Welcome

Purpose: Introduction to compressor vibration

(for more detail, recommend the 2.5 day GMRC Course in May)

Introduction to Vibration Problems

at Compressor Stations

Focus on practical issues.

Audience participationdemos, case studies,
questions, etc.
(We cant take you to the field, so we are bringing the field to the classroom)

Presented by:
Beta Machinery Analysis

Vibration Induced Pipe Fatigue Failure

Compressors, Pumps, Engines, Turbines and other Rotating Machines
Cause Vibration Related Problems

Todays Topics
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

HIGH IMPACT FAILURES:

Significant financial costs
Safety/environmental liabilities

Presenters introductions
Questions for the parking lot?

9.

Vibration Overview
Sources of Vibration
Pulsation Control
Mechanical Resonance
Torsional Analysis
Pipe Strain
Small Bore Piping
Start-up Vibration Survey
Summary

How Equipment Fails

1. Vibration Overview

Vibration is the leading cause of mechanical

problems
Equipment and piping fail due to excessive
STRESS (fatigue failure)

Pulsation

Forces

Vibration

Stress

Failure

What is Vibration?

Vibration frequency

Vibration = periodic motion about an equilibrium

position
Vibration can be described with:
Amplitude and
Frequency (number of cycles per
Spring-Mass
time) or
System
Period (time to complete one cycle)
Period

Frequency

Number of cycles per unit of time

CPM = cycles per minute
Hz = cycles per second (cps)
RPM = rotations per minute
For simplicity, frequency is measured in Hz
Convert from CPM or RPM to Hz by dividing
by 60
3600 RPM 60 Hz

Amplitude
1 second

Vibration amplitude

Complex Vibration

Three related units

Displacement
(m, mils)
Velocity
(mm/s, in/s or
ips)
Acceleration
(mm/s2, in/s2,
gs)
Only related when
vibration is simple,
like in a springmass system

Two Ways to Look at Vibration

Time domain amplitude
typically higher

Units = seconds

Time-domain
Overall vibration
than frequency
domain amplitude

Frequency-domain
Individual vibration
Units = Hz

In real systems, vibration is complex

Composed of vibration from different
parts

Understanding this complex vibration

requires separating out the
components

Time domain frequency domain

Spring-Mass
System

Vibration Directions (common terminology)

Axial: along crankshaft

peak

RMS

Peak (measure of deflection) is used more

often than RMS (measure of energy)
Frequency domain is either peak or RMS (not
peak-to-peak)

Relative Vibrations

Vertical

Peak-to-peak

peak

Time domain and frequency domain show the

same information, just in different ways
Frequency domain breaks out the
components of the time domain
Time domain is
measured
Frequency domain
is calculated

Peak-to-peak

Overall time-domain vibration terminology

RMS

Another way to visualize it

Absolute vibrations are measured but

may include unwanted vibrations
Relative vibrations = absolute
vibrations minus base motion

Horizontal: direction
of piston motion

Video #1 Vibration Equation

Demo #1 Scrubber Vibration

Spring-Mass
System

BETA guidelines - velocity

Dashed lines
adapted from SwRI
At individual
frequencies, not
overall (timedomain) vibration
Use 1 ips (peak or
overall) as a
screening guideline
for vessels and
small bore piping
( 2 NPS)

Recip. Compressor Screening Guideline

(based on ISO 10816-8)

ISO guideline to be released in 2014

(formerly called EFRC guideline)
Guideline in RMS (overall), but chart in pseudoPeak (pPk)

Compressor Reliability Risks

2. Sources of Vibration

Vibration Risk Areas

Mechanical

Pulsation Torsional
(Acoustics)

Compressor piston assembly

Crosshead pin
Drive train
Vibrations
Vibrations on
small bore
piping
Valves
Overload

Risk Areas and Design Considerations

Thermal Expansion:
Piping Layout and
Supports

Off-skid Pulsations

Small Bore
Skid & Foundation (Dynamics)

Interaction
Between Other Units

Risk Areas and Design Considerations

Responsibility

Owner
Engineering firm

Thermal Expansion;
Piping Layout and Supports
System Pressure
Drop (performance
issue, losses)

Off-skid
Pulsations

Dynamic force on
reciprocating compressor

Pulsation Shaking
Forces in Piping

Gas Forces
(Cylinder
Stretch)

How High Can Pulsation Forces Get?

1x

Compressor primary forces & moments

Cylinder gas forces (rod load)
Pulsation shaking forces (single-acting)

2x

Compressor secondary forces & moment

Crosshead guide forces
Cylinder gas forces
Pulsation shaking forces (double-acting)

3x Cylinder gas forces

Pulsation shaking forces

Pulsation Shaking Forces Can Be Very

High

Cooler Nozzle Failure

Guesses as to how high force

could be in this run of piping?

System:
Ariel JGK/2 compressor
Booster service (0.605 specific gravity)
Waukesha L7042GSI engines (700-1200
RPM)
880 - 1000 psig suction pressure, 1058 1270 psig discharge pressure
HEVV pockets, double acting, 1 stage
Problem:
The cooler nozzle cracked shortly after
start-up
Many other problems
Beta Mobilized to Site
Collected vibration and pulsation data

Packager
Vibration consultant

Forces occur at multiples of runspeed

Unbalanced Forces and Moments

due to Reciprocating Motion

Crosshead Guide
Forces

Pulsations and thermal growth cross

boundaries of responsibility
Vibration consultant hired by packager
may be acceptable for small gathering
systems

good specifications
and communication
Large critical pipeline,
storage, or
offshore units recommend vibration
consultant hired by
owner

6 pipe - area = 26 in2

Original
Bottles
No acoustical study had been performed
To solve problem, Beta conducted acoustical study
and recommended new bottles

Gas Forces Cause Cylinder Motion

As Found Unbalanced Forces

11000 lbf pk-pk at 38 Hz

Act on cylinder, bottles, scrubber and piping

Create high vibrations around compressor

What speed?
38 Hz x 60 s/min 2

Vertical
Riser to
Cooler

= 1140 RPM

Example:
ODS Field Data

Vibration Risk: Compressor APPLICATION

Vibration Risk: Compressor CONFIGURATION

Lower Risk

Vib. Risk Factors

Higher Risk

Vib. Risk Factors

Higher Risk

Lower Risk

Sweet

Gas Composition

Sour, Heavy

# of Units Online

Many

1 Step, DA

Load Steps

Convenient

Location

Fixed

Not

Unit Criticality

Offshore or
Remote
Critical to the
Process

Not
Important

Efficiency

Important

http://www.betamachinery.com/guidelines-calculators-converters.aspx
- Reciprocating Compressor Risk Rating Chart

Suct./Disc. Pressure Wide range;

Fixed
2 stg (4 or
6 cylinder)
CR > 1.7

Speed
Compressor Stages
Compression Ratio

Wide Range
1 stg (many
cylinders)
< 1.3

< 150

HP/ Cylinder

> 750

Vibration Study Scope (API 618 5th Ed.)

Compressor
Package
Off-Skid Piping
Vibration

Pulsation/mechanical analysis
Torsional vibration analysis
Options: thermal, skid analysis
Pulsations & other units
Mechanical analysis (supports)
Transient analysis

Foundation
& Structure

Dynamic analysis to
avoid resonance

Small Bore
Piping

Design review
and/or field audit

DA + SA

(>50% turndown)

3. Pulsation Control

Pulsation animation

Pulsations in non-flowing gas

Notice change in pressure and velocity

Pulsations

Pulsations are
affected by:
Temperature
Specific
Gravity
Pressure
Compressor
Speed
Loading

Video #2 - Pulsations and Other Forces

Valve unloaders
Volume pockets

Pulsation Forces In Piping System

Example: Interstage System

Cooler

Discharge
Piping

Suction
Piping

Pulsation Forces DA vs. SA

Case Study:
Compressor Vibration

Before - Vibration Problem

After Modifications

Compressors Installed Vibration Problem

Vibration Problems

Customer tried to fix problem no success

Units not fully operational very expensive
called BETA for help
Unacceptable
Vibration

6 Compressors 1700 HP each

Vibration Test Points (from Client)

Example: Piping to Cooler (Riser)

Other Problem Locations

(Unbalanced Forces, lbf pk-pk)

Excessive Pulsation Forces (lbf Pk-Pk)

Suction
Bottle Forces

Discharge
Bottle Forces

As Found:
Forces > 3 time guideline
guideline

guideline

guideline

Excessive Vibration
(forced response model)

Recommendations
New Bottles
(Suction; Discharge)

Excessive forces in suction & discharge system

Major changes required

Recommendations Implemented
Modify Piping and
Supports (including
off-skid)

BEFORE

Location: Piping
Riser to Cooler

AFTER

Case Summary

Vibration problems are expensive

Small errors during design stage are avoidable
Illustrates how vibration analysis techniques
used to solve or prevent problems (compared
to trial and error fixes)

What Happens to Pulsations if

Operating Envelope Changes?
Initial Operating Points

ACCEPTABLE Bottle
Shaking Forces

Bottle sizing
Risks of incorrect bottle sizes:
Oversized bottles:
Mechanical problems (i.e., low MNF bracing)
Expensive materials and welding

Undersized bottles:
Pulsations/forces not controlled secondary volumes
Orifice plates pressure drop lost capacity, fuel
gas costs

Orifice Plates

Optimal size after which pulsations increase

Design Change: Increased #

of Load Steps and Ps Range

Bottle Shaking Forces >200% of

Guideline. High Risk of Vibration
Problem

Pulsation mitigation

Surge volumes
and resistive
elements (like
orifice plates)
are simple but can
be costly (capital
and pressure drop)
Acoustic filtering
offers much more
pulsation control
with some capital
cost but very little
pressure drop

Factors affecting pulsation mitigation

Speed
range

Valve
unloaders

Difficulty
controlling
pulsations

Difficulty
controlled
vibration

Fixed

Very low

Low

Narrow

Low

Medium

Medium

High

Wide
Fixed

Medium

Low

Narrow

High

Medium

Very high

High

Wide

For example, fixed speed =1200rpm, narrow speed range = 900 - 1200rpm,
wide speed range = 600 - 1200rpm

Optimizing Pulsation Control

Multiple compressors beat frequency

Unit A and B run at slightly different speeds
Unit A

Because of this, the pulsations go in and

out of phase
Unit A
Unit B

Unit B
Total pulsation amplitude is sum
of pulsations from each unit
Beat frequency is related to the
speed differential between Unit A
and B

Combined Pulsations
Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Kettering University

Summary

Shaking forces are more important to control

than pulsations
Acoustic filters are more effective than orifice
plates for controlling pulsations
More pressure drop is required to filter
pulsations when wider speed ranges are used
or unit single-acting
The more information included in a pulsation
study improves accuracy and reduces risk

Summary

4. Mechanical Resonance

Example of Mechanical Analysis Model

Mechanical Natural Frequency (MNF)

Frequencies where
small forces result in
large vibration
response of structure

Determining MNFs
1.

2.

Demo #2 Mechanical Natural Frequency

Finite Element Analysis

(FEA) used to calculate
Mechanical Natural
Frequencies (MNFs)
Elastic Modulus
Geometry
Density
Measure MNFs with Bump
Test

Mechanical Resonance
We define resonance when force frequency is +/- 10% of MNF
At resonance, displacement can be magnified by 40 times can cause fatigue
failure
What happens at 3X? What about 4X? 6X?
Potential resonance,
but insufficient force
to cause problems

MNFs

Forces

|
1x

|
2x

|
3x

|
4x

Frequency

Mechanical Analysis Design Goal

|
5x

|
6x

Change design to shift

MNF away from resonance

Wide speed range

Frequency avoidance becomes challenging as

speed range is increased
Blocking out speeds may help avoid
resonance

Forces

|
1x

MNF

|
|
|
2x
3x
4x
API 618 Design Goal
MNF > 2.4 x

No room for
MNF to hide

Magnitude
of Force

Speed of
driver
1200 rpm

700 rpm

MNF

|
1x

|
2x

Frequency (orders of run speed)

MNFs of Main Components in Relation to

Compressor Harmonics
2.4x
900 RPM
(36 Hz)

2.4x
1200 RPM
(48 Hz)

Scrubbers Best Practices

2.4x
1800 RPM
(72 Hz)

Bottle MNFs:
40-70 Hz Typ.
Cylinder MNFs:
30-50 Hz Typ.
Scrubber
MNFs:
15-30 Hz Typ.

20 Hz

30 Hz

Example: Scrubber Design

Move MNF to Higher Frequency
= Extra costs; design modification
40 Hz

50 Hz

60 Hz

70 Hz

Load Path Considerations

Poor Installation/Design:
Cylinder

Example: Mechanical Analysis

Better Design:

compressor
and
piping

Demonstrates MNF (Mechanical Natural

Frequency), resonance, cylinder gas loads, forced
response Analysis, LWN (Long Weld Neck) solution
for suction bottles.
Ariel KBZ-6, Gas Load of 7,500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x on
stage 3

skid
Pile
foundation

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF

3SBot

Mechanical Natural Frequency Vs. Compressor Runspeed

Variable Speed: 750 - 1000 RPM
Multiple of Compressor Runspeed

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF (API 618 Step

3a)

6x Runspeed

75.0

5x Runspeed

100.0

62.5

4x Runspeed

50.0

3x Runspeed

37.5

2x Runspeed

25.0

1x Runspeed

12.5

0.0

83.3

66.7

50.0

33.3

16.7

20.0

API Guideline: 2.4 times maximum run speed

(20% margin of separation at 2X).

40.0

60.0
Frequency (Hz)

80.0

100.0

Vertical lines show mechanical

natural frequencies.

Case Study Cylinder Gas Loads at 3x?

Case Study Forced Response Analysis

(API 618 Step 3b1)
2.6 in/s

TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction

Unit: Ariel KBZ/6
STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND#
01X
02X
03X
1
75.0
5.7
4.3
2
69.6
5.5
6.5
3
67.8
5.4
7.0
4
65.8
5.3
7.5
5
49.1
4.5
5.2
6
48.4
4.3
5.5

04X
0.7
1.1
1.2
1.3
4.1
4.1

05X
3.4
2.9
2.7
2.5
1.6
1.6

06X
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.2

07X
0.7
0.7
0.9
1.0
0.4
0.4

08X
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
0.4
0.3

09X
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.2
0.3

10X
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.5

Therefore 7500 lbs (0-pk) at 3x compressor run speed.

(Weight of large SUV fully reversing 43.5 times per second!)
Causes cylinder stretch

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN

Case Study 3rd Stage MNF, with LWN

Case Study Cylinder Gas Loads at 4x?

Case Study Forced Response Analysis

TABLE L.2 - Cylinder Gas Forces (kips,0-Pk) in Horizontal direction

Unit: Ariel KBZ/6

STAGE#3 CYLINDER# 2
COND#
01X
02X
03X
1
75.0
5.7
4.3
2
69.6
5.5
6.5
3
67.8
5.4
7.0
4
65.8
5.3
7.5
5
49.1
4.5
5.2
6
48.4
4.3
5.5

04X
0.7
1.1
1.2
1.3
4.1
4.1

05X
3.4
2.9
2.7
2.5
1.6
1.6

06X
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.2

07X
0.7
0.7
0.9
1.0
0.4
0.4

08X
0.8
0.9
0.9
1.0
0.4
0.3

09X
0.9
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.2
0.3

10X
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.5

Gas Loads are less at 4x compressor run speed than at 3x

1.8 in/s

Conflict Between Thermal and Dynamic Study

Thermal solution has large distance between

clamps, thermal loops, and resting supports
Dynamic solution has short distance between
clamps and avoids elbows
Balanced solution has clamps
and thermal loops
API 618 recommends same
company conduct
both studies

Case Study: PSV

PSV was braced for vibration

control
Operating temperature = 134F
Outside temperature = -22F
Contraction of discharge line
was 0.4
Relief header was
supported to
oppose thermal
growth

Torsional Vibration Crank Failures

5. Torsional Vibration

Torsional Vibration Coupling Failures

Video #3 Torsional Vibration

Purpose of Torsional Analysis

To predict excessive vibratory stress or amplitude
problems in driveline of driver / coupling /
compressor

Potential Torsional Problems

Compressor/Engine Crankshaft failure

Motor Shaft Failures or Spider Failure (welded joints)

Coupling Failure (Disk Pack, Rubber, Other)

Damper/Coupling Heat Loads

Compressor auxiliary drive amplitudes

Engine Free End Amplitudes (Gear Problems)

Motor Free End Amplitudes (Fan)

Current Pulsation

Torsional Vibration - Applications

A TVA should be done for:

Any new driver or compressor combination

Any change in compressor configuration (different cylinders)
Different motor (same frame rarely means same rotor inside)
Different operating conditions (than what was originally studied)
Drive trains experiencing failures
VFD applications
Critical applications

Risk Chart May help to determine if a Study is required

http://www.betamachinery.com/uploadedFiles/001__Design_Services/001__Reciprocating_Compressors/Recip_RISK_Chart_Vibration_Control_3.
1.xls

Thorough Checks Required

Analyze full operating map PLUS upset conditions
Include tolerance band to consider fabrication and
installation uncertainty
Motor stub shaft to be the
same diameter as the
compressor stub

6. Pipe Strain

Risk of Failure
at some
pressures and
speeds

Pipe Strain

Several recent jobs where

we encountered unexplained
high frequency vibrations
and failures
Isolated the cause as pipe
strain

Effects

Pipe strain can:

Increase natural frequencies (like a
guitar string)
Reduce damping (high frequency
vibrations increase)
Increase mean stress in system (making
it more likely to fail due to vibrations)

Contributing Factors

Misaligned flanges
Gaps between pipe and support

Flange Misalignment

ASME B31.3 offers guidance for flange

alignment

Solutions

Custom or modified spool pieces, orifice

plates, etc.
Shim between piping and supports, rather
than just tightening clamp bolts
Post-weld heat treating (e.g., vessel nozzles)
Designing more flexibility into system
Small details are
important!

Small Bore Piping - Introduction

Also called Branch Connections
Generally 2 inches (50mm) or less
Instrumentation connection (taps, thermowells, gauges), vent
lines, drains, site glasses, etc.
Common on piping and vessels
near compressors, pumps, etc.

7. Small Bore Piping Vibration

Demo #3 Small Bore Piping

Video #4 Small Bore Piping Vibration

Why is SBP a High Risk Problem?

Field Measurements

Measure Relative Vibration,

if required
Steady State (Running)
Transient (Start-up)
Further check/investigation if
exceeds screening guideline

Solutions - Small Bore Recommendations

Avoid small bore where

possible
Re orientate or re-configure
to avoid vibration
Replace Valves with
Monoflange assemblies
Use Studding Outlet
instead of weld-o-let &
nipple
Always check vibration
levels on small bore
attachments (at start-up
and when significant
change in operating
conditions)

Small bore piping is often overlooked:

May not be explicitly designed - field
installed
Not shown on compressor package GAs
Not included in typical pulsation/vibration
study
Difficult to measure properly in the field
Failure can lead to significant downtime

Assessment Methods

Energy Institute
High dynamic force & poor design & poor
location = high likelihood of failure
GMRC
Tables of lengths & weights
FEA
Calculate allowable
vibration
before
failure

Solutions - Reinforced Relief Valve Connection

Steps for Commissioning

8. Start-up Vibration Survey

Typical vibration measurement points

Scrubber:

Top seam

Bottle:

Both ends of bottle (seam); sometimes

middle

Cylinder:

Cylinder head end

Compressor frame
& engine:

Crank height drive and

non-drive ends

Pipe:

Elbows, between supports

PSV:

Top of valve body

Main skid:

Front and rear corners

Small Bore Piping:

End of cantilever; between supports

Note the operating condition (speed, loading,

pressure, temperature, SG)
Take vibration readings (remember units!) at
consistent locations
When to call an expert
Solutions

Not all vibrations are alike

Be clear what is being measured and what

guideline is being applied
Overall vs. individual frequencies
Units: mm/s vs. inches/second
Peak or RMS (or pseudo RMS)
Frequency range
Apply appropriate guidelines (time-domain
vs. frequency domain guidelines)

Plus other points if vibrations at above points are suspect!

When do I call an expert?

Basic repairs/modifications do not work

Try temporary bracing first
Very high vibration levels
Vibrations are high in multiple areas
Vibrations are high for multiple operating
conditions
Suspect pulsations are high
High vibrations away from compressor
Need help measuring or interpreting data

Solutions
Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility

Control forces
Pulsation control devices like orifice plates
Moving acoustic natural frequencies
Control flexibility
Gussets, bracing, shimming
Modified or additional clamping
Moving mechanical natural frequencies

Braces Test temporary brace

9. Summary

Add wooden brace

as field test

Video #5 - Summary

Summary - Vibration
Vibration = Dynamic Force x Dynamic Flexibility
Vibration cannot be eliminated, but can be
controlled through a balance between cost,
performance and reliability
The earlier vibration risk is identified, the
easier (and cheaper) it is to deal with

DA 3

DA 3

DA 3

200barP<350bar
(3000psiP>5000psi)

DA 2

DA 3

DA 3

70barP<200bar
(1000psiP<3000psi)

DA 2

DA 2

DA 3

35barP<70bar
(500psiP<1000psi)

DA 1

DA 2

DA 2

P<35bar
(P<500psi)

kW/cyl<55
(HP/cyl<75)

55kW/cyl<220
(75HP/cyl<300)

220kW/cyl
(300HP/cyl)

API 618 Design Approach Summary

Absolute Discharge Pressure

Required Analysis API 618 5th Edition

Rated Power per Cylinder

http://www.betamachinery.com/guidelines-calculators-converters.aspx
- Reciprocating Compressor Risk Rating Chart

Design Approach 1
Empirical Pulsation
Suppression Device Sizing
Design Approach 2
Acoustic Simulation and
Piping Restraint Analysis
Design Approach 3
Acoustic Simulation and
Piping Restraint Analysis
plus Mechanical Analysis
(with Forced Mechanical
Response Analysis if
necessary)

Empirical Bottle Sizing

Dynamic Forces
Estimate Dynamic
Flexibilities
Lower horsepower, lower
operating range, non-critical
units
Dynamic Forces
Dynamic Flexibilities
Calculation Vibrations, if
Necessary
High horsepower, wide
range, higher speed, critical
units

GMRC High Speed Guideline

Best practices for the design, installation and

operation of large (2000 HP) high-speed
(>700 RPM) reciprocating compressor
packages for natural gas transmission and
storage applications
Final report is under review

Key Take-Aways

Properly specify vibration studies (scope, etc.)

Assess vibrations on-skid and off-skid (across
operating envelope)
Thermal/Mechanical: performed by same group
Consider small bore vibration survey
Attention to details (alignment, installation, etc.)
Start vibration study early

Attend GMRCs 2.5 day course, Compressor Station

Vibration, for more training.

Key Take-Aways, Contd

Pulsations are the only force you can control, but

that doesnt mean they should take all the blame
Resonance should be avoided at all costs, but if
not possible, move natural frequency to where
dynamic forces are low
Pulsation control is a balance between reliability,
performance, and cost there is no right answer
Remember the five things that influence pulsations
and vibrations: temperature, specific gravity,
pressure, loading, and speed

Questions?

Chris Harper (charper@betamachinery.com)

Gary Maxwell (gmaxwell@betamachinery.com)