or 2. If so, use synthetic division to verify that the suspected root actually is a root.
Yes, you always need to checkfrom the graph you can never be sure whether the intercept is at your possible rational
root or just near it.
Boundaries on Roots
Some techniques dont tell you the specic value of a root, but rather that
a root exists between two values or that all roots are less than a certain
number of greater than a certain number. This helps narrow down your search.
Using the Rational Root Test, you identify the only possible rational roots as 4, 2, and 1. You decide to try 2 as a
possible root, and you test it with synthetic division:
-2
| 1
2
-3
-4
|
-2
0
6
|-----------------1
0
-3
2
2 is not a root of the equation f(x)=0. The third row shows alternating signs, and you were dividing by a negative
number; however, that zero mucks things up. Recall that you have a lower bound only if the signs in the boiom row
alternate nonpositive and nonnegative. The 1 is positive (nonnegative), and the 0 can count as nonpositive, but the 3
doesnt qualify as nonnegative. The alternation is broken, and you do not know whether there are roots smaller than 2.
(In fact, graphical or numerical methods would show a root around 2.5.) Therefore you need to try the lower possible
rational root, 4:
-4
| 1
2
-3
-4
|
-4
8 -20
|-----------------1 -2
5 -24
Here the signs do alternate; therefore you know there are no roots below 4. (The remainder 24 shows you that 4
itself isnt a root.)
Heres another example:
r(x) = x + 3x 3
The Rational Root Test tells you that the possible rational roots are 1 and 3. With synthetic division for 3:
-3
| 1
3
0
-3
|
-3
0
0
|-----------------1
0
0
-3
3 is not a root, but the signs do alternate here, since the rst 0 counts as nonpositive and the second as nonnegative.
Therefore 3 is a lower bound to the roots, meaning that the equation has no real roots lower than 3.
| 4
0 -35
0 -9
|
12
36
3
9
|-------------------4 12
1
3
0
Since the remainder is 0, you know that 3 is a root of p(x) = 0, and x3 is a factor of p(x). But you know more. Since 3 is
positive and the boiom row of the synthetic division is all positive or zero, you know that all the roots of p(x) = 0 must
be 3. And you also know that
p(x) = (x3)(4x3 + 12x2 + x + 3)
4x3 + 12x2 + x + 3 is the reduced polynomial. All of its factors are also factors of the original p(x), but its degree is one
lower, so its easier to work with.
Complete Example
Solve for all complex roots:
4x + 15x 36 = 0
Step 1. The equation is already in standard form, with only zero on one side, and powers of x from highest to lowest.
There are no common factors.
Step 2. Since the equation has degree 3, there will be 3 roots. There is one variation in sign, and from Descartes Rule
of Signs you know there must be one positive root. Examine the polynomial with x replacing x:
4x 15x 36
There are no variations in sign, which means there are no negative roots. The other two roots must therefore be
complex conjugates.
Steps 3 and 4. The possible rational roots are unfortunately rather numerous: any of 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36 divided
by any of 4, 2, 1. (Only positive roots are listed because you have already determined that there are no negative roots
for this equation.) You decide to try 1 rst:
1
| 4
0
15 -36
|
4
4
19
|----------------4
4
19 -17
| 4
0
15 -36
|
8
16
62
|----------------4
8
31
26
Alas, 2 is not a root either. But notice that f(1) = 17 and f(2) = 26. They have opposite signs, which means that the
graph crosses the x axis between x=1 and x=2, and a root is between 1 and 2. (In this case its the only root, since you
have determined that there is one positive root and there are no negative roots.)
The only possible rational root between 1 and 2 is 3/2, and therefore either 3/2 is a root or the root is irrational. You
try 3/2 by synthetic division:
3/2
| 4
0
15 -36
|
6
9
36
|----------------4
6
24
0
Whats New
16 Aug 2015: Moved from OakRoadSystems.com to BrownMath.com.
(intervening changes suppressed)
15 Feb 2002: First publication.