Introduction to the Atmosphere

Chapter at a Glance
Origin o f t h e Earth and A t m o s p h e r e
Atmospheric C o m p o s i t i o n
The Carbon Cycle
Constant and Variable Gases
The Faint Y o u n g Sun Paradox
Atmospheric Structure
Summary
Review

The atmosphere is a collection of gases h e l d

near the earth by gravity. It is also p u l l e d away
f r o m the earth because a v a c u u m exists i n the
harsh conditions of space. One of the most
f u n d a m e n t a l properties of the universe is the
second law of thermodynamics. One f o r m of
the second law states that energy (and therefore mass, because energy and mass are related by Einstein's theory of relativity) moves
f r o m areas of higher concentration (in this
case, the earth's lower atmosphere) to areas of
lower concentration (outer space). Thus, the
atmosphere represents a place where a b a l ance is generally achieved between the d o w n ward-directed gravitational force a n d the
upward-directed force of buoyancy. This balance is t e r m e d hydrostatic equilibrium. It is
this extremely t h i n a n d delicate zone k n o w n as
the atmosphere that makes life as we k n o w i t
possible o n the planet. W h e n y o u look i n the
sky, the atmosphere appears to continue i n f i nitely, b u t i n reality, i f the earth were the size of
an apple, the atmosphere w o u l d have the
thickness of the apple's skin.

Technically, the atmosphere is a subset of the

air because i t is composed solely of gases. By
contrast, air contains not only the gases b u t also
aerosolssolid and l i q u i d particles suspended
above the surface that are too t i n y for gravity to
p u l l downward. SoUd aerosols include ice crystals, volcanic soot particles, salt crystals f r o m
the ocean, and soil particles; l i q u i d aerosols i n clude clouds and fog droplets.
Because the atmosphere is composed of the
lightest elements gravitationally attracted to
earth, many assume that i t has little or no
mass. Compared to the mass of the solid earth
(6 X 10"^ kg; or 6 X lO^^ metric tons) and oceans
(1.4 X 10=^1 kg; or 1.4 X W metric tons) the atmosphere is indeed light. But the atmosphere
has a substantial total mass of 5 x 10" kg
(5 X 10'= metric tons)!
The mass of the atmosphere is i n constant
m o t i o n , giving considerable impact to the surface environment. For example, a tornado can
cause catastrophic devastation to a location. I n
the case of a tornado, the mass of air has considerable acceleration. According to Newton's
second law'of motion, force is the product of
mass and acceleration. The two factors c o m bine, i n this situation, to produce a force capable of devastation.
The atmosphere is an extremely complex entity that must be viewed simultaneously o n
m a n y levels, b o t h temporally a n d i n three spatial dimensions (west-east, north-south, and
vertical). Atmospheric processes can be difficult
to understand. To appreciate the nature of the
atmosphere properly, we must first understand
the origins of the atmosphere and its changes
since the origin of the planet.

13

CHAPTER2 Introduction to the Atnnosphere

Origin of the Eartli and Atmospiiere

According to tiie best scientific information, the
universe is believed to have begun approximately 15 b i l l i o n years ago. A t that time, all matter i n
the universe was confined to a single space. A n
explosion of unimaginable p r o p o r t i o n sent this
matter, mostly hydrogen, outward i n all directions. Over time, matter gravitationally collected
i n various areas of space to f o r m galaxies. W i t h i n
the galaxies, smaller amounts of matter gravitationally condensed into stars. Star f o r m a t i o n began to occur w h e n hydrogen was compressed
under its o w n gravitational weight. I f the mass
involved was sufficiently large, nuclear fusion
begana process that converted lighter elements (principally hydrogen) into heavier elements (primarily h e l i u m ) . Such
reactions
released amazing quantities of radiant energy.
Occasionally, a star exploded, sending heavier elements outward t h r o u g h the galaxy. Vast
clouds of dust, called nebula (Figure 2.1)
formed, and the original gravitational condensation process began anew. Our solar system is
believed to have f o r m e d f r o m a nebula approximately 5 b i l l i o n years ago. The sun gravitationally attracted the bulk of the elements that
composed the nebula. Planets f o r m e d as balls

*
i

Figure 2.1

The Orion Nebula. (See color plate 2.1)

of dust gravitationally collected over various orbits about the primitive sun. Earth was one
such ball of dust. As i t grew, the elements fused
together and collapsed under their o w n weight
and gravity. As the earth grew i n size, its gravity
increased proportionately. This caused the early
earth materials to melt. Melting was also encouraged by frequent impacts w i t h large planetesimals, w h i c h were essentially very small
planets of condensed debris m o v i n g over wildly
eccentric orbits about the sun. These planetesimals contributed heavier elements and mass to
the growing earth while shattering and melting
its h o t surface. A collision between the earth
and a planetesimal is thought to have created
the m o o n . Remnants of early solar system planetesimals are present today i n the vast asteroid
field between Mars a n d Jupiter. The Oort
clouda collection of icy comets and dust that
surrounds the outer edges of our solar system
also acts as a relic of conditions present i n the
early stages of solar system formation.
I n these early times, earth's atmosphere consisted of light and noble gases such as hydrogen, h e l i u m , neon, and argon. These gases were
effectively swept away as the solar windradioactive particles f r o m the sun moving
through space at the speed of hghtdeveloped.
Today, the earth is largely devoid of noble gases
as a result. So h o w d i d the atmosphere that we
k n o w today form?
The composition of the atmosphere can be
explained by looking at volcanic activity, w h i c h
is rather l i m i t e d over the earth's surface today
b u t was apparently widespread billions of years
ago as the early earth cooled slowly f r o m its p r i mordial m o l t e n state. As volcanic material
cooled, gases were released through the process
of outgassing, w h i c h consisted p r i m a r i l y of d i atomic nitrogen (N^) and carbon dioxide (CO^),
w i t h lesser amounts of water vapor, methane
(CH,), a n d sulfur. The condensation of water vapor into l i q u i d water i n the cool atmosphere
f o r m e d clouds and precipitation. Precipitation
collected i n low-elevation areas of the planet
and over t i m e built u p to f o r m the oceans.
The conditions of our planet are unique i n
that earth is the only planet i n the solar system
k n o w n to support the presence of water i n l i q -

Atmospheric Composition

Ttd f o r m . This is a consequence of m a n y relat- where d i d most of the CO^ go after outgassing i n
-L a n d interacting, factorssome o f w h i c h i n - the primitive atmosphere, and h o w d i d
come
ude distance to the sun and atmospheric to replace it?
oiposition. Because water is essential to life,
The evolution of the earth's atmospheric
s not surprising that earth is the only planet composition (including O^) involves significant
r r.'.Ti to support life.
\s w i t h the biosphere, hydrosphere,
and lithosphere. About 3.5 b i l l i o n years ago, an

I Atmospheric Composition ^ ^ y ' f ^

^^Hnteresting development occurred i n the extensive waters of the p r i m o r d i a l earth that p r o affected
the
evolution
of
the
;ay, the d r y atmosphere consists p r i m a r i l y of foundly
atmosphere.
Single-ceUed
organisms
called
: i : : m i c nitrogen (N^) and diatomic oxygen
Nitrogen is a highly stable gas that com- prokaryotes began to appear. These simple an^ 78 percent of the present-day atmospher- cestors of bacteria and green algae absorbed
ime (Table 2,1). The abundance of
has nutrients directly f r o m the surrounding enviised as a percentage of the total atmos- ronment. Prokaryotes allowed for the release of
volume p r i m a r i l y because i t is n o t re- C O 2 to the atmosphere as a byproduct of fermoved as effectively f r o m the atmosphere as are mentation, the process by w h i c h simple organost other atmospheric gases. The residence isms acquire energy t h r o u g h the breakdown of
tmethe
mean length of t i m e that an i n d i v i d - food. The evolution of prokaryotes led to more
complex m u l t i c e l l e d organisms called eukarysal molecule remains i n the atmosphereof
- believed to be approximately 16.25 m i l l i o n otes, w h i c h contain more complex internal
structures, and release even more CO^ i n t o the
fars.
The next most abundant gas i n the present- atmosphere. Most life o n earth evolved f r o m the
:-y dry atmosphere is oxygen, comprising ap- further development of eukaryotes. However,
proximately 21 percent of the atmospheric prokaryotes a n d eukaryotes w o u l d have h a d to
TOhmie today. Added to the quantity of n i t r o - develop i n the oceans because w i t h o u t oxygen
en, these two gases constitute 99 percent of i n the atmosphere, the protective ozone (O,) lay-e dry atmosphere. About 0.93 percent of the er could n o t have f o r m e d to protect terrestrial
f m a i n i n g 1 percent is composed mostly of ar- life f r o m the h a r m f u l ultraviolet (UV) radiation
; : n A), and a wide array of atmospheric trace emitted by the sun. Over time, CO^ continued to
accumulate, as i t became a larger and larger
1568 constitute the remainder.
Of these, CO^ is the f o u r t h most abundant component of the atmospheric volume.
By about 3 billion years ago, another major degas i n the d r y atmosphere, w i t h 0.038 percent of
velopment
i n the history of life o n earth appar:!ie dry atmosphere, or 380 parts per m i l l i o n
ently
caused
another major change to the
r p m ) . It plays an especially i m p o r t a n t role i n
oiaintaining the temperature of the planet at a atmospheric composition. The early evolution of
level comfortable for life i n its present f o r m . The aquatic green plants led to a significant extraction
earth's early atmosphere apparently contained of C O 2 firom the atmosphere as a requirement of
tai more CO^ t h a n today's, and little or no O^. So photosynthesisthe process of deriving energy
through the breakdown of foodand the sequestration of atmospheric CO^ f r o m the biomass of
TaU2.1 Composition of the Dry Atmosphere
those plants. Photosynthesis releases O^ into the
atmosphere as a byproduct. Therefore, as green
Gas
Percentage of Air
plants began to populate the earth, first i n the
Strogen (N^)
78.08
oceans and later o n landafter the presence of
nn no
Diatomic oxygen (O^)
20.95
O 2 gradually led to the formation of ozone ( O 3 )
Vj-gon (A)
0.93
and the O 3 layeratmospheric CO^ decreased i n
Carbon dioxide (COj)
0.038
concentration while atmospheric O^ simultaneAll others
0.003
ously increased. It is believed that at least some of
^"r

CHAPTER 2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

the early prokaryotes and eukaryotes had used

photosynthesis to break down their food, so some
beginnings of the ozone layer probably predated
the evolution of green plants. Today most of the
atmospheric CO^ is stored i n vast quantities of
sedimentary rock, originally extracted f r o m the
atmosphere by living things. The amount of atmospheric O 2 present today represents a similar
percentage to that of CO^ i n the early atmosphere.

The Carbon Cycle

The process described above essentially represents the atmospheric component of the carbon
cycle, the continuous movement of carbon
through the earth-ocean-atmosphere system.
Carbon can exist i n various earth-ocean-atmosphere reservoirsthe components of a system
that effectively store matter and/or energy for a
certain period of time, after w h i c h they allow for
the movement (flux) of that matter and/or energy to another component of the system. Carbon
reservoirs include the atmosphere, w h i c h houses COj) the biosphere, w h i c h composes all living
matter; and the oceans, w h i c h include dissolved
carbonates (Figure 2.2). Over time, carbon cy-

cles among these various reservoirs. The carbon

residence time is different for each reservoir,
w i t h the rates of exchange directly related to the
size of the reservoir. The largest carbon reservoir,
comprising the vast majority of carbon i n the
earth-ocean-atmosphere system, is sedimentary
rock. Carbon may be stored i n sedimentary rock
layers for billions of years.
The second-largest reservoir is the oceans,
w h i c h act as a sink for atmospheric CO^ by absorbing many gigatons of CO^ from the atmosphere each year. Over time CO^ is transported
from the atmosphere into the deep ocean layers
i n a very slow process. Once the C O 2 is transported into the deep ocean, i t may remain i n this
reservoir for many thousands of years.
The biosphere (including soil) is a reservoir
that acts as a sink for the m a j o r i t y of CO^ f r o m
the atmosphere initially, for transport and storage elsewhere i n the system. The vast m a j o r i t y
of carbon i n the rock reservoir was extracted
f r o m the atmosphere t h r o u g h biological
processes. Residence t i m e associated w i t h the
biosphere may be examined o n a n u m b e r of
levels. Carbon is directly held i n the biosphere
as long as the living organism remains alive.
Once the organism dies, carbon exits this sink

Diffusion

Dissolved COj I

Carbonates
i ! in sediment

-^*e-

Figure 2.2

The global carbon cycle.

Atmospheric Composition

gradually over t i m e as tiie remains of tiie oraiiism decay. Some of this carbon m a y be: o m e buried naturally and transported into the
-xk reservoir. This process is very effective i n
n ^ r i n e environments where an abundance of
:rganic matter filters to the ocean floor, b u i l d n g huge layers of organic matter over vast t i m e
foans. Some of the decaying carbon w i l l dis>:he directly into water, b e c o m i n g part of the
iceanic carbon reservoir, a n d some reenters
~ e atmosphere through diffusion. However,
uch oceanic biomass eventually solidifies i n -.3 sedimentary rock. The atmosphere repre^c'Hts the smallest carbon sink, and the carbon
fxchange rate to this reservoir is r a p i d o n l y
^Dout 100 years.
Today, m a n y people are concerned that the
r-arural carbon cycle is being disrupted by h u an activities. Since the d a w n of the Industrial
Revolution i n the late 1700s, people have been
Turning ever-increasing quantities of fossil fuelsdeposits of carbon p r i m a r i l y i n the f o r m of
-atural gas, o i l , a n d coal. Fossil fuels represent
carbon that was taken out of the atmosphere
iong ago through natural processes and stored
i n the vast rock reservoir. Normally, this carbon
w o u l d be re-released back to the atmosphere
over millions of years. However, humans are exn-acting and releasing this material back to the
atmosphere i n very short periods of time. The
atmospheric quantity of CO^ increased f r o m 270
p p m i n 1800 to 380 p p m today, and the bulk of
the increase i n CO^ i n the atmosphere today entered after 1950 (Figure 2.3).
While clues of the atmospheric concentrat i o n of
back f r o m 1957 and earlier come
from chemical analysis of air bubbles trapped i n
ice, C O 2 concentration has been measured d i rectly since 1957 atop M a u n a Loa i n Hawaiia
site as far removed as possible f r o m local
sources of p o l l u t i o n . The t i m e series of atmospheric COj since 1957 is k n o w n as the Keeling
curve (Figure 2.4), n a m e d for Charles Keeling,
the climatologist w h o first showed that CO^ released f r o m fossil fuel c o m b u s t i o n w o u l d accumulate significantly i n the atmosphere. The
Keeling curve n o t only verifies the rapid increase
since 1957, b u t i t also reveals the seasonal cycle
of COj. M a x i m u m concentrations occur i n early
spring i n the n o r t h e r n hemisphere, where the

E
a
a

Year
Figure 2.3 Exponential rise in atmospheric carbon dioxide over the past 1000 years.

majority of the world's middle- and high-latitude forests are located. The relative lack of p h o tosynthetic activity during the d o r m a n t
n o r t h e r n winter m o n t h s causes a b u i l d u p of atmospheric C O 2 into March. Likewise, m i n i m u m
atmospheric CO^ i n n o r t h e r n hemisphere aut u m n results f r o m the b u i l d u p of biomass
throughout the n o r t h e r n hemisphere's spring
and summer months.
The long-term exponential growth i n the
amotmt of atmospheric CO^ concerns most climatologists and environmental scientists. Carbon
dioxide is an integral component of earth's energy
balance because it absorbs energy that is radiated
f r o m the earth and then reemits energy back
downward to the earth, thereby keeping the surface warmer than it w o u l d be i f the CO^ were not
present. This phenomenon is known as the greenhouse effect. The rapid increase i n the quantity of
atmospheric C O 2 is the most likely culprit for the
observed increases i n temperature of the earth's
surface i n the last several decades. The slow carbon cycle and u n k n o w n capacity for the biosphere and oceans to absorb excess atmospheric
C O 2 has concerned most scientists about the ultimate impacts of fossil fuel consumption.

Constant and Variable Gases

Constant gases are those that have relatively
long residence times i n the atmosphere and that

CHAPTER 2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

occur i n u n i f o r m proportions across the globe

and upward t h r o u g h the b u l k of the atmosphere.
These gases include nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
neon, h e l i u m , krypton, and xenon (Table 2.2).
Variable gases, also listed i n Table 2.2, are those
that change i n quantity f r o m place to place or
over time. They generally have shorter residence
times than constant gases, as various processes
combine to cycle the gases t h r o u g h reservoirs.
The most notable variable gas is water vapor,
w h i c h can occupy as m u c h as 4 percent of the
lower atmosphere by volume i n tropical, oceanic areas. Higher percentages of water vapor are
impossible, as atmospheric processes (cloud
f o r m a t i o n and precipitation) l i m i t the amount
that may be present i n the atmosphere for any
location. The atmosphere is very efficient i n r i d ding itself of excess water vapor.
The amount of water vapor i n the atmosphere varies dramatically across space because

water and energy must be available at the surface i n order for evaporation to occur. Water vapor content is maximized over locations w i t h
abundant energy and surface water, so the
wettest atmospheres occur over tropical waters
and rain forest regions. I n addition, water vapor
is largely l i m i t e d to the lower atmosphere because as the heights increase, atmospheric water
vapor is increasingly likely to condense to l i q u i d
water i n the cooler, high-altitude conditions.
Surprisingly, some locations that experience
little precipitation m a y have abundant water
vapor i n the atmosphere. The m a x i m u m
a m o u n t of water vapor that m a y exist i n the atmosphere is directly related to air temperature.
W h e n high temperatures combine w i t h a nearby surface water source, high amounts of water
vapor w i l l usually be present. For example, the
Red Sea region tends to have h i g h quantities of
atmospheric water vapor despite the lack of

The Faint Young Sun Paradox

Table 2.2 Concentrations of Constant and Variable Gases

of the Atmosphere
Gas

ppm of Air

Constant
Nitrogen

780,800

Oxygen

209,500

Argon

9,300

Neon

18.2

Helium

5.2

Krypton

1.14

Xenon

0.09

Variable
Water vapor

0.1-40,000

Carbon dioxide

-380

Methane

-1.8

Hydrogen

-0.6

Nitrous oxide

-0.31

Carbon monoxide

-0.09

Ozone

-0.4

Fluorocarbon 12

-0.0005

precipitation. This region is dry n o t because water vapor is unavailable b u t because the region
lacks a means by w h i c h the precipitation
process can occur easily.
As i m p l i e d by the Red Sea example, deserts
are generally n o t the regions of lowest atmospheric water vapor content. Instead, polar regions are n o r m a l l y the driest locations o n earth
f r o m an atmospheric moisture perspective. This
is because little energy is present i n cold air to
evaporate water. Furthermore, as air cools, w a ter vapor readily condenses to f o r m clouds and
perhaps precipitation, thereby m i n i m i z i n g the
mass of water vapor i n the atmosphere. So the
regions w i t h the least water vapor t e n d to be the
coldest locations o n earth, namely the south
polar region a n d Siberia. Over such locations i n
winter, the water vapor content approaches zero. The total w i l l never actually reach zero as
there w i l l always be at least some water vapor
present i n the lower atmosphere, b u t the total
may reach about 0.00001 percent of the atmospheric volume i n some cases.
Several other variable gases are i m p o r t a n t .
A m o n g these, CO^ is most abundant. As stated
earlier, the variable nature of CO^ stems from its

increasing quantity over time, since the late

1700s. The rate of increase is about 0.4 percent
per year or by about 35 percent since 1800. Other notable variable gases include CH^, nitrous
oxide (NjO), carbon monoxide (CO), tropospheric ozone (O3), and a family of chemicals
k n o w n as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Humans
have h a d at least some influence i n the concentration of all of these gases, a n d CFCs are entirely human-derived. Collectively, these gases
make up only a small a m o u n t of the atmosphere b u t they can have i m p o r t a n t implications
on some processes.

The Faint Young Sun Paradox

Evidence h i d d e n i n sedimentary rocks and sediments, ice sheets, and fossils reveals that earth's
average temperature has remained w i t h i n a
range of perhaps 15 C (27 F) for most, i f n o t all,
of geologic history. This implies that even global-scale shifts i n mean environmental conditions, f r o m ice ages to ice-free conditions o n
earth, have occurred w i t h i n a range of temperature variability that is smaller t h a n the summer
to winter temperature difference at most locations outside the tropics.
This fact has caused considerable consternat i o n for m a n y climate scientists because of an
apparent contradiction between what is k n o w n
about energy released during the evolution of
stars, such as our sun, and evidence of the
earth's temperature t h r o u g h geologic time. Stars
obtain energy t h r o u g h the constant nuclear f u sion of hydrogen into h e l i u m . These reactions
cause stars to gradually expand a n d grow hotter
and brighter over time. Eventually stars use up
all their sources of energy a n d b u r n out. We can
assume that energy emitted f r o m the early sun
was about 25 to 30 percent less t h a n that emitted today, because this pattern is observed
throughout the life cycle of other yellow dwarf
stars like the sun. We also k n o w that even small
changes i n solar o u t p u t can induce drastic climatic changes o n earth. If we were to cut solar
o u t p u t today by 25 to 30 percent, temperatures
w o u l d quickly p l u m m e t to a p o i n t whereby the
earth w o u l d be entirely frozen. Because the

CHAPTER 2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

young sun must have been weak, at first glance

it w o u l d appear that the earth must have been
frozen for the first 3 b i l l i o n years of its history.
However, no credible evidence has been f o u n d
to support the n o t i o n that the earth was ever
below freezing o n a global annual average basis.
Furthermore, little credible evidence has been
f o u n d for widespread glaciation d u r i n g the first
half of the earth's existence. This apparent contradiction between a weak sun b u t no drastically cold conditions worldwide is the faint young
sun paradox.
H o w could temperatures have been above
freezing during the early times of geologic history? H o w c o u l d the earth m a i n t a i n a small
variance i n temperature over t i m e i f the sun
were m u c h weaker i n the early history of the
planet? H o w c o u l d temperatures m a i n t a i n
themselves over t i m e as the sun grew hotter?
The most logical answer to these questions is
that the earth-ocean-atmosphere system must
have some type of internal regulator that keeps
temperatures w i t h i n a reasonable range regardless of changes to solar o u t p u t over time. This
regulator must have been present i n the early
atmosphere. It was originally assumed that high
CO^ concentrations i n the early atmosphere
kept temperatures high. H o w w o u l d this have
happened? Examining the radiation balance of
earth today reveals that surface temperatures
are only indirectly caused by insolationincoming solar radiationbeing absorbed at the
surface. I f surface receipt of solar radiation
alone determined temperatures, average earth
temperatures w o u l d be about -18C (0F). I n stead, the transfer of energy (either f r o m the
sun or f r o m the earth) absorbed i n the atmosphere d o w n to the surface augments radiation
received at the surface directly f r o m the sun.
Certain gases i n the atmosphere, such as CO^,
are k n o w n to absorb terrestrial energy escaping
the surface efficiently. M u c h of this energy is
t h e n re-emitted back d o w n to reheat the surface. This processthe greenhouse effectis
responsible for the life-supporting temperatures we enjoy today, whereby the average t e m perature of the earth is raised f r o m - 1 8 C (0F)
to a more comfortable 15C (59F).
So w h i c h greenliouse gases could have
helped the early earth to remain relatively

warm? The two most abundant greenhouse gases i n today's atmosphere are water vapor and
COj. As far as we can tell, the quantity of water
vapor has remained relatively constant since
p r i m o r d i a l times. U n t i l very recently, i t was assumed that the wide fluctuations of CO^ over
time caused the earth's temperature to remain
relatively stable via the greenhouse effect. That
argument suggested that the high concentrations of C O 2 i n earth's early atmosphere may
have effectively stored large amounts of radiat i o n emitted f r o m earth and re-emitted m u c h of
that radiation back downward i n the greenhouse effect process during times w h e n the sun
was relatively weak. As the sun grew i n strength,
the energy levels, and temperatures o n earth,
w o u l d have remained fairly constant as CO^
concentrations were decreasing as a result of
plant evolution and proliferation.
But i f excessive levels of CO^ indeed caused
the earth to r e m a i n w a r m despite a weak sun,
such concentrations probably w o u l d have been
too high to allow the generation of organic m o l ecules, so life w o u l d n o t have been able to exist
easily. Furthermore, no geologic evidence has
been f o u n d to suggest that CO^ concentrations
were ever large enough to have created such a
strong greenhouse effect. Specifically, i n an
oxygen-free atmosphere such as the early earth
w o u l d have had, CO^ levels of about eight times
today's concentrations w o u l d have produced
the mineral siderite (FeCOj) i n the top layers of
the soil as i r o n reacted w i t h the CO^, b u t no
traces of FeCOj have ever been f o u n d i n ancient
soils. Therefore, better explanations for the faint
young sun paradox were sought.
A second, more recent explanation is that
a m m o n i a (NH3) caused the early greenhouse effect. This theory was proposed by Carl Sagan
and George M u l l e n of Cornell University i n the
late 1970s and was based o n the observation
that NH3 behaves as a very strong greenhouse
gas. The p r o b l e m w i t h this argument is that experiments have shown that NH3 is easily broken
u p by U V radiation i n oxygen-free conditions,
w h i c h w o u l d have resembled the atmosphere
before the arrival of photosynthesis. Nevertheless, the NH3 explanation is still plausible because shielding by other gases may have caused
NH3 to accumulate i n the lower atmosphere,

Atmospheric Structure

Irving

it to be an important

green-

thermodynamic (heat-driven) processes. Most

heat is absorbed by the atmosphere f r o m the
:
\:-c early 2000s, has been that i n earth's surface after having passed through the
a r i l s e a i h ' history, before photosynthesis, the atmosphere o n its way d o w n w a r d f r o m the sun.
T\"gen-devoid atmosphere made con- The surface heats the air directiy above. This
^ jdeal for oxygen-intolerant microbes gives the lowest layers of the atmosphere buoyas methanogens. These methanogens ancy a n d causes the air to rise. Eventually this
because they release C H , as a waste air cools a n d sinks. Because this vertical movej d j may have allowed for CH^ to produce a m e n t is integral to the development of most
strong greenhouse effect, w h i c h w o u l d weather-related processes, the troposphere is
i r a n n e d the earth even t h o u g h the sun sometimes referred to as the "weather sphere."
Because the atmosphere is heated p r i m a r i l y
'"wmBBd less radiation at the time. I t is w e l l f r o m the earth's surface and because the c o m mi that CH^ is a very effective greenhouse
pression of atmospheric gas decreases w i t h
m Once ox\^gen entered the atmosphere f r o m
height (as the weight of the atmosphere above i t
rioHJS>Tithesis (approximately 3 b i l l i o n years
decreases), a decrease of temperature usually
a die methanogens became less dominant,
occurs w i t h increasing height through the tro.Til C H . became less i m p o r t a n t as a greenhouse
posphere. This decrease is k n o w n as the envi3S. I n today's oxygen-rich atmosphere, the
ronmental lapse rate. T hr ou gh the troposphere,
i t r a t i o n of CH^ is extremely m i n u t e a n
air cools at an average rate of 6.5 C/km (or
i a g e of only 1.8 p p m i n the atmosphere.
3.5 F/1000 ft), although this value may vary
^wae geoscientists believe that the demise ofwidely f r o m place to place and f r o m day to day,
-jt methanogens caused the earth's first global and even o n an hourly basis.
. - e a ^ and perhaps c o n t r i b u t e d to subsequent
According to one f o r m of Charles' law, i n an
nation, proposed by Harvard

.xages.

Begardless of the explanation, most of earth's

jstt>ry is believed to have been d o m i n a t e d by
rmewtiat higher temperatures t h a n exist t o : i\. or at least temperatures that are n o t far be/A- those now. The debate over the explanation
: the faint y o u n g sun paradox lingers o n .

Atmospheric Structure
" r atmosphere may be divided i n t o a series of
t : S based o n t h e r m a l qualities (Figure 2.5).
7 owest layer of the atmosphere is called the
"oposphere. This is a very t h i n zone confined
: the first 8 to 20 k m (5 to 12 mi) above earth's
.-rface, yet this atmospheric layer contains aproximately 75 percent of the mass of the at.osphere. The compressibility of air allows its
eight to exert a d o w n w a r d force on, and c o m ress, the lower atmosphere. Therefore, this lay: also contains air of the greatest densitythe
m o u n t of mass per u n i t volume.
The t e r m "troposphere" is derived f r o m the
Greek w o r d meaning "to t u r n . " This indicates
that the troposphere is a region i n w h i c h mass
is constantly overturning, largely as a result of

ideal gas (which the atmosphere approximates)

density decreases as temperature increases, i f
pressure remains constant. Thus, hot air rises.
Because the earth is not heated equally and hot
air rises, the troposphere does not have a u n i f o r m
depth. Instead, the troposphere is thicker near
the equator than near the poles. Near the equator
the layer is approximately 20 k m (12 mi) thick,
while near the poles i n winter, the thickness is
only about 8 k m (5 m i ) . This is because of thermal
expansion of the atmosphere near the equator
and thermal contraction near the poles. Roughly
the same amount of atmospheric mass exists
over the two locations, but the density of that air
is less over the equator and greater over the poles.
The top of the troposphere is called the
tropopause. This feature represents the b o u n d ary between the troposphere below a n d the
next layer of the atmosphere above (see again
Figure 2.5). The average temperature at the
tropopause is about - 5 7 C ( - 7 0 F ) , w h i c h represents quite a decrease f r o m the 15C (59F)
average temperature of the surface.
The layer above the troposphere is the stratosphere. Temperatures remain somewhat constant f r o m the tropopause upward into the

CHAPTER 2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

100

<u
E
o

tN

CO

inI

Degrees F

^ Degrees C

Temperature
Figure 2.5

The vertical structure of the atmosphere.

Stratosphere for about 10 k m (6 m i ) . A n y zone of

relatively constant temperature w i t h height,
such as this one, is called an isothermal layer.
Above the isothermal layer, temperatures actually increase w i t h height t h r o u g h the rest of the
stratosphere. This temperature inversionany
increase of temperature w i t h heightis caused
by the absorption of U V radiation b y the t r i atomic f o r m of oxygen (O3), or ozone.
The so-called "ozone layer" i n the stratosphere involves several processes that have i m portant implications for terrestrial life o n the
planet. To understand the workings of the
ozone layer, we must first review the nature of
radiation reaching the earth f r o m the sun. Energy f r o m the sun arrives i n the earth's atmosphere i n a wide range of wavelengths, w h i c h are
measured i n micrometers (millionths of a meter
[pm]). Shorter wavelengths are associated w i t h

more intense (and therefore more h a r m f u l to

living things) insolation t h a n energy w i t h longer
wavelengths. The s u n emits more energy at a
wavelength of about 0.5 p m t h a n at any other
wavelength, w i t h successively less energy emitted at successively shorter a n d longer wavelengths (Figure 2.6). By convention, energy f r o m
solar origin shorter t h a n 4.0 p m is usually referred to as shortwave radiation i n the atmospheric sciences. Wavelengths of the peak
amounts of shortwave radiation occur i n the
visible part (0.4-0.7 p m ) of the electromagnetic
spectrumthe full assemblage of all possible
wavelengths of electromagnetic energy.
Any insolation w i t h wavelengths less t h a n 0.4
p m is too intense to allow terrestrial life to exist.
UV radiation falls between wavelengths of 0.01
and 0.40 p m . Thus, even though the sun emits
more energy i n the visible and shorter wave-

Wavelength
I p a c U zrr itted energy by wavelength for the sun and
arftr jssotntng a surface temperature of 6000K for the
t_- ^ - 3 0 0 K for the earth.

csD0iis than i n the U V range, U V radiation is

x i z a f e i . Fortunately,
absorbs electromagnetic
a ^ M o n o f wavelengths below .12 |im. But how
Dees
ozone layer protect us f r o m U V radiation
a (tx.e^ngthsbetween.12and.40pm?
e of the diatomic oxygen [O^ that enters
r t Lznosphere f r o m photosynthesis near the
^.rzhz-i may reach the stratosphere over time. Bec a n e O. molecules absorb U V radiation at wavetm^^ between 0.12 and 0.18 p m very effectively,
E t I reaching the stratosphere is exposed to i n imr-.g harmful radiation. When this radiant en-ET- ~ i e s
molecules, a chemical reaction that
r molecular bonds is triggered. The mole_
lergoes photodissociationthe process of
^ f c i n g into two monatomic oxygen (O) atoms
caeied by exposure to light. Because O is inhero n f T unstable, i t bonds quickly and easily w i t h
nfaer atoms and molecules. Some of these atoms
enkaUy b o n d w i t h an
molecule to f o r m an
; rx)lectile that wiU effectively absorb U V radiaTcr at wavelengths between 0.18 and 0.34 p m .
DC i n the absorption process, the
becomes
:ri::odissociated into O and O^, and the O then
r r o i s w i t h another
to f o r m O3. The process
r c a repeats endlessly, ensuring that oxygen is
innnnuously being reworked into O3 i n the stratoipbere. UV radiation at wavelengths between 0.18
and 034 p m is effectively "absorbed"actually
w e i i i n chemical processessuch that only the
M f radiation at wavelengths between 0.34 and
flto u m filters to the earth's surface. This harmful
-: -^rion can cause skin cancer, cataracts, and
roblems if we are exposed to it i n large doses, out at least we are protected from the m u c h
- -e harmful shorter UV wavelengths.

Atmospheric Structure

Early i n geologic history, the first organisms

must have f o r m e d i n m u r k y waters because no
O 2 (and therefore, no O 3 ) , existed to protect
t h e m f r o m U V radiation. By the time life forms
evolved into shallow water areas and onto land
surfaces,
released f r o m photosynthesis h a d
built a stratospheric O3 layer. Life has never
k n o w n an excessive a m o u n t of this type of radiation and has never adapted to i t . I n t r o d u c t i o n
of excessive amounts of U V radiation is damaging to virtually all terrestrial life forms.
H u m a n s have c o n t r i b u t e d to t h i n n i n g the
very fragile 0 , layer over the past h a l f - c e n t u r y
by p r o d u c i n g chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Most general uses for CFCs i n v o l v e d refrigerat i o n b o t h as a gas (Freon) a n d as an i n s u l a t i n g
substance (foam a n d Styrofoam). The p r o d u c t
was also used as a p r o p e l l a n t for aerosol
sprays. W h e n chlorine f r o m CFCs a n d b r o m i n e
are released to the atmosphere, they can make
their w a y u p w a r d to the stratosphere where
they readily b o n d w i t h m o n a t o m i c oxygen
atoms. Such a b o n d does n o t allow the O to
bond with
to p r o d u c e the O3 that w o u l d f i l ter U V radiation. The result is that increased
amounts o f U V r a d i a t i o n reach the surface,
where adverse effects o n organisms occur. A l t h o u g h O3 is f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t the stratosphere, i f all stratospheric ozone were
compressed to the surface i t w o u l d create a
layer only 3 m m thick. H u m a n s m u s t w o r k to
reduce stratospheric ozone d e p l e t i o n i n this
t h i n a n d fragile layer. Since the U.S. b a n o n
CFC p r o d u c t i o n o n January 1, 1996, the ozone
layer has s h o w n some signs o f recovery.
The ozone f o r m a t i o n process is responsible
for the temperature inversion i n the stratosphere. As O3 absorbs U V energy, heat is captured by the molecules. The O3 at the top of the
stratosphere has the first o p p o r t u n i t y to gain
heat (and therefore temperature, because t e m perature is a measure of the heat or energy content of matter) f r o m i n c o m i n g U V radiation.
Therefore, its temperature is higher t h a n for
molecules lower i n the stratosphere. The
process of O3 p r o d u c t i o n and dissociation happens i n the stratosphere because this is the u p permost layer for w h i c h atmospheric density is
high enough to allow O and O 2 to meet and
b o n d quickly enough so that i n c o m i n g U V radiation w i l l be absorbed effectively. Temperatures

CHAPTER 2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

rise to approximately - 1 8 C (0F) at the stratopause, w h i c h is about 48 k m (29 mi) above the
surface. The stratopause is the boundary between the stratosphere and the layer above i t .
The layer above the stratosphere is the
mesosphere, f r o m the Greek prefix meso-,
w h i c h means " m i d d l e . " W h i l e this layer does sit
near the m i d d l e of the atmosphere f r o m an altitude perspectivein the region between the
stratopause a n d about 80 k m (50 m i ) above the
surfacethe low-density mesosphere does n o t
represent the m i d d l e of the atmosphere by
density or v o l u m e . The m i d d l e of the atmosphere by density and v o l u m e is only about 5.5
k m (3.4 m i ) above the surfacewell w i t h i n the
troposphere. The mesosphere is the layer i n
w h i c h the 2003 C o l u m b i a space shuttle tragedy
took place.
Similar to the troposphere, temperatures i n
the mesosphere decrease w i t h height. The t e m perature inversion characteristic of the stratosphere is n o t present i n the mesosphere
because i t is too high for photodissociated
to

Figure 2.7 The aurora borealls. (See color plate 2.7)

f i n d m o n a t o m i c oxygen atoms to b o n d w i t h
quickly enough to absorb the i n c o m i n g the UV
radiation. Instead, the increased density and
proximity to the surface and stratospheric heat
sources below the mesosphere make the lower
mesosphere warmer t h a n the top of this layer.
At the mesopause, temperatures average approximately - 8 4 C ( - 1 2 0 F ) .
Very few processes of consequence to weather and climate are k n o w n to occur i n the mesosphere because so little atmospheric mass exists
i n this zone. Charged particles f r o m the sun that
are captured by the earth's magnetic field do create problems i n the mesosphere, because they
can disrupt telecommunications during their release of energy. These same charged particles are
also responsible for some impressive light shows,
most notably the n o r t h e r n lights (aurora borealis) a n d southern lights (aurora australis) (Figure 2.7). But even these processes have m i n i m a l
effect o n the earth's weather and climate.
From the surface u p to the mesosphere, the
ratio of atmospheric gases is about the same as

Summary

i h a i at the surface, except for the greater concentration of O3 i n the stratosphere. Thus, the
f r s t three "spheres" of the atmosphere are
sometimes collectively k n o w n as the homospliere, w h i c h means "same sphere." Above the
mesosphere, gases of the atmosphere stratify
n i o layers according to their atomic weights
Dcause there is so little mass to "stir t h e m u p . "
That region is termed the heterosphere.
The heterosphere corresponds to the final
e r m a l layer of the atmosphere, the thermosp h e r e . Like the stratosphere, the thermosphere
T ;haracterized by temperatures that increase
n heighta temperature inversion. Unlike
V f stratosphere, however, where the inversion
r csrs because of O3 absorption of insolation,
me thermospheric temperature inversion ocrurs because the uppermost
a n d O2 molecules have the first o p p o r t u n i t y to absorb
insolation. Their p o s i t i o n allows t h e m to attain
extraordinarily high temperatures because the
earth's magnetic field captures charged h i g h energy particles f r o m the sun.
However, the n u m b e r of those molecules
".sith very high temperatures is very small, because of the sparseness of the atmosphere at
such heights. The total mass of the thermosphere accounts for only about 0.01 percent of
e total atmospheric mass. The decrease of
density, mass, and v o l u m e of the atmosphere
can be expressed by the mean free path of a
moleculethe distance that an individual m o l ecule must travel before encountering another
molecule. A t the surface, the mean free p a t h is
on the order of a micrometer. By contrast, i n the
thermosphere the mean free p a t h is o n the order of a kilometer or more. Despite the fact that
the individual molecules have very high
amounts of energy, there are so few molecules
to contain the heat that even i f y o u could somehow survive for more t h a n a fraction of a second
at those heights, y o u w o u l d freeze to death i n stantly even at temperatures above 1100C
(2000F)!
A thermopause does n o t exist; instead the atmosphere simply merges slowly into interplanetary space. Individual gas molecules may be
gravitationally attracted to the planet for quite a
distance into space. However, most agree that

the atmosphere extends no higher t h a n about

1000 k m (600 mi) above the earth's surface.

Summary
The atmosphere is a fragile and complex collect i o n of gases gravitationally attracted to the
earth. I t originated early i n the history of the
planet as volcanic materials cooled and outgassed. The early atmosphere is believed to
have been composed p r i m a r i l y of nitrogen and
CO2 b u t the composition is different today, as 0^
has replaced CO2 as the second most abundant
gas. This resulted f r o m the evolution a n d proliferation of simple organisms and green plants,
w h i c h have stored carbon i n their biomass and
have output
into the atmosphere over the
past 3 b i l l i o n years.
Carbon follows a cycle i n w h i c h i t may be
stored for certain periods of t i m e w i t h i n a n u m ber of reservoirs such as rock layers, the ocean,
biomass, and the atmosphere. This cycle of carb o n is i m p o r t a n t i n the history of the earth.
However, its importance has been challenged
recently by evidence suggesting that methaneemitting microbes may have played a greater
role t h a n previously believed i n the trapping of
energy emitted by the earth through the greenhouse effect i n the earth's early history. This
methane may have kept earth temperatures
w i t h i n a very narrow range of variability, despite
a weaker solar output.
The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and is where nearly all weather and
climate processes of importance occur. Temperatures i n the troposphere usually decrease
w i t h height because of the increased density i n
the most compressed part of the atmosphere
the part nearest to the surface. The stratosphere
is the second layer and is characterized by i n creases i n temperature w i t h height because of
ozone absorption. I n the mesosphere, temperatures decrease w i t h height, for the same reason
they do i n the troposphere. The final t h e r m a l
layer of the atmosphere is the thermosphere,
w h i c h is characterized by increases i n temperature w i t h height because of the direct absorpt i o n of i n c o m i n g radiation by nitrogen and
oxygen gas.

CHAPTER2 Introduction to the Atmosphere

Review
Key Terms
Aerosol

Hydrosphere

Planetesimal

Atmosphere

Hydrostatic equilibrium

Prol<aryote

Biosphere

Insolation

Reservoir

Carbon cycle
Charles'law
Clilorofluorocarbons (CFC)
Condensation
Constant gas
Density
Electromagnetic spectrum
Environmental/normal lapse rate
Eukaryote

Isothermal layer

Residence time

Keeling curve

Second law of thermodynamics

Lithosphere

Shortwave radiation

Evaporation

Faint young sun paradox

Fermentation
Flux
Fossil fuel
Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gas
Heterosphere
Homosphere

Mean free path

Sink

IVlesopause

Solar wind

Mesosphere

Stratopause

Methane (CH,)

Stratosphere

Methanogen

Temperature inversion

Micrometer

Thermosphere

Nebula
Newton's second law of motion

Tropopause

Nuclear fusion

Troposphere

Oort cloud

Ultraviolet (UV) radiation

Outgassing

Variable gas

Ozone (O3)

Wavelength

Photodissociation

Terms in italics have appeared in

Photosynthesis

Chapter 1.

^ Review Questions
1. Explain h o w the earth and its atmosphere
formed.
2. H o w is today's atmosphere similar to and
different f r o m the early earth's atmosphere?
3. Describe h o w oxygen came to compose
almost 21 percent of the atmosphere today.
4. Given that solar o u t p u t h a d increased over
the past 4.6 b i l l i o n years, h o w have earth
temperatures remained fairly constant over
that same time?
5. What is residence t i m e and w h y is i t
important?
6. What is the carbon cycle a n d h o w does i t
operate?
7. Describe the thermal structure of the
atmosphere.
8. What causes the thermal characteristics
associated w i t h each thermal layer of the
atmosphere?

9. Compare and contrast the heterosphere

and the homosphere.
10. W h y is there no defined t o p to the atmosphere?

^ Questions for Tliouglit

1. Give as m a n y examples of the second law
thermodynamics as y o u can t h i n k of, bo
related to and n o t related to the atmospher
2. W h y do the aurora borealis and aurora au-;
trails occur i n the mesosphere a n d n o t els
where i n the atmosphere?
3. W h y are the auroras n o t visible i n the trop
cal parts of the earth?

1
^ Further Iteading

\
Kasting, J. F. 2004. When methane made climate. Sd

entific American 291(1), 78-85.

Ruddiman, W. F. 2005. How did humans first al'
global climate? Scientific American 292(3), 46-53.

rv, J. W. 2005. A cool early earth. Scientific Amerian 293(4), 58-65. (A correction was posted in Vol.
!94(2), p. 14.)

p: ''physicalscinncc jbpub.com/book/cliniiitology
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