tasavvuf

lmi ve Akademik Aratrma Dergisi

Ankara, 2000_

indekiler
badetlerin Anlam 1 Mehmet DEMRC

Hac Bayram-

Vell and
His Contributions to Ottoman
State at Interregnum Period 1 Ethem CEBECOGLU

33

Trk Edebiyatnda Ml'yar Gelenei inde

Yiitba Ahmed emsedQ.in Marmaravi'nin
Hurde- Tarikat' 1 Cemal KURNAZ-Mustafa TATCI-Halil ELTK

43

Glenili.e Dair Bir Eser: Naz1r briihim'in

Beyan- Tarikat- Gleni'si 1 Himmet

KONUR

65

A:.z1z Mahmud Huiliiyi'nin Belgradl

Ali Efendi'ye Gnderdii Mektup 1 Cengiz GNDOGDU

81

Reenkarnasyon (TeaSh) Meselesi ve Mutasavvflarn .

Bu Konuya Baklarrun Deerlendirilmesi 1 Mustafa AIC.4R

85

A Comparision of The Usage

of Metaphor (lsti'are) In The
Islamic Philosophers and Mystics 1 Mfit Selim SARURAN

101

Son Dnem Tekke Mecmiiala.rndan

Mehmed Salih Efendi'nin
Rehber-i Tekaya's 1 Mustafa AIC.4R

129

Yesevilik Kltr ve "in1 Ateizm"/ Dosay KEN]ETAY

167

Ceride-i S~fiyye'den: SeJ.amet-i Kalbiyye 1

Mesnevfhan Ali Fuad (Haz: Halim GL)

179

Yeilzade

A Comparlsion of The Usage

of Metaphor (Isti'are)
In The Islamic Philosophers and Mystics
Mfit Selim SARURAN
Dr., Ankara . Hihyat Fakltesi
A) Introduction.
B) Metaphor (Isti'are), Derivation, Contents, Features, Subdivision.
C) Islarnic Philosophers, Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes)
and Their Usage of Metaphor.
D) The Usage and Purpose of Metaphor within Islarnic Mysticism (Sufism)
E) Conclusion
F) Turkish Abstract
G) Bibliography
A) Introduction

The purpose of this article is to bring into focus the term "Isti'are" which in
retari c is commonly used in the sense of metaphor. By comman definition and
by etymology, it isa transfer of meaning both in intension and by extension. We
will concentrate on this subject later, but for now we want to focus on the purpose of writing this article.
First of all we are dealing with the concept of metaphor and its place in both
westem and eastem sources. By giving examples of metaphor and examining
the features of metaphor we aim to give a general understanding of it.
Our second step will be to take a joumey through the history of Islamic philo~)phers among them Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Quoting from their
grand works, we will be able to see to what extent the use of metaphor takes
place in the IJ:w:nc philosophers.
It's generally accepted that, philosophy is a way ofreason and intellect. By

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tasawtf

intellect we deduce, compare, and reach conclusions. Islamic philosophers, give us a heritage of both reason and religion combined these into a philosophical structure. They delt with metaphysics, ontology, epistemology, ethics, politics, and lingui.,tics, taking the best from both Greek philosophy and Islamic culture.
As we quote from their works on the use of metaphor, the purpose of their
using such linguistic games will become clear. Considering their approach to
philosophical subjects on the basis of reason, we begin to understand the relationship between reason and metaphor. The above mentioned Islamic philosophers became famous under the name of Mashaiyy.n which means peripatetiens,
an allusion to Aristotle's giving lect.rs by walking. Islamic Philosophers took
tl1eir inspiration from Aristotle and Plato. But living in a Islamic environment and
culture and being aware of Islamic values, they combined both into one.
In ad:ldition to this group we also deal with Sufism (Islamic Mysticism) which
p.ts an emphasis on tl1e priority of int.ition. For an example of this discipline
we have takenan Islamic Sufi, Mevlana's poems as a case study. Most of the sutl views can be understood in tl1e mirror of Mevlana, because his comprehensible thoughts are shared by many sufis.
We are going to examine the philosophical and mystical understanding of
people. In botl1 groups we come across the canception of "Ordinary people"
(A'vam) or "Eminent people" (Havas). Also our investigation aims to explore tl1e
role of metaphor in ilie formatian of suchaduality in c~assification. We also hope to explore how this classification gave rise to their usage in speech.
B) Metaphor (lsti'are), Derivation, Contents, Features, Subdivisions

Before examining the usage of metaphor in Islamic thought, especially, as seen in philosophy and mysticism, we will shed some light on the concept of metaphor.
The tenn Metaphor, consist of two root phonemes: Meta and Phore. Meta
means "further" and Phore means "to transfer, to carry, to pass on." 1
The equivalent of metaphor in Islamic literat.re is Isti'are. It is derived from
tl1e word "Ariya" which means to borrow something and use it temporarily. In
tl1e early period, ilie term Isti'are was used occasionally in the sense of "borrowing a theme from anather auilior. "2
1 See etimological explanations: 77e Oxford Englisb DictionaJ, 384; 77Je Encyclopedia of Pbi/osopby, vol.: VI, 284; Tbe American College Encyclopedia, Vol.: I, 75.
2 Ibn Manzur, Lisiinu'I-Arab, vol.: II, 448; Lewis, Ff'I-Luga ve'/ Edeb ve'/ Ulm, 537; Tabint '1-Meu/eu~ Edebiyat Lugati, 71-73; Sami, Kamus-i Trki, 101; Saruhan, Metapbm in slamic 77oigbt, 1-15.

a compmision of tbe usage of netapbor (isti'are)...

103

Metaphor and Isti'are (in Arabic) are synonyms. Their cornmonality comes
from both derivation and context.
If we exarnine the definitions of metaphor, we realize that the comman points in all of these definitions are "to borrow and to transfer". In doing this we
are naming one tling with anather name which it resembles.:1
When we deseribe a man as a fox, or as a lion, our effort is to borrow words
from different places and put them into anotler place attributing them to man.
Our borrowing and transferring comes from o ur observations. Altlough it seems
that "word borrowing" could be a misnamer, this is not the case". It's a transfer
of meaning wlich communicates witl a great deal of certainicy:
Metaphor, may divided in two aspects. We can deal with "open metaphor"
and "covered metaphor". In open metaphor, it is easy to determine the sirnilarity, because in the text and in tle sentence we find expressions such as, "exactly like, for example, just as; or it's sirnilar".
However, covered metaphor, does not contain any clear metaphorical idioms or prepositions, but nevertheless it is considered within the limits of metaphor. An example of this can be given as "sleep is flowing from my eyes." 5
What is the purpose of metaphor from the stand point of linguistics?
In searching for a reply to this question, we find in Ricoeuor that airn of metaphor is to fill the emptiness of a certain kind of semantics. 6 Comparison and
analogy are two ways of saving and filling this vacancy. Two terms are needed
in tlis comparison. The term "like a lion" does not mean anything in itself. But
in tle sentence, "Alm et jumped like a lion" we make a connection between a lion' s jumping and Ahmet's. 7 In the description we refer to jumping in order to be
better understood.
In Islamic literature, Isti'are is alsa known as "metaphor by reason" (Mecaz-
Ald!). When we are likening sameone or sometling to anather tling, we arrive
at tlis point from deduction and observation. 8
Tb ere are three types of metaphors.
1) Metapbors based on a comparisian of nations that sbow a close affiity
3 Cuddon, A Dictionary of LitermJ' Tems, 543.
4 Pudgett, Ron, Handbook of Peatic Foms, 310; Holman, A Handbook to Literatre, 20.
5 Keklik, Felsefe ue Metqfor(Philosophy and Metaphor), 6.
6 Ricoeuor, 71e Ru/e ofMetapbor(Transl.: Robert Czemy), Gadaner, Pbilosopbica/ Hememi
es, s. 3-11.
7 Kazvini, Telbis1 '1-Miftah, 38-45.
8 For further consideration about Isti'are and its feature see, Kazvini; ei-Erzincani, [fi'are, s. 2640; Leysi Kasm, Metni Jsti'are, 1-40, Gzbyk Zade, Takrir ala '1-Jsti'are, 1-30; Mevlevi, Ahid, 71;
Ibn Abd Rabbil, al !kd al Faid, 3-20; Sukkari, erb Eber al Hsdbal~vyin, 7; Askari, Kitab al Smaateyn, 40; Rummazi, Kitab al Nu kat fl J'caz al Kw'an, 15; Crcani, Esrar al Balaa, 5; Ibn Raslik,
Kitap al Umde, 6.

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and in any case belong to the same category "flying"fo? "running".

2) Metaphors based on a smilarity that can only be understood intellectually, the metaphors consisting oj;
a)Something sensually perceived for inte/leetual concepts "light"for convincing argument.
b) Tbings sensually perceived for other things sensually perceived though the
smilarity remains a matte1 of the intellect "green plants on a dmg hill" for "beautiful women of evil charecter".
c) An inte/leetual concept for other inte/leetual concepts, ie. "death "for "ignorance", or "life" for "knowledge". 'Meeting death"for 'facing a seriots erisis", orfor metaphors based on abstract smilarity. 9
Tb ere are alsa subdivisions of Metapho1~ Smiles, Idi01ns, Identification, Metonomy, Allusion, Personification and otherfigures ofSpeech. We see Isti'are as
a general name for these terms, and the word metaphor implies "a process of
borrowing themes or figures of speech".
Mecaz (Smile) means, in Arabic, road, or a path which might be passed, or
in the sense of the opposite of reality. Mecaz is used in the formatian of a comparision. "Heaven got poured plants" indicates an example this kind of metaphor. I this sentence, "rain" is hidden, and the effects of rain, namely plants are
mentioned. For example in Arabic '"Ayn" means several things. First of all it is
the organ of seeing (eyes) at the same time its use d in the sense of "spy" and "fountain".
In the cantext of language idiomatic usage refers to expressions which have
a different meaning at first glance. We penetrate the internal meaning and get a
new meaning. In Turkish there is an idiom for expressing that our body is tired:
"Black water descended to my feet". Now if we look at this Idi om, at first we
see its literal meaning, and one may not comprehend all of what is being said.
But at second glance, we begin to perceive its deeper sense. Then we realize
that the words "Black" "water" and the verb "descend" have a specific meaning.
But, indeed, they also combine to form an idiomatic structure in the culture's
language.
We may give a second example of this in English, when we use the idiom
"cup of tea". If sameone offeres us to do somethirg, we may say, "It is not my
cup of tea". In this sense, "I don't like it". Like the above mentioned turkish idiom this english one ~Iso needs to be analyzed. We "borrow", "transfer" and
"caiTy" the words like "cup" and "tea" (Meta-Phore, Ariye) for the constitution of
a new sentence which has a different meaning apart from the initial usage.
9 Encyclopedia of Islam, vol.: II, 250.

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105

Anather subdivision of metaphore is Analogy which means, making a comparisian or a similarility between two things where we mention both sides of a
feature in the same sentence. In this type of metaphor, namely, analogy, the sentence "The heart is like a pump", the word heart refers to a body part. Pump is
a technical word, used in enginering. If sameone asks us "How does a heart
work?" we need to make a comparison or an analogy to make clear what the
function of the heart is. For this reason we again borrow, transfer and move a
word from a different cantext and apply it to a definition and description of the
heart. Furthermore, we can not hide the term heart, or pump, instead we refer
to both.
Metanamy (allusion) is alsa a way of expressing our intentions or words. In
this kind of metaphor, for the representation of something general, a particular
is used. For example "bread is waiting for money". Let's look at the meaning
used in this sentence. In this sentence, baker is absent, or hidden, so instead of
baker, we see the term "bread" which is a product of the baker. If we accept "baker" as a general term and "bread" as a parucular one, in this situration we only
mention the parucular and don't express the general idea.
W e can find in the Qur'an this kind of usage: "ask the villiage". (12/74) In this
verse only the villiage is mentioned, and the villiagers are hidden. A villiage is
general and the habitants of a villiage are particulars, so it is not akward to ask
a villiage even though it's not a person. In this comparision, "place" takes the
place of residents.
Personification: In this type of metaphor we give the attributes of humans
to other things. For instance, "thirsty'' is an attribute of animals, but if we say my
car is thirsty, this is an example of personification. Cars have no emotions but we
again carried and transfered the "word" "thirsty" and have created a new meaning.
A metaphor is a way of transfering and maving a word, so this transfer might
be classified asfollows:
a) The name of organs are tranfered to nature: "Mouth" is an organ, and in
idiomatic usage this may be transfered to nature as in "mouth of a river"; River
being a part of nature, and mouth as an organ ereats a new expression.
b) Words related to nature may be transferred and carried over to human-b~
ings; ie. "soft like cotton" or "hard as stone". "He is like a wave of the sea"
c) To mak e something concrete is alsa a way of transferring. We takean abstract object and bring it into a concrete structure.
d) Seeing, hearing, smelling and touching may be used in place of themselves.
d) Name transferring; ie. sun, sametimes may be deseribed as day, or night

 06

tasauuzif

as darnkness.
A.fter considering the different ways of transfer we may now look at how
Aristotle, classified meaning transfer in four stages,
a) From animate to inanimate ~ eyes cover
b) From inanimate to animate ~ desk's leg
c) Animate to animate ~He isa fax
d) Comparisian ~ A book is a person's best friend. 10
Isti'are, widely known as metaphor, in Western sources is deseribed by Aristade as "giving a name to a thing which belongs to another. Meanwhile, in Islamic literat.re, Isti'are's generally accepted meaning is "ill.stration of abstract
words by carrying and putring concrete words and create a new union.""
Before giving a comparisian of the Islamic philosophers and mystics, we
ought to clarify metaphor as it is usedin the Q.r'an. It's necessary to refer to the
Qur'an, because it' s the main source of tl1e philosophers and mystics with1n Islamic tho.ght.

The Metaphorical Approach of The Qur'an

In the Qur'an, we see many comparisian of prepositions [Ke enne, ellezine,
Kemesell, Kema, Mislf, Kezalike, Ke, Kemen]. Besides these prepositions we
can find many types of transfer of meaning. Smiles, figurative speech, idiom,
analogy, metonomy, allusion, and personification, all take place and within the
Q.r'an.

Trees, mo.ntains, clouds, waves, plants, sun, tl1e hand, eye, speech, breathing, or weeping are used in a metaphorical sense. In the Qur'an we come across metaphor even concerning Gad, belivers, disbelivers, the hereafter, paradise, hell and many other subjects. What's the purpose of metaphor in the Qur'an?
Why do tl1ey take place in the Q.r'an? In short expressian it can be said tl1at it
is "to reach every level of the mind, and to make principles more understandable". Same people may understand theoretical principles and otl1ers only have
tl1e ability to comprehend metaphors. The Q.r'an aims to establish a model of
peace, in individuals as well ;;:s in the community. That's why it' s main theme is
tl1e unity of Gad on the theoretical side, and the unity of mankind on the prac10 Richard, 77e Pbilosopby oj Rbetoric, 90-92; Kurwan, Literature, Rbetoric, Metapbysics, 21;
\Vay, Knowledge, Representation and Metapbor, 14; Aksan, Anlama Bilim ve Trk Anlam Bilimi.
(Senantics and Turkish Senantics), s. 123-126; Parkinson, 7be 77eory of l'ieaning, 130-135; Teo,
Anlam Ka uran tizerie Bir Deneme, 290; Cari, Metpbor and An, 6; Lakoff, Metapbor We Liue By,
10.
l l Askari, Kitab al Snateyn, 40; Crcani, Esrar al Balaa, 5; Erzincani, Isti'are, 26-40.

a comparisian of tbe usage of metapbor (Lti'are)...

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tical side. It has cosmological, ethical, social and psychological aspects. The aim
is to adlieve "happiness of man " both here and now and in the hereafter. That's
why commands are given, especially canceming the need for doing good and
abstaining from falsehood. Who is man, and what is his duty? Is he living in vain or should we search for a reasonable goal in life? If we want to find a solution for tlis question, we may find many different approaches. Reason is one of
them, the empirical is another, revelation (In Islamic thoughts Vahy) aims to give some pre-knowledge and motivation in establishing "an understandable
worldview covering all the aspects of life". Because, Vahy has a deeper connection with our innition, it offers us the seeret of life. Here is the essence of the
Qur'anic message. "Sunnon thou to the way of thy Lord with wisdon and
kindly warning, dispute with them in the kindest nanner. "12
Tlis verse, presents us with three recommenations on how to speak: Use
Wisdom, use kind warnings, and dialecticallanguage. Witlin these three approaches, there is an indication about tl1ree different ways of addressing people.
Ibn Rushd, an eminent Islamic Philosopher makes a connection between
wisdom language and philosophy: Witl1 kind warning language and Salaffiyya
and with dialecticallanguage and Islamic theology. Ibn Rushd aims at the reconciliation of religion and theology, and tries to find a proper equivalent to tl1e
above mentioned Qur'anic verse from tl1e external world. 13 Aristotle, emphasized that some people llsten to mathmatical language and others only wan an
example. In short everyone has a specific level of perception. 1' If we hear a familiar expression, tl1en we have a positive attinde. Our aim is to communicate
the message.
Now we will explain tl1e role and the usage of metaphor both in the plilo
sophers and in tl1e Islamic mystics.
Our first journey begins with the Islamic Plilosophers.
It's well known that in Islamic thought, philosophers are tl1e representatives
of reason as well as cancentrating on the reconciliation of religion and philosophy. Now our eminent philosophers, Farabi, Ibn Sina (well known as Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) will give us comprehensible examples of the use
of metaphor.

12 For translation of this version and others see, 77Je Koran, (translated from the Arabic by J.M.
Rodwell), 268; Nabl, 125 (The Bee).
13 Ibn Rushd, Fasl'i'I-.Makalue Takrim Ma Beyne'-eria ue'I-Hikme mine'llttisal, l10-l12.
14 Aristode, Metapbysics, (translation of Richard Hope), 21.

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C) Farabi (Death 950) And His Usage of Metaphor

History of Philosophy awards Farabi as "second master" (Muallim es-Sani) after Aristotle. His great contribution to the logic of Aristotle brought this to the attention of the western world. 15 According to Ibn Ab Usayba, Ibn Hallikan, Kft!
and Ibn Nadim, whom are bibliographers, Farabi's written heritage was so great that he left more than 100 books, most of them dealing in philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, politics, philosophy of religion, and linquistics.
Consideration of Farabi's great works enables us to see how elegently and
selectively he wrote. The purpose of Farabi, in applying metaphor has two aspects.
First, wherever he wants to expand his views to a wide range of readers he
writes metaphorically in order to be bettet understood. And second, his purpose is to take philosophical subjects which are priviliged and to hide them from
"avam, (the ordinary people)". Havas (eminent, intellectual people) understand
hard metaphors better than others, who are seen as merely avam (ordinary people). Me taphor is us ed in Farabi both with easy and difficult terms. Farabi wants
to sametimes make his philosophy understandable, for example in ethics, and
politics. That' s why he prefers to give simple metaphors. But in the case of metaphysics, and ontology, he prefers to write in a difficult manner to protect philosophy from people who are not worthy of it.
One of his treatises is titled "Whatneeds to be known before beginning phi16
losophy. " He alsa was aware of Aristotle types of writings and in his writing, he
summarized the way Aristo? He wrote in his great works as well as in his private letters. Furthermore, he gave recommendations for tl1e beginner on how to learn philosophy. In anather book, "On the Classification of the Sciences'" 7 he also, considers, language (lisan) as a science, and defines it as "knowing the law
of words". Taking his inspiration and first no tion from Aristotle, he alsa gives a
similar definition of metaphor. He puts metaphor under the subdivision of noun, among them, synonyms, general, particular, common, causative, derivated
and transferred. 18
Farabi's most comman usage of metaphor is in rethoric and poetry. Farabi's
metaphorical structure uses every kind of transfer from general to parucular and
15 Ibn Hallikan, Vefayel el-A 'yan, Vol.: II, 113; Ibn Nad1n, ei-Fibrist, 263; Kft1, Tarib al HHkania, vol.: II, 134-140.
16 Farabi, Risa/e fl ma Yanbag an Yukaddem Kab/e Tea/ltn el Felsefe, in es-Semerat '/ Merd~vye, (Al Farabs Plilosophische abhandlungen, aus Londoner, Leidener und Berliner, Handchriften, Leiden 1890) Published by Dietrici.
17 Farabi, Jbsa '/ U/m.
18 Farabi, Kitab Peri Hemeneias, (translation ofTrker), 78.

a comparisian of tbe llSage oj metapbor (isti'are)...

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from mankind to society. The main topics which Farabi delt with are metaphors,
politics, prophecy, ethics and metaphysics.

Farabi's Metaphors

Concering

People and Society

In discussing politics he makes connections and gives exarnples of metaphor, making the transfer between, society and human organs. Farabi, in his politics likens society to the body, a healthy society to a healthy body, the leader
to the heart. He makses use metaphors by transferring body parts to society. Farabi, in his politics deseribes the social institue as refering to bodily organs and
borrows them to make metaphors. Furthermore, in his anatomy, he uses social
functions and work division for describing the human body. It's clear that in his
usage, the metaphorical word is transfered from society to the human body and
alsa from the human body to society.
He considers the liver us an organ both a manager and as a servant of the
body. He sees it as a servant of the heart, and alsa as the director of the kidneys.
What about the brain in Farabi's metaphorical approach? It's seen as vice director of the heart. Besides this description, in Farabi's view, the brain is seen as caretaker ofa great palace. The caretaker, is seen as being in the service of lord
(Body) and the servants of the palace run for in favour of Lord. In his embriological exphinations are alsa contained metaphorical illustrations. The connection
of sperm with blood in the womb is reminiscent of in Farabi's words, milk and
fermentation. The fetus made of sperm brings to our minds the formatian of yoghur .from fermentation. The formatian of the fetus by blood in the womb resembles yoghurt being made from milk. 19
In order to understand Farabi's philosophy of religion one must pay attention
to his theory of prophecy. In his view there is no difference between a real philosopher anda prophet. Revelation (Vahy) descends through active intellect by
God within an emotional process."" The duty of the prophet according to Parabi, is to express and preach divine truth to people by examples and using metaphor. This would change the abstract for the concrete in the mind of ordinary
people. In short, stories, comparisions, similes, and all kinds of illustrations in
the holy books are aimed to teach ordinary people.
Farabi, tums his face to Qur'anic verses and wams us not to take words passing in the Qur'an like, preserved table, pen, chair, the hand of God, keys of Gad
ete. in their literal meaning. According to J:ir;l the pen mentioned in the Qur'an
is not for writting nor is chair a chair used just for sittmg. All of these have spiri19 Farabi, ei-Medinet/'1-Fad/a, 85, 96, 105, 132.
20 Fazlur Rahman, Propbecy in Islam, 11, 24.

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tual meanings.
Farabi, in his philosophical writings frequently refers to metaphors and even
in his poems we come accross this.
"When I understood, time as being temporary, friendship becomes useless,
every president becomes tired, every head becomes sick, I locked myself in my
house and begin to sip the wine of wisdom. My friends are ink bottles. My musical instmment is their clanking". 21

Ibn Sina (Death 1035) Avicenna

If we were to liken the history of philosophy to a Imge palace, philosophers
are its masons. One of them Avicenna re-read and reviewed the work of previous philosophers with tlis view in mind.
In his philosophy he doesn't want to loose eitl1er philosophy or religion. He
is the one man who reconciles religion with philosophy. He wrote several
symbolic stories. His metaphors are expanded in short stories. Let us have a look at three of these stories, looking at the metaphors, which he users in them.

a) Hayy b. Yakzan and Metaphorical Usage

In this short story, Ibn Sina presents us an old wise man, named Hayy b. Yakzan (The Living Son of the Vigilant). Altl10ugh lis years have passed, he is able
to see and hear well. He shines witl1 a beauty reminiscent of tl1e divine. As soon as he (Ibn Sina) sees tl1e wiseman the desire to speak witl1 him reaches its zenitl1. The wiseman, tells hin1 about lis etemal joumey. Hayy b. Yakzan tells that
his lmowledge has come from his fatuer, who gave hin1 the key to every kind of
lmowledge. Ibn Sina, leams from lim the science of physiognomy which helps
him to lmow tl1e character of men. According to this old man, the usefullness of
this special science gives one an advantage in communication. The wiseman,
then predicts our philosopher some details about Ibn Si.na's friends. This prediction bewilders Ibn Sina.
How could he know about his friends features, what kind of fore knowledge does he posses? Ibn Sina offers to join in the journey of the etemal mystery
and finds no approval by Hayy b. Yakzan, He realizes that he has been rejected
by him. Learning from this old man, Hayy b. Yakzan, that this mystery road has
been closed to lim, he insists on showing his eagemess to acompany the sage.
The wiseman shows tl1at the unique way to join in tlis marvellous joumey is to
leave everytling beloved behind and tum his face forward witl1out looking
21 We find this poem in the introduction of Turkish translation of Medinet/'1-Fadla.

- - - - - ------

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back. Having a true knowledge of the heavens and earth our philosopher now
has two roads before him. The road to the west is full of Evil and the material,
and the path to the. east is devoid of the materiaL
Both lead to the source of eternal youth. Hayy b. Yakzan, leads our philosopher to the second path. They see, nine kingdoms nled by justice and wisdom.
In this story, the characters of these nine kingdoms are alsa mentioned. In spite
of his transcendency the great king brings beauty and glory to his subjects. This
makes it possible to communaticate with him and never can one leave him once one has tasted of his generousity. Ibn Sina, in this story forms a metaphor between the king and God. Let us give ear to his description of the king, who metaphorically is God.
Whoever wants to deseribe the King, ina better way, cannot do this. The desire to deseribe him, in fact remains an impossibility. Nobody can deseribe him
properly. Their tongues bum on every attempt, their pen is broken before writing. It's not possible to find in him an example or similarity because he has no
example or sirnilarity. \Yle cannot reach him by trying to classify Him, but only
by praising Him. If we can not perceive him, this is not because of his mystery.
On the contrary it is because our perception is so weak. We cannot completely
discover Him.
In this story one of Ibn Sina's aims is to explain the function of the active intellect. In Islarnic metaphysics, Active Intellect is the agent which effects human
reasoning. It guides the human saul. Ibn Sina makes a connection using a metaphor between the King and God, between Hayy b. Yakzan and d1e Active Intellect. East is source of light, and West is source of darkness."" (In relation of the
sun, rising and setting)

b) The Tretise of The Bird: "Risalet't-Tayr"

In dus tretise, Risala, Ibn Sina ereares a smiliarity between a spirit and a bird.
The human sprit in escaping from earthly traps resembles a bird escaping from
a cage. The cage is the destiny of sprits, fallawing inthesense of a trap. He compares the relation of birds in a cage to the spirits rebellion against predestination. They have same hope of salvation. After the required effort, those who have escaped, help to free the rest of the prisioners in the cage. After obtaining their freedam they all begin to search for salvation which is supposed to be a hill
on de eighth level of God's mountain in wluch only d1e seventh level actually
exists.
22 Corbin.
151-161.

Auicena

and 1l1e Visionary Recital, Translation of the Recital of Hayy b. Yakzan,

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Verdant meadows, waterralls and rivers are chosen for rest stations by birds.
Then they see a magnificiant, beautiful bird. The birds become a good friends
with this greater bird. This friendship supplies them the opportunity to go to the
king's city. Wherever the birds see the King they all bewithched by the light of
the Kings face. The King gives them real freedom. They all retum having been
enchanted, drunk and ravished. 23
According to Macit Fakhry, the metaphor in this story is associated with Platon's cave metaphor. 24 It must be emphasized strongly that Ibn Sina's metaphor
is more abstract, than Plato's. Furthermore from the standpoint of richness, Ibn
Sina's metaphor contains the fallawing features: Illustration, Borrowing, Comparision, Sirniles and Analogy.
In this story, Ibn Sina' s goal is to draw a picture of humanity and the process
of freedom.
Salaman and Absal

This story reminds us of greek mythology, which had alsa given inspiration
to Ibn Tufeyl in his story by using and adapting the names Salaman and Absal.
Ibn Simi.'s version of this story is as follows:
Salaman and Absal are brothers but only their mather is the same. Absal's li ttle brother had been brought up well cultured. Salman's wife falls in love with
Absal the elder brother. She invites Absal to be a tutar for her children in order
to obtain her desires. She express her emotions, but at first Absal rejects him. But
she wouldn't give up till she obtained her demands. At last, Absal, inclines to be
with her, but heaven doesn't give permitian for this, covers the sky with dark
clouds. The heavenly lights prevent them from commitring adultry. 25 According
to Nasreddin Tusi, Absal represents in this smail story, theoretical reason, and a
degree of knowledge. On the other hand Salamon's elder brother represents the
saul of speech, and his wife represents the lustfull tendeney of the body. Absal's
refused to commit adultry' at the beginning indicates, the influence of the intellect of man.

Ibn Sina's Understand.ings of

Qur'anic Verse in the light of Metaphor
Ibn Sina looks atreligious textsina metaphorical sense. In order to ~.ttain the
23 Corbin, Avicenna and 7be Visionary Recital, Translation of the Recital of the Bird, 186-192.
24 See about this consideration, Fahri, 73.
. 25 Corbin, 7be Avicennan Version of Salamon and Absal, 224-225.

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true m eaning one must interpret them metaphorically. Let us give a few examp~
les of this.
"And the Angles shall be on its sides" and over them on that day eight shall
bear up the throne of thy Lord.;?V In the interpretation of this verse, he sees the
throne of God as the Ninth Heaven or as a planet.
In the se verses, "I betake me for refuge to the Lord of day break ...
".... and against the mischief ofweird women '"7, he makes a connection between vegetable force and adds "The mischief of weird women is a vegetable force". In the same verse, "and against the mischief of the night when it overtaketh
me" is interpreted by him as an irnaginary force used by an aninal soul. 28 In his
thought, the Intellectual world is paradise, and the irnaginary one is hell. The
world of sense is the grave since he uses angels in the sense of force and intellect. He classifies the animal soul as being perceptional and practical. In the
Qur'anic version, "Over it are nineteen, angels", Ibn Sina airns to use the number nineteen in order to classify animal soul into subdivisions.

Ibn Rushd (Death 1198)

Ibn Rushcl has been identified asa commentatar on Aristotle. He was bom in
Cordoba. He like his predecessors was also try~g to make reconciliation between religion and philosophy. 29
Regarding his short commentaries on Aristotle's "Topic" "Rhetoric" and "Poetics" we can gain an understanding of metaphor in, Ibn Rushd. In his commentary on Aristotle's Topics, he deals with logical subjects, gives a definition of
Analogy, and deals with deduction and induction.
Let us give an example of Ibn Rushd's vie~s on example and likeness.
We ought to speak about. the example. Tbere are [dif.ferent] dasses oj the
examples. (a) With one, it is decided whether a predicate applies to a subject or
does not apply to it because oj that predicate applying to the likeness oj that s!tbject or because ojit not app~ying, For example, it is better known whether the predicate applies to the likeness or not; /ike our argument that the heavens are created because the wall is created. (b) With another, we decide whether a predicate applies to a subject or does not apply to it, when it is better known whether that
likeness applies to the subjects or does not apply; for example, our deciding that
the heavens are changeab/e because oj the fa ct that they mo ve. (c) With yet anather, we decided whether a predicate r('plies to a subject or does not apply to it be26 69/17, translation ofRodwell, p. 4; ..
27113/1-;, translation ofRodwell, p. 27.
28 ez-Zehebi, et-Tefsir ve'I-Mfessinm, vol.: III, 92-93.
29 See about Ibn Rushd, Urvoy, AveTTOes, Ibn Rushd, 3-29.

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ca use the likeness oj that predicate applies to the likeness oj that su hject or does
not appfcv to it, when it is hetter known that the likeness of the predicate applies
to the likeess of that subject or when it is better known that it does not app(v; for
example, 'hoey di/u tes hecause sugar dissolves".
Tbe judgement m ay be universal, white the likeess is pa1icular, e.g., our argmet: ''Plesures are had hecause wine is had". Now the differece hetween this
and inductio is that in induction we conjinn tbe universal by the pm1icular,
whereas bere we co~finn one tbig by anather insofar as it is a likeness -not insofar as one of tbem is particu/ar and the. other universal.
IJKENESS. Tbere are tvo c!asses: either a likeness i a comman matter or a
likeness by analogy. An e:-.:anple of the likeness ina comno matter is wbat preceded. A example of the likeness by aalogy is our argument: 'Tbe king in the
city is !ike the deity in the world, and just as the deity is one, so too ought the king
to be.""'

Metaphor and its place in the Philosophy of Religion of Ibn Rushd

Before giving examples of metaphorical usage in his writting we had better
make clear Ibn Rushd's understandings of religious texts and their interpretation.
1. First group of religious text (Qur'anic verses) in his view have the characteristic of having only one meaning. There is no place for any interpretation because of the deamess and stability of its meaning. It's a great error to attempt to
interpret them.
2. This second group is be divided into four different sub-groups.
a) Only the deeper scholar can penatrate the meaning of the illusturated text
as formed by covered metaphors.
b) The text is quite easy to understand, and is easily written. The average
rnind can easily grasp it's meaning. It can easily be interpreted.
c) It's easily recogniazable that some expressions are designed to be given as
examples. But it's hard to predict and fix to where this sirnilarity should be addressed. It' s only interpretable by erninent people and the deeper scholars.
d) It' s quite clear that some texts are designed for the special purpose of metaphor. Each side has a sirnilarity, and the thing being resembled is clear. One
should, consider and think about these texts. ~~
His philosophical speeches are addressed to two kinds of people as we earlier pointed out: to ordinary people and to eminent people.
30 See for al tlese quatations, Avenues tbree sbort commararles on Arlstotle: 'Topic", "Rbetoric" and "Poetics", (ed. C. Buttlerworth), 47-50/71-73.
31 Ibn Rushd, Al Kaslif an Menabij al Adil/ab, 247-267.

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In his view, ordinary people, due to their limited intellect, ability, and nat..
re can not comprehend theoretical subjects, or spirit..al beings. For these people, knowledge is limited to the five senses. Spiritual topics needed to be explained for their mind by using examples and sirriles. Religious knowledge lends
itself to usirg examples. In this stage we should pay particular attention to Ibn
Rushd's essential question. If the lawgiver is teliing the truth why should it need
to be interpreted? Couldn't he teli all of d1ese instructions by usirg plain speech
wid1out using metaphors?
Ibn Rushd dealing with the different levels of peoples perception affirms that
Qur'anic verses carry an internal meanirg as well as an external ne. He alsa has
a open mind. An example of this would be his comparisian how of a knife used
for cutting animals which has been made by non-muslims, doesn't have any influence upon ho>y effective it is for cutting. There is no harm according to him in
taking the sciences, like Logic, from foreigners.
He compares a knife to logic from the stand point of an instrument.
He sees Shari'a (Law) asa brod1er of philosophy. In speekirg of the generation of shari'a he refers to metaphor. The Shari'a hee]s d1e souls like a physicians heels d1e body.
In considering iliis verse, "had there been in either heaven or emth ay !rods
besides Gad, both surely had gone to rui "12 he makes a number of comments. In
his mind the question about d1e possibility of not usirg metaphor alsa contains a
metaphorical answer. Let us suppose a talented physician who producted a useh! medicire; observirg iliis rare medicine had a good influence ir most of the peap! e. On the od1er hand if it had a bad irfluence ir rest of them, then somebody
might come against d1is product by sayirg that d1e physicians purpose is different. He may add same new chemical solution in it and in that way it may serve
the physician's purpose. Then d1e people may daim that Ilis contribution to this
medicine is compatible with the physician. Tl1is is l1is daim, in fact. By adding a
new solution he had made a contribution to medicire. Most people are inclined
to believe that by using this bad medicine people begin to get sick. People suffer now a second illness after the first disease. Every needles change might cause a new diseases. He compares Qur'anic verses and what the prophet is saying to a rare medicine and the interpreters to physicians who add new solutions.
"Gad hath not begotte oj spring; neither is there any other with him; or else Gad would assuredly have taken away that which he had created, cmd same
had assuredly set themselves above othe's. "13
32 2/222, translation of Rodwell, in 338.
33 23/92, translation ofRodwell, in 149.

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In the interpretation of this verse he forms a metaphor using the word "King"
to best explain the problems of duality. He compares the impossibility of two
kings in one country to the impossibility of there being two Gods.
God-+ King
City -+Universe
Expressions like, God's hand, God'sface, God's key, according to hiin are an
absolu te proof for the existence of attributes in God.
In his one proof about God's existence there are also metaphors.
Let us assume that a man saw a stone on the earth. He realized this stone was
suitable to sit on. Then he was aware that this stone. was made by sameone for
a special purpose. There must be sameone who shaped this stone. On the contrary if the stone were shapless or unsuitable for sitting, we may judge it's being
there was by chance.
In this example, Ibn Rushcl uses words like "master" or "stone" to define
God's attributes.
In Ibn Rushd's writting we also see metaphors canceming the human soul:
He compares sleep to death. The stability of organs while sleeping stop the action of the soul. But this hesiration does not remove the existence of the soul...
Like this status of soul after death would be likened as unto sleep.
He compares also the soul to light. The connection between light and the
material, resembles the relation of sprit to the body. The effectiviness of a mirror comes from sunlight. Likewise, the soul gives motion to' the body. In his system the soul is a product of an artist, and metaphoricaly God is the artist. 34
After our consideration of the Islamic Philosophers and the way they used
metaphor now we may turn to the intuitional side of Islamic thought, namely Islamic mysticism (Sufism). Islamic philosophers are representatives of reason,
and the Islamic mystics hel d intuitional knowledge, as the basic core of their philosophy.
D) Islamic Mysticism, (Sufism)
and the Purpose of Metaphorical Usage

Mysticism ~ithin Islam has a proper name, Tasawuf. It's a m<~;tter of debate
as to where this term came from. Same daim that it comes from Suf which means cloth, others are inclined to believe it is from '~af'which means order. Anather group holds the view that it was from "Sophia" a rare group of people tho- .
ught it was from "Safa" which means purification, or to cleanse the soul. 35
34 Ibn Rushd, Tahafla al Tahajll, The Inceherence of The Inceherence (trans!.: Simon Von der
Bergh), vol.: II, 343.
35 See about these considerations, es-Serrac, Kitabu'l Luma fi't-Tasavvuf, 46-48.

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When reconsidering all of these explanations, we would like to emphasize

that, Sufism is a process of self actualizing, a turning and llstening to oneself to
sustain spiritual necessity, to emancipate the saul from the effects of the. body.
In this article we prefer to illusturate, Sufism's use of metaphor by pointing
to the Mevlana, the Islarnic poets, the thinkers and mystics. First, it's necessary
to give a general understanding of the Tasawuf concept of metaphor and it's
purpose in being applied to this kind of art.
We may summarize the purpose of the Sufi's use of metaphor as follows.
-Tbe Hair, face, heart, lips, eyes, all of them have an internal meaning canceming divine love and union.
-The Sufi poets use such kind of illustrations, srniles, comparision, metenornies, in their writings more often than would be seenin normal usage. Through
the use of metaphor we gain a knowledge of the Sufi experience, in a comprehensive and perceivable way. 36
- The use of these metaphors alsa have a way of hiding the Sufi's real thoughts from laymen. 37

Metaphors in Defuitions of Sufism

In the history of phil6sophy we can fnd hundreds of definitions about philosophy, and every philosopher has a different definition of philosophy. Likewise in Islarnic mysticism, in every Sufi, we come accross, a different desetiption
and definition. Every definition shows a different aspect of the sufi experience.
Abu Ali Ahmet er-Ruzbar! (death 933) defines Sufism as "to kneel down in the
front of the Lo ver, in spite of being rejected". "Gad" and "beloved" are comman
metaphors in Islarnic mysticism.
In Sheik Ibrahim (death 1655) "One should become inanimate at the beginning and the King of the Heart at the end of joumey."38

Metaphors in Sufi's

Defiitions

W e see a good example of this,in]unayd Bagdadi (death 909).

"T7e Sufi is !ike the earth. Every bad thing has been thrown on it. Good and
bad people march on it. Nevertheless beauties einerges from it. Ibe sufi is !ike a
cloud, which gives shadows to everything. He is !ike rain, which waters everyt36 Nurbakhsh, S.fi Symbolisn, 2
37 Cebeciolu, "Same Reasors for Inabi/i~V of Layman to Understand
38 Ayni, TasauuifTaribi (History of Sufsm), 222

Sif'sn ",

10-26.

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tasauutf

h ing. Tasawif is a language which has an inner value as well as extemal. Tb e

sufi can also be deseribed by words !ike poor, voyage1~ lonely, and lighter. "19
The Human Organs and the Use of Metaphor
The names of Human Organ are used metaphoricaly in the mystics.
Eyebrow: In mystical poems, the eye and eyebrow are used to describing divine beauty. Eyebrow symbolizes the proximity of the vayager to the divine reality.
It also represents a divine appearance and knowledge of the famous sufi poe ts. Hatiz uses this word in this sense.
I o.ffered my bemt
To my darling's eye and eyebrow
Cone cone

Observe this bow!"

In this poem he points out the divine reality. The parts of body, feet, fingers,
arms, weight, seeing, and hearing are transfered to a relationship with God.
Annililation a way to Sufi's unity with God; in tlis unity, the sufi, express lis
thoughts and lis emotions using different experiences. Language in tlis stage
knows no linit and no frontiers. lt express itself freely. This free-speech according to sufi tradition has a meaningful stncture.

How Wine, Tarverns, Tavernkeepers,

Cups, Music, Dance and Entertainments is
Viewed in the Metaphorical Usage of Su.fi Expression
In Sufi poems such kind of items have a specifc meaning seperate from the
surface meaning. In sufi poems the purpose of tl1is can be summarized as follows:.
-To attract the attention of the reader.
- Being in a state of anililation, tl1ey are not aware of their position. Language is used freely here.
- A metaphorical interpretation of wordly words. For example, Hafz uses
"'the cup" (kadeh) seen as penetrating into tl1e light of tl1e unseen word. For instance;
O, Cupbeere1~ shine our cups
39 Ihid, 223.
40 Nurbakhsh,

Sfism,

65.

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Witb tbe ligbt of w ine.

Ol Poets you recite "Ibe affairs oftbe world up to ourpleasure. ,u
In this poem the shining of a cup hints at purification of our heart and it's being ready to accept divine tr.th ...
Words like, wbite wine, red uie, bard wine, generally refer to matter of love and the heart. Barkeeper, and wine seller, are used in the sense of a perfect
friend, master, spirit.al, teacher. Candie on the other hand, is seen as the light
of divine secrets.
When it is understood Sufism is a union of disquise within language. Metaphor is a way of expressian of the sufi's self. This sametimes is indicated externally and sametimes it is used to cloak the hidden meaning from laymen.
Mevlana As a Case Study of
Metaphorical Usage within the Islamic Mystics
Mevlana Jelaleddin Rumi (1209-1273) may be viewed as "the king of heart"
witlin Islamic thought. His reputation and views are not only influential and accepted by believers, but alsa by disbelievers, and different religions of world also welcomed him.
He preaches to the soul with a magical sound, opening new horizions in the
process of becoming a real human. Mevlana uses a simple language in order to
be understood.
He himself resembles his words, like "an arrow came out from the bow of
God". Furtl1ermore, "nobody can set an obstacle or barrier, against God's bow".
Describing his magnificient book entitled Mesnevi (poetry in rhymed couplets)
as "the soldier of God" who strengthens the spirits of disciples."' 2
This reminds us of, a verse from the Qur'an:
..Gad is tbe ligbt oftbe Heavens and oftbe Eartb. His ligbt is !ike a nicbe in
wbicb is a lcmp -tbe lamp encased in glass- tbe glass, as it were, a glistening
star. From a blessed tree is it ligbted, tbe olive eitber of tbe East nar qf tb e West,
wbose oil would well nigb sbine out, even tbougb fire toucbed it not. It is ligbt
upon ligbt. '~
According to him if we had tak en this version in its external meaning, there
would be an internal contradiction. His light not being limited to the universe.
How could it be limited in glass? Can the light of God be limited to hearts? This
is like looking into a mirror. We've no picture ina mirror, we have it only when
we look in the mirror. Angel, Heaven, Fire, Paradise and Hell are said to be in
3

41 Nurbaklsl, S((i .~vmbolism, 126, and see same author's

42 Mevlana, Fibi Mq(ib, 312.
43 24/33. translation of Rodwell.

Sufisn,

65.

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the other world. But if we di d not give an example of them in this world they
would not be understandable. He sees metaphor, as a way of and making things
comperehensible. He alsa tries to show the connection of joy with spring and
sadness with fall. In the case of the unequality of a blind man to a seeing man
blindness is seen as ignorance and falsehood while seeing is viewed as the
knowledge and belief in the light. 44
\Yle find a unity among Gad, man, and the universe within the Mevlana's system. He derives salvation from forms and considers all kinds of objects as news
of Gad. When we remove the forms the treasure of union remains in this level
the sun is viewed as subtance, and water as purity.
Wben you take o.ff and remove your sexual identity, tbere remains only your
bzmanity the tnte you. Forplaying backgammon with yourselfyou brought: "!"
and we" into existence. 45
In his questioning "Who is Gad? Is the heart a Gad? or is Gad a heart?" His
reply is that this unity only can be supplied by purification of the spirit.
In the Mevlana, Allah is beloved. He says, be a lover and see the beloved. Be
a heart and see the friend be water under the trees, and rose gardens. There are
numerous examples on this subject. Man consists of body and spirit. The spirit
is dressed to the body. The connection of body to the spirit resembles that of an
ant to wheat relations. How an ant moves wheat is compared to the spirit as the
maving the body.
In anather place, he likens the Mesnevi to the Nile River. It's water can be
drank only by patient people.
According to Mevlana, man is a voyager. He is separated from his essentinal
country, namely paradise.
Mevlana makes a flute speek. As an inanimate thing, the flute in his metaphorical poems tells about the story of this separation. Let us give sound to these
magical words in Nicholson's translation.
Listen to the reed hov it tells a tale, complaining of separations.
Saying "Ever since I was ported from the reed-bed, my lament hath caused
man and vaman to moon.
I want a bosom torn by severance, that I my unfold (to such a one) the pain
qf love-desire.
Everyone who is left far from his source wishes back the time when he was
united with it.
In every' company I uttered my wailful notes, I consorted with the unhappy
and with them that rejoice.
Everyone become my friend from his own opinion: none sought out my see44 Fibi Maftb, 256-259.
45 Mesneui, 41-42.

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within me.
My seeret is not far from my plaint, but ear and eye taek the light (where by
it should be apprehended).
Body is not veiled from saul, nor saul from body, yet none is pennitted to see
the saul.
This noise of the reed is fire, it is not wind; whose hath not this fire, nay he
be naught!'6
To him the world can be seen as gold covered money. The]oy of world and
retsfron

happiness is like lightning. To him the hereafter resembles the sea meanwhile
this world is like unprecious foam.
The World and Body are dungeons. Deathis a gate opening to eternity. Also
death is seen as meeting and arriving with the beloved to reach God and the
etemaL Every day passing in this world is in fact seperation from etemity and the
beloved.
"In the world a lion searches and hunt for dailyfod. But God's lion searches for freedam and death. Because, he sees hmdreds life with death, and
burns his existence !ike a propeller".
Now we want to give a few more examples of metaphorical usage in Mevlana.

Sema (Mystical Danee)

In Islamic Mysticism, Sema, has a special importance. In the Mevlana's system it has many extemal and internal meanings. A black robe which the dervishes wear symbolyzes non existence and darkness, then removing it and taking
it of and wearing white robes hints of existence and light.The black robe is like
a grave, a white one is resunection. The Conductor of the Sema, the Shaikh,
among dervishes symbolize. both the sun and its nucleus.'7
Mevlana alsa explains the Qur'an in an analogical way.The Qur'an resembles a bride. Erides dont show their face imrnedietly. If one wants to reach the internal meaning of the Qur'an one has to the open veil of the verses.
The Sharia resembles the Sofa of the Sultan. Commands, prohibitions and
awards exist as the place where water is being drunk. 48
The Pilgrimage: For ordinary people a pilgrimage is to visit certain places.
For lovers and eminents it's an appointment with God. The Kaba is the heart of
saints (Avliya) .'"
46 Tb e Matbnawi of]ala/u 'ddin Rumi, (translation and commentary by Reynold A. Nicholson,
I, III.
47 Bayrakdar, Tasauuif ve Modem Bilim (Sufsm and Modem Science), 100-3.
48 Fibi Maflb, 200.
49 Jbid, 276.

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Thanking God: Thanking God involves a relationship and tie. Benefits are
sought out wid1 d1anksgiving. Some people d1ank God for distress and o iliers for
his gifts. Thanking God turns griefs into gifts. It's likean antitode.'r
The Mesnevi, Fibi Mafih, and Divan- Kebir are fue ground works of Metaphor. Mevlana saw eternal arrows coming out from the bow of God. This bow gave healing to people rad1er d1an injury.
Loue, it is not limited or measurable in numbers
In fact it is an attribution of the Real
It's metapborically attributed toGod. 5 '
. Reason: Reason and angels are d1e same. Angels have wings like birds. But
reason flies without wings. They are like two close friends who aid each other.'"
The Word: It disquises itself like a new bride and spoils us. In fact, it is an
aged ugly women. He who falls in love wid1 it spurs pain.'-'
He who falls in love with d1e world is like a h tnter who hunts the shadow of
bird instead of d1e real bird. "'

E) Conclusion
The term Isti'are in rhetoric is commonly used in d1e sense of metaphor. By
comman definition and by etimology a metaphor is a transfer of meaning both
intention and by extension. In the early period d1e term Isti'are, was used occasionally inthesense of "borrowing of a theme by one -:ud10r from anod1er".
Tropes, sirniles, idioms, identification, metonmy and stories form od1er figures of speech. But we see d1at Isti'are is a general name for d1e above terms. Metaphor's meaning "a process of borrowing a theme, irnplies fuose above mentioned figures of speech".
Metaphors have different usages in different systems of d1mght. For example metaphor plays a vital role in the histarical development of ilie empirical sciences. As Black points out "Eve1y science must sta1 uith metaphor and end
witb algebra and perhaps without the metapbor there vould never have been
any algebra. "'5
The epistemological problem of metaphor appears at d1e heart of the study
of religious language, God, Heaven, Paradise, Death, Miracles, ete. all of them
have a metaphoric usage in holy scriptures.
50 Fibi Mafib, 276.
51 !hid, Introduction of Turkish translation of Mesnevi.
52 'Yfesneui, vol.: III, 3215, 19.
53 !hid, vol.: VI/320-321.
54 Ihid, vol.: I, ll 1.
55 Ma:..: Black, Model and Metapbo; p. 222.

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The systematic usage of metaphor reaches its zenith with Artstotle. The use
of metaphor in tle metaphysical cantext has long been tle subject of dispute
among philosophers. A number of phlisolophers from Plato, through the German romantics to the present may be regarded as having been among tle defenders of metaphor. With the rise of science in 17'. cennry together with its demand for clear and vigorous language we observe, Hobbes, as a representative
of tllis tendency. He considered tle use of metaphor as "There can be notlung
so absurd but may be found in tle books of pllilosophers as the use of metaphors, tropes, and other rhetorical figures instead proper of words.But when w e
look at Hob bes definition and pllilosoply we realize that he couldn't keep Ilin
self from using metaphors.
If We look at tle general outline of The Sacred Books, at tle first glance w e
notice a "Variety of Speech".
During our research about metaphor and its usage witllin philosophy and sufism, we tried to recognize tlat The Human Eady and Nature and its components were the major concern of metaphor, and also that tle essence of borrowing a theme in relation to defining divine attributes.
\Yle nrned our attention to Jslarnic tlought. In Islarnic tlought, Mashaiyyun
( Peripatetiens), was considered as a pioneer of reason witllin Islamic Philosophy. Aside from tllis group, we dealt with sufism wllich represents innition.
Each of them used metaphor in a different way and for a different purpose.
The former believed that there are two groups of people, Avam (ordinary people) and Hcwas (Eminent) ones. That dassification gives rise to tle dualism in
their speech. When, politics, etllics, and society are tle subjects concerned, isti'are is used in a sirnple way to expand their views to ordinary people on the
one hand, and difficult metaphors are used when the mater concernings metaphysics as a concequence of tleir system (dualism) Such sacred and transcendental virnes and wisdoms are tnderstood only by the eminent. In the view of
the pllilosophers.
Later (sufism) used metaphors for three purposes.(Nurbakhs, Sufi Symbolism, 2).
. Conventional poets used the image of a loved one' s face and feanres and
the ctrls of hair, and established a language of elegant lyrical expressian wllich
was effective in promoting the appeal of temporal love poetry by employing
imagery of tllis nanre.
2. Sufis were more able to give their poetic expressions of the Divine Unity
subtle and aesthetic nuances providing elements that make up the symbolic portrait of the beloved object of tle wayfarer. Such irnages and metaphors penetrate
and are im pressed upon the heart more readily tlan abstract pllilosopllical terms.

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tasauuztj

3. Such metaphors have had the further advantage of allowing the sufis to
protect t.h~ secrets of their inward joumey from falling in to hands of the uninitiated and ensuring that only adepts, those with actual experience of spiritual states, could fully comprehend what was being expressed in symbolic terms.

F) Turkish Abstrack
sti'are, Bat dillerindeki kullanm ekliyle Metafor, Aristo tarafndan "Baka
bir eye ait olan ismin bir eye verilmesidi" eklinde tarif edilirken, sHim dilbilimcilerince de "Soyut kavrarnlarn somut kyaslarla, dn alnan kelimeler vastasyla resirnlendirilmesi" olarak tanmlanmtr. Gerek yerli ve gerekse yabanc tarifler deerlendirildiinde ortaya kan, isti'are'nin bir dn alma, aktarma
faaliyeti olduudur. Her bilim ve sistem kendini tanmlayp, tantnada dile ihtiya duyar. Bireylerin alglama dzeylerinin farkll da gznnde bulundurulacak olursa, geni kitlelere ulama noktasnda dilin ok ynl kullanm devreye girmektedir. Anlalr olmak, her sistemin vazgeilmez unsurudur. Dil, eitli
sistemlerde farkl grnrnlere brnerek, ok ilevlilik grevini yerine getirir.
sti'are, dilin farkl grnrnlere brnd bir alandr. Edebiyat bilimi iinde
ele alnp incelenen isti'are bir"slp olarak felsefe ve tasavvufta da kullanlr.
Mecaz, deyim, tebih, kyas, kinaye, ahsll.etirme dilin farkl grnmlerini
oluturan kullanm eitleridir. sti'are'nin bir "dn alma" ve "aktartna" abas
olarak anlatm trleri arasnda hepsim kapsayan bir st kategori olduunu deerlendirmeye yneldik. Zira sz konusu dier anlatm trleri de gerekleirken
bir kelimenin dn alnp aktarlmas olmaktadr.
sti'are, felsefede kullanmnn doruuna Aristo ile ularken, 18. yzylda Pozitivist dncelerin yaylmaya balamas ile birlikte inie gemitir. Ama Robbes gibi, isti'are'ye kar kan filozoflar da, isti'areye bavurmaktan kendilerini
alkoyamarnlardr.

slam Dncesi'nde Mea1 sistem akln nclni.i yaparken, tasavvufi sistem ise sezginin temsilciliini sergiler.
Mea1 filozoflar, sradan topluluklar (avam), sekin topluluklar (havas) ay. rrnna giderken, bunu bir anlamda anlay farkllklanndan hereketle tayin etmilerdi. yle ki, bunu tayinle yetinnemiler, felsefi hitabet biimlerinde bir dualiteye gitmilerdir. Farab1, bn Sina ve bn Rd isti'areye bavururken, toplumbilim, siyaset, ahlak almalannda halkn bu konulan daha iyi anlamas iin bir
yandan isti'areye bavurarak, konulan basite indirgiyorlard. te yandan da, Metafizik bata olmak zere dier konularda ise tam tersi bir yaklam sergileyen bu
dnrler, baz hakikatierin halkn eline gememesi gereinden hareketle yine
isti'areye bavuruyor, fakat bu kez isti'areyi ok yksek bir dzeyde tertip edi-

a comparisian oj the

sage

of metaphor (isti'are)...

125

yorlard.

Bu ikilem tasavvufta ok daha deiik bir grnti.i arzeder. Ortaya koyzere, s1fi manevi tecrbeler denizinde yol alrken, yaadklarn paylamak ve aktarmak ister. Hedefi, dier bireylerin de aydnlarnalarna yardrnc
olmak olduundan, yaadklarn ancak isti'areye, sembolik anlatma yer vererek
aktarabilmektedir. unu da belirtmek isteriz ki, surmin isti'areye bavurmasnn
bir dier yn ise, kendince ulat ve elde ettii ilaili nimetleri muhafaza etmek
ve gizlemek olduundan isti'areye bavurarak, yksek dzeyde bir anlatm semektedir.
ki eyi ayn grmek ve kabullenmek anlamnn yklendii isti'are, akli bir temel oluturduu oranda gcn yanstr ve yaygnlatrr. Anlamak ve bilmek insan hayatn anlaml khin unsurlardr. sti'are anlalr olmak, somut iladelendirrnek alarndan ehemrniyet kazanmaktadr.
duumuz

G) Bibliography and Further Reading

AKALIN Sami, Edeb~yat Terimleri Szliit, stanbul 1980.
AKALIN, Mehmet, Anlama Kauram zerine Bir Deneme, Ankara 1970.
AKSAN Doan, Anlam Bilim ue Trk Anlam Bilimi, Ankara 1978.
ALTINTA Hayrani, TasammjTarih; Ankara 1991(2nd edition).
ARISTOTLE, Metapbysic, (trans!.: Ricphard Hope), in Turkish by Ahmet Arslan, zmir 1985.
AYNI Mehmet Ali, TasawifTaribi, stanbul1992.
BAYRAKDAR Mehmet, Tasawzif ue Modern Bilim, stanbul 1989.
BLGEGL Kaya, Edeb~yat ve Bilgi Teori/eri, stanbul 1989.
BLACK, M., Models and Metaphors, Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press 1962.
BOER T.]., 17e History of Philosopby in Islam, London 1933.
CARL R. Hausman, Metapbor and Art, Cambridge University, Press 1989.
CEBECOGLU Ethem, same Reasons for the Inabili~y ofLayman to Understand Sfsm 'Tasauuzif'", Quarterly Journal, Ankara 1999.
CUDDON S.A., A Dictionary of Literary Tenns, New York 1991.
CUM'A Ltfi, Tarib Felsefeti'l Islamfi1 Marik ve'! Marib, Kal1ire 1927.
CRCAN Seyid erif, Tarifat, Alfabetik.
DAVIES Brain, An Introduction to 7be Philosophy of Religion, Oxford 1983.
Dictionary n(Modern Critica! Tenns, Edited by Roger Faulen, London 1973.
DOGAN Recai, "Metaphorical Expressions in Prophet Muhammed's Hadith's", Working Pa per in
Preperation for L.A.U.D., Symposion, Duisburg 1997.
ERZINCANSadk Mft, Isti'are, stanbul Matbaa-i Arnira, 1279.
Encyclopedia oj Pbilosophy, edited by Paul Edwards, 8 Cilt, New York 1972.
Encyclopedia Britannica, A New Survey for Universal Knowledge, London 1953.
New Edicator Ecyclopedia, Gerdon L. Laig, Toronto, 7 Cilt, 1957.
Encyclopedia of Islam, London & Leiden, 2. Bask, 1871.

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126

/aSGI'/ 11((

FARAB, El lviedinetti 'i Fad/a.

FARAB. Pbilosopbiscbe Abbadlmgen, Aus Londoner, Leidner und Berlinel-!andcriften, Le iden
1890.
FARAB, hsa't11 U/m, ev.:,Ahmet Ate, M.E.B., Ankara 199
FARABf. Pei Hermeeias, trans.: Mbahat Trker, Ankara 199
FAZLI.JR Rahnan, Prophecy in Islam, Chicago & London 1958.
FINK & WAGNALS, Standard Dictionay, New York 1?70.
FENN smail, Uigate-i.Fe(sefe, stanbul134L
GOODMAN Nelson, Language and Art, An Approacb to a 71eory of -~vmbols, London 1969.
GZBYK ZADE. Takrir ala '1 Isti'are, stanbul Matbaa-i Anira 1266.
Grolier Encyclopedia, The Grolier Society, New York 1954.
GRUNBERG Teo, Anlam Kauram zerine Bir Deneme, Ankara 1970.
HOLMAN Hug C., A Hazdbook to Literature, Macroilan NewYork 1980.
IBN CULCUL, Tabakalll '1 Etibba ue'l Hukema, Kahire 1955.
IBN HALLIKAN. Vefayat-ai A :van, Kahire 1948.
IBN MANZUR, Lisa/'1 Arap, Undated.
IBN NE~M, AI-Fihrist, Matbaa! al Istikame, Kahire, Undated.
IBN R1 s:P,r.. Al'erroe's Tabajll ai-Tabajll, 71e Incoberece of the Icoberence, trans!. by Simon Von oe:r Bergh, II Volunes, Cambridge University Press 1978.
IBN RUSHD. Auenves Tbree Short Commentaries o Aristotle: Topic, Rbetoric, Poetic, edited
and translated by Charles E. Butterwoth, Albaiy 1977.
IBN RUSHD, Fasl/'/ Maka/ ue Tak1i111 ma Beyne'I-eria ue'/ Hikme mie'l Jttisa!, ltrasl.: Sleyman Uluda), Ankara 1974.
IBN RUSHD, El Ka( A Manabifal Adiila (in Falsafat Ibn Rushd), Cairo.
Iteratioa! Euey Ma : Encyc!opedia, 13 Cilt, New York 1970.
IZ Mahir, Tasauuif Mab~veti Bfiyikle1i ue Tarikat/m; 5. Bask, 1990.
JOHNSON, M, Pbilosopbica! Pes1pectiues on Metapbm; Minneapolis 1980.
KARA Mustafa, Tasamif .oe Taikat!ar Taibi, stanbul1985.
KARAALOGLU Seyit Kemal, Ansiklopedik Edeb~vat Terimleri Szhiti, stanbul 1989.
KATHLEEN Morner, RAUSH Ral ph, NT c: Dictionary ofLitarey Tems, Chicago 1991.
KAZVIN Celiileddin Muhammed, Telbis, 1275.
KEKLK Nilat, Felsefe ve Metafo; stanbul 1984.
KEKLK Nilat, Felsefe Bakmndan Metafor, (Felsefe Arkivi No: 24), stanbul 1984.
KIRWON James, Literat11re, Rbetoic, Metapbysics, Routledge 1990.
KUSEYRI, Risa!e, Kalire 1972.
LEYS Kasm, Metni Isli 'are, stanbul, Undated.
LiteraJ' Comparisian Dictioay 1l7ords Abotl Words, London 1984.
MACT Fahri, slam Felsefesi Tan'l i, Translation in Turkish by Kasn Turhan, stanbul 1991.
MA'LUF Lewis, El Mmcid Ff'l Lua pe'/ Edeb ue'/ U/m, Beyrut 1960.
MEVLANA, Fibi Mafib, (trans!. by M. Anbarcolu), M.E.B., stanbul 1990.
MEVLANA, Meseui, (translation and Connenary by Reynold Nicholson, Gibb Memorial Trust,
Reprinted 1990), anoder text translation in Turkish by Velid zbudak, M.E.B., stanbul 1990.
MEVLANA, Diuan- Kebir'de Seme iirler, trans!. by B. Beya, stanbul 1969.
NICHOLSON Reynold, Ff't Tasawifi'/ Islam, rep. Afif, Kalire 1956.
NURBAKHSH Javad, Sifi Symbo/ism, The Nurbak:lsh Encyclopedia of Suf Terminol9gy, London & New York 1986.
NURBAKHSHJavad, Stj'sm, NewYork 1982.
Oxford Eglisb Dictiomy, ed. James A. H. Murray Hanry Badly, Oxford 1933, 9 Volune.
ZDAMAR, Emir, rnekli Aklamal Edeb~va Bilgileri Szlii, stanbul 1990.

a comparisian of tbe usage of metapbor (isti'are)...

127

ZKIRIMLI Atilla, T'irk Dili Edeb~vat Asiklopedisi, ; Volume, stanbul 1982.

PARKINSON, G.H.R., 77.1e 77.eoJ' ofMeanig, Oxford 1968.
PUDGETI Ron, Handhook of Poetic Fonns, New York 1987.
RAGIP EL-Isfehani, e!Mifredat jf Garibi'/ Kw'a, Undated.
RICHARDS L A., 77.e Pbi/osopby of Rbetoric, London 1936.
RICOEUR Paul, 77.e Rule ofHetapbo; ranslated by Robert Czerny, London 1978.
RUSE Christina, Literary and Language T~ms, London 1992.
SAINT AUGUSTINE, 77.e Cizv of Gad, Trans (Marcus Dos), New York 19;0.
SABBAGH, La Metapbore dans le Coran, (Edited by Mossignon), Paris 1943.
SARRAC, Kitabu'/ Lma Ff't Tasa11uif, Hz.AbdlhalinMahnu, Kahire 1990.
SARUHAN Mft Selim, Metapbor (lsti'are) in Jslanic Thougbt, Unpublished M. A. Dissertation,
Ankara 1994.
SEYD Ali, Llgate-i Edeb~vat, stanbul 1324.
EMSEDDN Sami, Kamus-i Tlrki, Dersaadet 1317.
Tahir-l MEVLEvi, Edeb~vat L11gat, ed.: Kemal Edip Krk, stanbul 1973.
7HE KORAl\; (translated from the Arabic by ].M. Rodwe!l), London, 2nd edition, 1987.
URVOY. Dominique. A11ennes Jbn Rusbd, Translated by Olivia Stevar, London and New York
1991.
WAY, Elleen Cornell, Knowledge Represellfation and Metapbor, New York 1991.

Tekkelere, ztiviyelere gelince; bu ruh-nevaz merhamet ocaklar "garibler, bfkesler, yurtsuz, yuvasz
lar iin tesellf evi, ahlak mektebi, iifan medresesi, himaye oca olarak vcuda getirilmitir. " Bu at altnda birleen ve dervf olanlar birbirini karde teltikkf ider, burada kimse kimseye teftihur, teazzum
itmez, idemez.
"Allah iin muhabbet-efkat-mutivenet" gibi tilf
hasfetler ancak ve ancak bu merhamet bintilarnda
kerem evlerinde pak ve nezih insanlarn fikirlerine
zerk idi/ir, insanlara hakikf insanlk duygusu, mebde' ve metid ilmi, ma'rifet'n-nejs esrar buralarda
anlatlr.

Pfr ocak/arnda, metiyh nezdinde peruerde olmayanlar, tarikat- tiliyyeye intisab itmeyen/er, manevf zevkten mahrumdur vesseltim.
Erzurum/u

Yeilzade

Mehmed Salih