Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology (2013) 13 : 147-163

Bypass Fat in Dairy Ration - A Review

P.K. Naik*
ICAR Research Complex for Goa
Old Goa, Goa-403 402, India
(Received February 01, 2011)

ABSTRACT
Naik, P.K. 2013. Bypass fat in dairy ration-A review. Animal Nutrition and Feed Technology, 13: 147163.
Role of bypass fat in rations of the high producing dairy animals is very crucial for enhancing
the energy density of the ration. Dietary fat, that resists lipolysis and biohydrogenation in rumen by
rumen microorganisms, but gets digested in lower digestive tract, is known as bypass fat or rumen
protected fat or inert fat. Among all forms of bypass fat, calcium salts of long chain fatty acids (CaLCFA) is relatively less degradable in rumen, has highest intestinal digestibility and serve as an additional
source of calcium. A simple cost effective indigenous technology has been developed for the preparation
of bypass fat (Ca-LCFA) using vegetable fatty acids. Ration of the high producing animals should contain
4-6% fat, which should include fat from natural feed, oil seed and bypass fat in equal proportions.
Supplementation of bypass fat had no adverse effect on the rumen fermentation, feed intake, digestibility
of nutrients and different blood parameters of the dairy animals. The milk yield is increased by 5.5-24.0%
along with the improvement in post partum recovery of the body weight and body condition score and
reproductive performance of the dairy animals. Feeding of the indigenously prepared bypass fat to
lactating dairy animals has shown to give additional benefit of Rs. 12-40/- per animal per day. Further
research is necessary to find out the supplemental effect of the bypass fat on dairy animals fed various
types of basal rations at different productive levels and stages of lactation.
Key words: Bypass, Cow, Dairy, Fat, Inert, Milk, Protected, Ration, Rumen.

INTRODUCTION
Basic concepts on fats and its classification (McDonald et al., 2002) and composition
of milk fat (Jensen, 2002) have been well documented (Naik, 2012). During early lactation,
high producing dairy animals remain in considerable negative energy balance leading to
metabolic stress and sub-optimal milk production (Bell, 1995; Drackley, 1999). Addition
of concentrates at higher level in ration of high producing dairy animals as a strategy for
enhancing energy density of ration decreases fiber intake and leads to acidosis (Palmquist
and Jenkins, 1980) and milk fat depression (Jenkins and McGuire, 2006). Although, dietary
fat has great potential to enhance energy density of the ration and then composition of
*Corresponding author: pknaikicar@gmail.com

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Naik

the milk fat, various factors limit its use in large amounts in ration (Palmquist, 1994).
The extent of hydrolysis of the dietary free in rumen is very high (85-95%), which causes
reduction of the fiber digestibility. Devendra and Lewis (1974) explained four theories
on this reduction of fiber digestibility by dietary fat, which include (i) coating of the
fibrous portion of the diet with the lipids thereby preventing attack by the microorganisms
(ii) modification in the rumen population concerned with the cellulose digestion (iii)
inhibition of the activity of the rumen microorganisms due to an effect on cell permeability
brought about by absorption of the fatty acids on cell wall or due to an anti-metabolite
effect (iv) reduction in the availability of minerals (Ca and Mg) essential for the microbial
activity due to the formation of mineral complexes with the fatty acids. Role of the bypass
fat in the rations of the high producing dairy animals is very crucial for enhancing the
energy density of ration (NRC, 2001). Dietary fat, that resists lipolysis and
biohydrogenation in rumen by rumen microorganisms, but gets digested in lower digestive
tract, is known as bypass fat or rumen protected fat or inert fat.
Natural bypass fat
Whole oil seeds, when fed without processing except drying have natural bypass
fat properties due to their hard outer seed coat, which protects the internal fatty acids
from lipolysis and biohydrogenation in rumen (Ekeren et al., 1992). However, during
mastication by animals there is physical breakdown of seed coat, which gives poor result
of rumen inertness. Important whole oil seeds commonly used in the ration of dairy
animals are cotton, roasted soybeans, sun flower and canola. Further, feed ingredients
containing saturated fatty acids are less toxic to the ruminal microorganisms and minimize
the adverse effects of the fat supplementation as they react more readily with the metal
ions forming insoluble salts in rumen (Jenkins and Palmquist, 1982) and do not go for
further ruminal biohydrogenation (Chalupa et al., 1986). The percentage of fat, saturated
fatty acids (SFA) and un-saturated fatty acids (USFA) of different oil seeds are provided
(Nebguide, 2004) in Table 1.
Chemically prepared bypass fat
Chemically prepared bypass fat mainly includes crystalline or prilled fatty acids,
formaldehyde treated protein encapsulated fatty acids, fatty acyl amides and calcium salts
of long chain fatty acids (Ca-LCFA).
Table 1. Fat, SFA and USFA content of important oil seeds
Oil seeds

Fat%

SFA%

USFA%

Cotton

20.0

26

74

Soybean

18.8

15

85

Sunflower

44.4

12

88

51

49

40.2

06

94

Palm
Canola
NebGuide (2004).

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Bypass fat in dairy ration

Crystalline or prilled fatty acids

Crystalline or prilled fatty acids can be made by liquifying and spraying the
saturated fatty acids under pressure into cooled atmosphere, so that melting point of the
fatty acids is increased and do not melt at ruminal temperature, thus resisting rumen
hydrolysis and association with bacterial cells or feed particles (Chalupa et al., 1986).
Formaldehyde treated protein encapsulated fatty acids
Formaldehyde treated protein encapsulated fatty acids is also an affecting means
of protecting dietary fat from rumen hydrolysis (Sutton et al., 1983). Casein-formaldehydecoated fat has been used by the earlier workers (Bines et al., 1978). Oil seeds can be
crushed and treated with formaldehyde (1.2 g per 100g protein) in plastic bags or silos
and kept for about a week.
Fatty acyl amide
Fatty acyl amide can be prepared and used as a source of bypass fat. Butylsoyamide
is a fatty acyl amide consisting of an amide bond between soy fatty acids and a butylamine,
which increases linoleic acid content of the milk fat (Jenkins, 1998). Conversion of oleic
acid to fatty acyl amide (oleamide) increases the mono-unsaturated fatty acids concentration
of the milk, when fed to dairy cows (Jenkins, 1999). Amide of soybean FA is effective
in enhancing the post-ruminal flow of oleic acid (Lundy et al., 2004). Fatty acyl amide
of sardine oil based complete diet is effective in protecting fat from degradation in rumen
and improves the apparent and true dry matter degradability (Ambasankar and
Balakrishnan, 2011).
Calcium salts of long chain fatty acids
Calcium salts of long chain fatty acids (Ca-LCFA) are insoluble soaps produced
by reaction of carboxyl group of long chain fatty acids (LCFA) and calcium salts (Ca++).
Degree of insolubility of the Ca soaps depends upon the rumen pH and type of fatty
acids. When rumen pH is more than 5.5, Ca-LCFA is inert in rumen. As dissociation
constant (pKa) of Ca-LCFA is 4 to 5, dissociation is significant, when pH decreases to
6.0 (Chalupa et al., 1986). In acidic pH of the abomasum, fatty acids is dissociated from
Ca-LCFA and then absorbed efficiently from small intestine. The unsaturated soaps are
less satisfactory for maintaining normal rumen function, because dissociation is relatively
higher (Sukhija and Palmquist, 1990). Among all forms of bypass fat, Ca-LCFA is
relatively less degradable in rumen (Elmeddah et al., 1991), has highest intestinal
digestibility (Dairy Technical Service Staff, 2002) and serve as an additional source of
calcium (Naik et al., 2007a; 2007b).
Accessibility of bypass fat
Bypass fat containing different levels of fat are available in the market as commercial
products. Experiments have been conducted on many commercial products of the bypass
fat by the earlier workers (Tyagi et al., 2009a; Sirohi et al., 2010; Mudgal et al., 2012).
However, in India, most of the dairy farmers are small and marginal (Sharma, 2011;
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Naik

Naik et al., 2013a) and often, bypass fat is out of reach to them due to its inadequate
accessibility or high cost. To make the bypass fat more accessible to all types of dairy
farmers, a simple cost effective indigenous technology has been developed for the
preparation of bypass fat (Ca-LCFA) using different vegetable fatty acids (Naik et al.,
2007a; 2007b; Naik and Singh, 2011; Naik, 2013; 2013b) and significant works have
been conducted by several workers (Naik et al., 2009a; 2009b; Gowda et al., 2013;
Parnerkar et al., 2011; Wadhwa et al., 2012).
Level of supplementation of bypass fat
In proximate analysis, dietary fats are expressed as ether extract, which includes
true fats and ether soluble non-fatty acids substances. Up to 50% of forages and 20%
of the grain ether extractable materials may be of non-fatty acids nature (Palmquist and
Jenkins, 1980). Theoretically, the efficiency of nutrient utilization is maximal for milk
production, when supplemental dietary fat provides 15-20% of the dietary metabolizable
energy or 7-8% of the dietary fat on DM basis (Scott et al., 1995). As per NRC (2001),
dairy ration (mixture of cereals and forages) contains about 3% fat and the total dietary
fat in ration should not exceed 6-7% of the DM. Palmquist and Jenkins (1980) concluded
that addition of 3-5% fat of the total ration DM has beneficial effect on the milk production;
whereas decrease in production occurs, when the fat level exceeds 6% of the ration DM
(Jenkins and Palmquist, 1984). Although bypass fat can be included in higher amount
in the diet of dairy animals (West and Hill, 1990); feeding bypass fat at 9% of the dietary
DM is not beneficial in lactating dairy cows (Schauff and Clark, 1992). Palmquist (1991)
suggested that the first 3% fat of the DM intake of the animal should be provided by
oilseed sources and that in excess of 3% should be as bypass fat. It is recommended that
ration of the high producing animals should contain 4-6% fat, which should include fat
from natural feed, oil seed and bypass fat in equal proportions (Sharma, 2004).
In Indian feeding condition, about 200-300g bypass fat product has been
supplemented in the daily diet of the lactating crossbred cows by many workers (Naik
et al., 2009b; Sirohi et al., 2010; Mudgal et al., 2012; Wadhwa et al., 2012). However,
other workers supplemented bypass fat @ 2.5% (Tyagi et al., 2009a; 2009b) and 4.0%
(Thakur and Shelke, 2010) of the total DM intake of the lactating crossbred cows and
buffaloes, respectively. Based on the milk production, bypass fat was supplemented @
10g (Gowda et al., 2013) and 20g (Parnerkar et al., 2011) per kg milk production in
lactating cows and buffaloes, respectively.
Effect on in vitro and rumen fermentation
There was significant reduction in in vitro DM degradability (IVDMD) with
increase in the level of bypass fat; however, the TVFA, TN, TCA-N, NPN and NH3N remained alike (Tangendjaja et al., 1993). There was no effect of the indigenously
prepared bypass fat on the IVDMD, TN, TCA-N, NPN and NH3-N (Table 2); however,
the TVFA concentration in the diet without bypass fat was lower than the diet with
bypass fat (Naik et al., 2009a). Saijpaul et al. (2010) concluded that the indigenously
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prepared bypass fat can substitute up to 40% of the natural fat of the concentrate mixture
(6% natural fat) contained in total mixed rations (50:50, R: C); and in rations with
limited grain (5-10%) and high level of bypass fat, 1% urea could reduce the IVDMD
(Saijpaul et al., 2010).
Table 2. Effect of supplementation of bypass fat on in vitro and rumen fermentation
Parameters
IVDMD (%)

In vitro fermentation1

Rumen fermentation 2

Bypass fat (-)

Bypass fat (+)

bypass fat (-)

Bypass fat (+)

53.0

54.0

pH

6.90

6.77

TVFA* (meq/dl)

3.23a

4.77b

7.13a

8.08b

TN (mg/dl)

15.40

17.73

82.04

83.21

TCA-N* (mg/dl)

7.93

8.87

32.57a

38.22 b

NPN (mg/dl)

7.47

8.87

49.47

44.99

NH3-N (mg/dl)

3.41

4.85

10.03

9.80

TBC (x10 /ml)

5.80

6.90

TPC (x104/ml)

2.12

2.31

11

Naik et al. (2009a); 2Naik et al. (2010).

*Means bearing different superscripts in a row, within a particular criterion, differ significantly (P<0.05).

Supplementation of bypass fat had no adverse effect on the rumen fermentation

of dairy animals even at 5 to 15% (Chalupa et al., 1985; Chalupa et al., 1986) of the
dietary DM. When Ca-LCFA, especially Ca salts of highly USFA are fed, dietary
buffers should be added to maintain the ruminal pH and to minimize the dissociation of
Ca salts in rumen (Chalupa et al., 1986). The ruminal pH, NH3-N and VFA level were
not affected adversely by the supplementation of Ca soaps up to 5% of the dietary DM
in lactating cows containing 60% forages (Ohajuruka et al., 1991). With the increase in
the level of dietary Ca-LCFA, ruminal fluid pH and concentration of TVFA in ruminal
fluid did not change, but molar percentage of acetate and acetate to propionate ratio
increased linearly (Schauff and Clark, 1992). Dietary supplementation of the indigenously
prepared bypass fat (Ca-LCFA) had no adverse effect on the rumen fermentation (Table
2) of buffaloes fed wheat straw based diets (Naik et al., 2010).
Effect on dry matter intake
Most of the workers reported that the DM intake (7.44-12.54 vs 7.65-13.60, kg/
d) of dairy animals was not altered (Naik et al., 2007b; 2009a; Tyagi et al., 2009b;
Thakur and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi et al., 2010; Mudgal et al., 2012) on supplementation
of bypass fat. However, Chouinard et al. (1997) reported decrease (23.5 vs 21.5, kg/
d) and Tyagi et al. (2009a) reported increase (3.16 vs 3.41; kg/100 kg BW/d) in DM
intake in dairy animals fed bypass fat. However, to overcome the palatability problem,
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if any, bypass fat should be diluted with grain (Grummer et al., 1990). The type of fatty
acids of Ca salt has an effect on DM intake as it is altered quadratically, when unsaturation
of dominant FA in Ca salts is increased (Chouinard et al., 1998).
Effect on digestibility of nutrients
There was no effect (Table 3) of supplementation of bypass fat on the digestibility
of DM, OM, CP, CF, NFE, TCHO, NDF and cellulose (Naik et al., 2007b; 2009a;
Tyagi et al., 2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi et al., 2010), which may be due
to the non-interference and relatively stable nature of bypass fat (Garcia-Bojalil et al.,
1998). However, Schauff and Clark (1992) reported increase in the digestibility of CP,
when Ca-LCFA was fed to the dairy animals.
Table 3. Effect of supplementation of bypass fat on the digestibility (%) of nutrients
Nutrient
DM

Diet without bypass fat

Diet with bypass fat

53.0-71.02

54.0-70.47

OM

56.0-72.10

57.0-71.55

CP

60.80-91.59

61.56-90.31

EE

70.68-75.37a

82.05-89.0b

CF

52.77-62.61

52.01-60.22

NFE

59.07-70.48

60.87-70.68

TCHO

53.0-68.3

53.0-65.8

NDF

50.07-66.3

51.32-64.1

ADF

39.0a-62.3

44.0b-61.1

Hemi cellulose

73.0b

69.3 a

Cellulose

68.7

66.8

ab

Means bearing different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P<0.05).

The digestibility of EE increased significantly, when bypass fat was supplemented

in the diet of the dairy animals (Naik et al., 2007b; 2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010;
Sirohi et al., 2010). The increase in the digestibility of the fat indicates that added fat
is more digestible than the basal diet fat or fat supplementation dilutes the endogenous
lipid secretions, resulting in more accurate estimate of the true lipid digestibility (Grummer,
1988). Lowering of fat digestibility at higher level of supplementation may be due to the
limited capacity of the small intestine to absorb the fat (Jenkins and Palmquist, 1984)
or masking effect of endogenous faecal fat (Ngidi et al., 1990). With the increase in fat
intake, the apparent fat digestibility increases quadratically, while the true fat digestibility
decreases linearly (Palmquist, 1991). The digestibility of the SFA decreases with increase
in the chain length and; unsaturation of the fatty acids increases the digestibility, thus
palmitic acid is more digestible and stearic acid is less digestible than the average fatty
acids mixture in ruminants (Palmquist, 1994). The digestibility of the soluble residues
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increased quadratically by addition of Ca-LCFA in the ration of the lactating animals

(Schauff and Clark, 1992). On increasing the level of Ca soap in diet, the NDF digestibility
increased linearly (Ngidi et al., 1990). However, when bypass fat was supplemented
with replacement of some part of the starch of the ration, then apparent digestibilities
of DM, CP, EE and NDF increased (Chouinard et al., 1998). Reduction in readily
fermentable carbohydrates in rumen might have influenced the microbial protein synthesis
resulting in the loss of ammonia nitrogen (Palmquist et al., 1993) and lower amount of
starch available at large intestine might have caused lower excretion of CP in faeces
(McCarthy et al., 1989), which in turn would have responsible for the higher apparent
CP digestibility. The increase in the apparent total tract digestibility of NDF in cows fed
Ca-LCFA was due to increase in the post-ruminal degradation (Chouinard et al., 1998).
On supplementation of bypass fat, ADF digestibility may be either increased (Naik et
al., 2009a) or not altered (Naik et al., 2007b; Tyagi et al., 2009a; Thakur and Shelke,
2010; Sirohi et al., 2010). Schauff and Clark. (1989) pointed out that ADF digestibility
varies with level of Ca-LCFA supplementation in the diet and is not affected at low level
of supplementation. Type of fatty acids of Ca salt also influences the ADF digestibility.
Apparent ADF digestibility is altered quadratically, when unsaturation of dominant fatty
acids in Ca salts is increased, which is not observed for NDF (Chouinard et al., 1998).
There was a cubic effect on digestibility of ADF and cellulose as dietary LCFA is
increased (Schauff and Clark., 1992). Naik et al. (2007b) reported no influence of
bypass fat supplementation on the cellulose digestibility of buffaloes. Hemicellulose
digestibility is either not altered (Schauff and Clark, 1992) or increased (Garcia-Bojalil
et al., 1998) or decreased (Naik et al., 2007b) with inclusion of bypass fat in the diet.
Erickson et al. (1992) reported that with supplementation of Ca-LCFA, improve
hemicellulose digestibility caused increase in NDF and decrease in ADF digestibility in
cows during early lactation.
Effect on nutrient balances
Supplementation of bypass fat (Ca-LCFA) did not affect the nitrogen balance of
the diet in adult buffaloes; however, the Ca intake increased (P<0.05) with increase in
the level of bypass fat, which improved (P<0.05) the Ca balance (Naik et al., 2007b;
Naik et al., 2009a). The Ca excreted through faeces increased with the inclusion of
bypass fat, which may be due to the higher Ca intake as Ca-LCFA in which excess Ca
might have reformed in soluble soaps (Palmquist et al., 1986) in the large intestine and
was excreted in the faeces; however, the urinary Ca excretion was not affected in
buffaloes (Naik et al., 2009a). The faecal and total P excretion in Ca-LCFA supplemented
group was lower (P<0.05) than the un-supplemented group, which may be attributed
to the direct interaction between Ca and P balances (Naik et al., 2007b).
Effect on nutritive value
The DCP (4.66 vs 4.82, %), TDN (63.84 vs 64.64, %) and ME (2.31 vs 2.34,
Mcal/kg) content of the diet was not improved due to supplementation of bypass fat in
high roughage (R: C-80:20) diet (Naik et al., 2007b); however the DE (9.60 vs 10.37,
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MJ/ kg) and ME (7.87 vs 8.50, MJ/ kg) content of the diet increased in low roughage
(R: C-65: 35) diet, with bypass fat supplementation (Naik et al., 2009a).
Effect on various blood parameters
Bypass fat supplementation had no effect on the blood glucose (55.84-58.64 vs 57.8258.59, mg/dl); BUN (16.97-26.24 vs 15.73-26.72, mg/l); NEFA (106.54 vs 124.12, mg/
l); protein (9.21 vs 8.88, g/dl); albumin (3.24 vs 3.43, g/dl); globulin (95.96 vs 5.45,
g/dl); creatinine (1.13 vs 1.16) and cholesterol (170.85 vs 200.39) level of dairy animals
(Tyagi et al., 2009a; Wadhwa et al., 2012). However, Tyagi et al. (2009a) and Wadhwa
et al. (2012) reported, respectively that blood TG level was not affected (18.75 vs 18.15)
and increased (51.34 vs 69.70) due to the supplemental bypass fat. Further, as per the
report of Wadhwa et al. (2012), the blood uric acid (6.16 vs 9.22), Ca (10.31 vs v11.24)
and P (8.78 vs 9.54) levels are increased (P<0.05) in the animals fed bypass fat.
Effect on milk yield
On supplementation of bypass fat in the diet of dairy animals, the milk yield
(Table 4) is increased by 5.5-24.0% (Naik et al., 2009b; Tyagi et al., 2009a; Thakur
and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi et al., 2010; Gowda et al., 2013; Parnerkar et al., 2011;
Wadhwa et al., 2012).
Although, there is no significant interaction with breed of cow, effect of supplemental
bypass fat (Ca-LCFA) on milk yield tends to be greater in Holstein cows than Jersey
cows (West and Hill, 1990). Effect of supplementation of bypass fat in dairy cows on
Table 4. Effect of supplementation of bypass fat on milk yield (MY, kg)
Bypass fat
(+)

(-)

Increase in MY
(kg)

References

(%)

Milk yield*

15.51

18.88

3.37

21.7

4% FCM yield*

12.63

15.31

2.68

21.2

Milk yield*

17.57

18.65

1.08

6.2

4% FCM yield*

17.47

19.26

1.79

10.3

Naik et al. (2009b)

Tyagi et al. (2009a)

Milk Yield*

9.49

10.68

1.19

12.5

4% FCM yield*

11.86

13.45

1.59

13.4

Thakur and Shelke (2010)

Milk yield (kg)*

11.40

13.18

1.78

15.6

4% FCM yield*

12.01

14.89

2.88

24.0

Milk yield (L)

17.80

19.00

1.20

6.8

Gowda et al. (2011)

Milk yield

11.17

12.04

0.87

7.8

Parnerkar et al.(2011)

6% FCM yield

14.00

16.13

2.13

15.2

Milk yield

20.42

21.55

1.13

5.5

Sirohi et al. (2010)

Wadhwa et al. (2012)

*Significant differences in milk yield between control (-) and supplemented (-) groups.

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milk yield and FCM yield is also influenced by parity of animal, which is more in
primiparous cows than multiparous cows; however, for milk yield interaction is not
significant but for FCM yield interaction is significant (Sklan et al., 1994). Stage of
lactation influences supplemental effect of the bypass fat on milk yield and FCM yield,
which is generally increased in early and peak lactation (Schneider et al, 1988), may be
due to the higher energy intake, more efficient use of fat by mammary gland and
enhancement of tissue mobilization before peak production (Sklan et al., 1991). Transfer
efficiency of plasma fatty acids to mammary tissue decreases as lactation progresses;
therefore, increase in production is maximal during early and peak lactation than mid
or late lactation (Grummer, 1988). Garg and Mehta (1998) reported that bypass fat
feeding had maximum effect on milk yield during the first quarter of the lactation, when
feed intake is usually low and the effect was less prominent as lactation advanced,
probably due to the DM intake start increasing after 6-8 weeks of calving. Further,
production of the lactating animal is dependent on the amount of bypass fat supplemented
in the ration. At higher level of supplementation of Ca-LCFA, increase in milk yield is
quadratic, as it interferes with the digestion of other nutrients and impairs benefits of
the supplemental fat on energy utilization (Chouinard et al., 1997). There was increase
in FCM yield of lactating cows, when Ca-LCFA was supplemented up to 6% of the
dietary DM, but, it decreased at 9% of the dietary DM (Schauff and Clark, 1992).
Supplemental effect of the Ca salts on milk production of dairy cows was influenced by
the fatty acids composition of the Ca salts, which was further dependent up on the
lactational stage of the animal. With increase in the unsaturation of the dominant fatty
acids in Ca salts, milk yield increased linearly in early lactation (Chouinard et al., 1998).
However, milk yield was not affected by the dietary supplementation of Ca salts of CLA
in lactating animals (Castaneda-Gutierrez et al., 2005).
Effect on milk composition
Among all components of milk, fat content is most sensitive to the dietary changes.
Similar to milk yield, although there is no significant interaction with breed of cow,
effect of supplementation of Ca-LCFA on milk composition tends to be greater in Holstein
cows than Jersey cows (West and Hill, 1990). On supplementation of bypass fat to
lactating animals, milk fat percentage (Table 5) is either increased (Sklan et al., 1991;
Thakur and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi et al., 2010; Parnerkar et al., 2011) or decreased
(Chouinard et al., 1998) or not altered (Naik et al., 2009b; Tyagi et al., 2009a). However,
addition of bypass fat in diet generally increases the total milk fat yield due to increase
in the milk production (Naik et al., 2009b). Further, supplemental effect of bypass fat
on milk fat content is dependent up on the level and fatty acid profile of the Ca-LCFA.
Milk fat percentage and yield decreases linearly with increase in the amount of dietary
Ca soap; and Ca-LCFA from a saturated fat source have little influence on milk fat
content (Chouinard et al., 1997), while increase in unsaturation of dominant FA in Ca
salts has a positive linear effect on the milk fat percentage of lactating cows (Chouinard
et al., 1998). Supplementation of Ca-LCFA in the diet of lactating cows generally
decreases the proportions of short and medium chain saturated fatty acids (C6:0 to C16:0)
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of milk fat due to reduction in de novo FA

synthesis in mammary gland and increase
in proportions of LCFA (C18:1, C18:2, C18:3)
Parameters (%)
Control
Treatment
due to increased uptake of preformed LCFA
Fat
2.77-7.44
2.75-8.15
from blood (Mishra et al., 2004). During
SNF
7.81-9.32
7.69-9.43
the total lactation (early, mid and late)
Protein
3.00-5.59
3.05-3.72
period, there was increase in the total USFA
(32.01 vs 39.22), LCFA (75.61 vs 77.17)
Lactose
4.65-5.05
4.84-5.24
and MUFA (29.68 vs 33.53) and decrease
Total solids
11.79-15.26
11.95-15.40
in the total SFA (63.28 vs 54.02) as
percentage of the total fatty acids of milk
due to supplementation of bypass fat in the diet of dairy cows during (Tyagi et al.,
2009a). The proportions of odd numbered FA (C15:0, C17:0) of milk fat decreases because
ruminal bacteria, which are major source of odd chain fatty acids of milk fat prefers to
use preformed fatty acids and de novo fatty acids synthesis is reduced (Chouinard et al.,
1997).
Table 5. Effect of supplementation of bypass fat on
milk composition

The SNF content of milk is either not altered (Naik et al., 2009b; Tyagi et al.,
2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi et al., 2010) or increased (Wadhwa et al.,
2012); however, the total SNF yield is increased due to the increase in milk production
(Naik et al., 2009b).
Milk protein is more responsive to diet than lactose, but is less responsive than
fat (Jenkins and McGuire, 2006). Generally, supplementation of bypass fat (Ca-LCFA)
has negative effect on the milk protein percentage; an overall effect of -0.12 percentage
unit (Chouinard et al., 1998). Depressed milk protein percentage is related to the dilution
of milk protein as higher milk volume synthesized is not synchronized with uptake of
amino acids by the mammary gland (DePeters and Cantt, 1992). Further, dietary fat
impairs amino acids transport to mammary gland and decreases milk protein synthesis
by inducing insulin resistance (Palmquist and Moser, 1981). If protein or amino acids
are inadequate, lipoprotein synthesis may be decreased. Consequently, fat and protein
transport to mammary gland is reduced leading to decrease in milk protein percentage,
which usually occurs and decrease in milk fat percentage, which sometimes occurs.
Effect of supplemental Ca-LCFA on milk protein content is not influenced by the breed
of the animal (West and Hill, 1990), but is influenced by the parity and stage of lactation
of the animal. Decline in milk protein content is reported both in multiparous cows (West
and Hill, 1990) and primiparous cows; however, decline is apparent only in late lactation
but not in early lactation (Sklan et al., 1992). Dietary protein should be increased, when
fat supplemented diets are fed to animals (Palmquist and Moser, 1981). However, reports
of no change (Naik et al., 2009b; Tyagi et al., 2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010; Sirohi
et al., 2010) and increase (Wadhwa et al., 2012) in milk protein percentage are also
available. However, the total milk protein yield is increased due to the increase in milk
production (Naik et al., 2009b). Generally, lactose (Naik et al., 2009b; Tyagi et al.,
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2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010) and total solid (Naik et al., 2009b) contents were not
influenced by the supplemental bypass fat; but the concentration and yield of lactose is
altered in quadratic pattern, when amounts of Ca soap fed to cows are increased (Chouinard
et al., 1997). Supplemental effect of Ca-LCFA on milk total solid is influenced by the
parity of the animal, which is greater for primiparous cows than multiparous cows (West
and Hill, 1990). Yield of total solids and solid corrected milk (SCM) has quadratic
response to supplemental Ca soap (Chouinard et al., 1997). Very often, supplementation
of Ca salts in diet of lactating cows increases milk yield without changing milk composition
(Ferguson et al., 1989). Supplemental Ca salt of CLA (cis-9, trans-11-CLA and trans10, cis-12-CLA) reduces milk fat content (Castaneda-Gutierrez et al., 2005), de novo
synthesis of C8:0, C10:0 and C12:0 and increases CLA (cis-9, trans-11-CLA and trans-10,
cis-12-CLA) content of milk fat in a dose dependent manner (Giesy et al., 2002).
Supplementation of Ca salt of CLA to lactating animals is a potential method to increase
the CLA content of the milk fat (Giesy et al., 2002) and causing MFD without alteration
in the milk and milk protein yield (Castaneda-Gutierrez et al., 2005), which may be a
useful management tool to alleviate the negative energy balance of the dairy animals by
decreasing the energy output during early lactation.
Effect on efficiency of nutrient utilization
There are reports of no effect on CP intake (Tyagi et al., 2009a; 2009b; Thakur
and Shelke, 2010) and DCP intake (Naik et al., 2007b) by the supplementation of bypass
fat to dairy animals. However, Sirohi et al. (2010) reported increase in CP intake (1.44
vs 1.60; kg/d) in lactating crossbred cows supplemented with bypass fat. The TDN
intake was either not altered (Naik et al., 2007b; Sirohi et al., 2010) or increased (Tyagi
et al., 2009a; Thakur and Shelke, 2010) on supplementation of bypass fat in the diet of
the dairy animals. Also, no increase in the DE and ME intake had been reported by the
earlier workers on bypass fat supplementation to buffaloes (Naik et al., 2009a). Bypass
fat supplementation in the diet of the dairy animals increases the efficiency of utilization
of different nutrients. Tyagi et al. (2009a) reported decrease in the intake (kg) of DM
(0.81 vs 0.78 and 0.82 vs 0.76); CP (0.12 vs 0.11; 0.12 vs 0.11) and TDN (0.52 vs
0.51; 0.52 vs 0.50) per kg of milk and FCM production in crossbred cows indicating
better utilization of DM , CP and TDN due to bypass fat supplementation. Sirohi et al.
(2010) also observed decrease in the CP intake (130.72 vs 118.87, g) per kg FCM
production in crossbred cows indicating better utilization of the dietary CP.
Effect on body weight and body condition
Body condition score (BCS) provides better estimate of body fat distribution than
body weight (Ferguson et al., 1994). General pattern of change in BCS over lactation
is an initial fall continuing for 2-3 months and then a lower recovery over mid lactation
(Treacher et al., 1986). Body weight (BW) and BCS do not change in parallel; change
in BCS occurs later than change in the BW. Effect of supplemental bypass fat (CaLCFA) on change of BW is influenced by parity of the animal as loss of BW is more
and longer lasting in primiparous cows than multiparous cows (Sklan et al., 1994). Garg
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and Mehta (1998) observed that the BSC of the cows improved due to bypass fat feeding
indicating reduction in weight loss in the first quarter and helped gaining substantially
after 90 days of feeding. Naik et al. (2009b) reported better recovery in BW (-2.08 vs
+14.13, kg) and BSC (-0.06 vs +0.02) in crossbred cows during early lactation in
bypass fat supplemented group. Thakur and Shelke (2009) reported that supplementation
of calcium salts of soya acid oil fatty acids at 4% of DMI improved the ADG (553.10
vs 577.60, g) in Murrah buffalo calves owing to higher TDN intake (2.14 vs 2.42, kg/
d). The BW of the animals improved considerably in the bypass fat supplemented group
as compared to the un-supplemented group (551 vs 508, kg), but the differences were
non-significant (Wadhwa et al., 2012).
Effect on reproduction
Supplementation of Ca-LCFA in the diet has positive effect on reproductive
performance of dairy cows, which is further dependent up on the specific fatty acids
profile of the Ca salt. Feeding Ca-LCFA increases pregnancy rate and reduces open days
(Sklan et al., 1991). Several hypotheses are suggested regarding role of the fatty acids
on reproductive performance of dairy animals (Sklan et al., 1994). These include (i)
improved energy balance results in an earlier return to post-partum ovarian cycling; (ii)
increase linoleic acid may provide increase PGF2 and stimulate return to ovarian
cycling and improve follicular recruitment; and (iii) increase in progesterone secretion
either from improved energy balance or from altered lipoprotein composition from dietary
fat improves fertility. Due to bypass fat feeding, the average period for conception after
calving was reduced (118 vs 92, days) in cows (Garg and Mehta, 1998). Naik et al.
(2009b) reported that when bypass fat was included in diet of crossbred cows, the
number of artificial inseminations required per conception was reduced (1.4 vs 1.2),
indicating better reproductive performance of animals. However, changes in reproductive
performance associated with fat supplementation are related to magnitude of the milk
response of the fat supplementation (Scott et al., 1995). The bypass fat supplementation
during pre-partum period to advanced pregnant cows increased the calf weight (24.94
vs 27.95, kg), calving percent (88.88 vs 100); decreased the incidences of still birth (1
vs 0), premature birth (1 vs 0) and retention of foetal membranes (4 vs 1) in high yielding
cross bred cows (Tyagi et al., 2009b). Gowda et al. (2013) also reported better reproductive
performance in cows fed indigenously prepared bypass fat. The supplementation of
protected fat and protein during early lactation improved the reproductive performance
in Murrah buffaloes along with increase in the milk production and its persistency
(Shelke et al., 2012).
Effect of on economics of milk production
The cost of production of the indigenously prepared bypass fat depends up on the
cost of the raw materials. Depending up on the accessibility of raw materials, cost of
production of the bypass fat, prepared by the indigenous technology is reasonable and
affordable. Feeding of the indigenously prepared bypass fat to dairy animals has shown
to give additional profit of Rs. 34.50/- per cow per day (Naik et al., 2009b), Rs. 11.60/
158

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- per cow per day (Gowda et al., 2013) and Rs. 39.66/- per buffalo per day (Parnerkar
et al., 2011); besides improvement in reproductive performance and health of the animals.

CONCLUSIONS
From available literature, it can be concluded that supplementation of bypass fat
in the diet of dairy animals is very important to alleviate problems of negative energy
balance without adversely affecting the dry matter intake and rumen fermentation.
Supplementation of bypass fat gives additional benefit due to increase in milk yield,
FCM yield, efficiency of nutrient utilization, post partum recovery of the body weight
and body condition score and reproductive performance of the dairy animals. Further
research is necessary to find out the supplemental effect of the bypass fat on dairy
animals fed various types of basal rations at different productive levels and stages of
lactation.

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