Environmental Ethics - Values in and Duties To The Natural World

9/14/2015
EnvironmentalEthics:ValuesinandDutiestotheNaturalWorld
EnvironmentalEthics:Valuesinand
DutiestotheNaturalWorld
byHolmesRolston,III
Publishedin:TheBrokenCircle:Ecology,Economics,Ethics.F.Herbert
BormannandStephenR.Kellert,Eds.YaleUniversityPress,NewHaven1991.
ISBN0300049765
Environmentalethicsstretchesclassicalethicstoabreakingpoint.Allethics
seeksanappropriaterespectforlife.Butwedonotjustneedahumanistethic
appliedtotheenvironment,analogouslytothewayswehaveneededonefor
business,law,medicine,technology,internationaldevelopment,ornuclear
disarmament.Respectforlifedemandsanethicconcernedabouthuman
welfare,liketheothersandnowconcerningtheenvironment.Butenvironmental
ethicsinadeepersensestandsonafrontier,asradicallytheoreticalasitis
applied.Alone,itaskswhethertherecanbenonhumanobjectsofduty.
Neithertheorynorpracticeelsewhereneedsvaluesoutsideofhumansubjects,
butenvironmentalethicsmustbemorebiologicallyobjective
nonanthropocentric.Itchallengestheseparationofscienceandethics,tryingto
reformasciencethatfindsnaturevaluefreeandanethicsthatassumesthatonly
humanscountmorally.Environmentalethicsseekstoescaperelativismin
ethics,todiscoverawaypastculturallybasedethics.Howevermuchourworld
views,ethicsincluded,areembeddedinourculturalheritages,andthereby
theoryladenandvalueladen,allofusknowthatanaturalworldexistsapart
fromhumancultures.Humansinteractwithnature.Environmentalethicsisthe
onlyethicsthatbreaksoutofculture.Ithastoevaluatenature,boththenature
thatmixeswithcultureandwildnature,andtojudgedutythereby.After
environmentalethics,youwillnolongerbethehumanistyouoncewere.
Environmentalethicsrequiresrisk.Environmentalethicsexplorespoorly
chartedterrain,whereitiseasytogetlost.Onemusthazardthekindofinsight
thatfirstlookslikefoolishness.Someapproachenvironmentalethicswitha
smileexpectingrightsforrocksandchickenliberation,misplacedconcernfor
chipmunksanddaisies.Elsewhere,youthink,ethicistsdealwithsoberconcerns:
medicalethics,businessethics,justiceinpublicaffairs,questionsoflifeand
death,peaceandwar.Butthequestionsherearenolessserious:thedegradation
oftheenvironmentposesasgreatathreattolifeasnuclearwar,andamore
probabletragedy.
HigherAnimals
Logicallyandpsychologically,thebestandeasiestbreakthroughpastthe
traditionalboundariesofinterhumanethicsismadeconfrontinghigheranimals.
Animalsdefendtheirlivestheyhaveagoodoftheirown,sufferpainsand
pleasureslikeourselves.Humanmoralconcernshouldatleastcrossoverinto
http://www.ecospherics.net/pages/RolstonEnvEth.html
1/17
9/14/2015
thedomainofanimalexperience.Thisboundarycrossingisalsodangerous
becauseifmadeonlypsychologicallyandnotbiologicallythewouldbe
environmentalethicistmaybetoodisorientedtotravelfurther.Thepromised
environmentalethicswilldegenerateintoamammalethics.Wecertainlyneed
anethicforanimals,butthatisonlyonelevelofconcerninacomprehensive
environmentalethics.
Onemightexpectclassicalethicstohavesiftedwellanethicsforanimals.Our
ancestorsdidnotthinkaboutendangeredspecies,ecosystems,acidrain,orthe
ozonelayer,buttheylivedincloserassociationwithwildanddomesticanimals
thandowe.Hunterstrackwoundeddeer,therancherwholetshishorsesstarve
isprosecuted.Still,untilrecently,thescientific,humanisticcenturiessincethe
socalledEnlightenmenthavenotbeensensitiveonesforanimals,owingtothe
Cartesianlegacy.Animalsweremindless,livingmatterbiologyhasbeen
mechanistic.Evenpsychology,ratherthandefendinganimalexperience,has
beenbehaviorist.Philosophyhasprotestedlittle,concernedtolocatevaluesin
humanexperiencesatthesametimethatitdisspiritedanddevaluednature.
Acrossseveralcenturiesofhardscienceandhumanistethicstherehasbeenlittle
compassionforanimals.
Theprogressofscienceitselfsmearedthehumannonhumanboundaryline.
Animalanatomy,biochemistry,cognition,perception,experience,andbehavior,
andevolutionaryhistoryarekintoourown.Animalshavenoimmortalsouls,
butthenpersonsmaynoteither,orbeingswithsoulsmaynotbetheonlykind
thatcountmorally.Ethicalprogressfurthersmearedtheboundary.Sensual
pleasuresareagoodthing,ethicsshouldbeegalitariannonarbitrary,
nondiscriminatory.Thereareamplescientificgroundsthatanimalsenjoy
pleasuresandsufferpainsandethicallynogroundstovaluetheseinhumans
andnotinanimals.Sotherehasbeenavigorousreassessmentofhumanduties
tosentientlife.Theworldcheeredinthefallof1988whenhumansrescuedtwo
whalesfromthewinterice.
"Respecttheirrighttolife."AsigninRockyMountainNationalParkenjoins
humansnottoharassbighornsheep."Thequestionisnot,Cantheyreason,nor
Cantheytalk?but,Cantheysuffer?"saidJeremyBentham,insistingthatanimal
welfarecountstoo.TheParkServicesignandBentham'squestionincrease
sensitivitybyextendingrightsandhedonistgoodstoanimals.Thegainisavital
breakthroughpasthumans,andthefirstlessoninenvironmentalethicshasbeen
learned.Buttheriskisamoralextensionthatexpandsrightsasfarasmammals
andnotmuchfurther,apsychologicallybasedethicthatcountsonlyfelt
experience.Werespectlifeinournonhumanbutnearhumananimalcousins,a
semianthropicandstillquitesubjectiveethics.Justiceremainsaconcernfor
justussubjects.Therehas,infact,notbeenmuchtheoreticalbreakthrough,no
paradigmshift.
Lackingthat,thereisanomalyandconceptualstrain.Whenwetrytouse
culturallyextendedrightsandpsychologicallybasedutilitiestoprotecttheflora
oreventheinsentientfauna,toprotectendangeredspeciesorecosystems,we
canonlystammer.Indeed,wegetlosttryingtoprotectbighorns,because,inthe
wild,thecougarisnotrespectingtherightsorutilitiesofthesheepsheslays,
and,inculture,humansslaysheepandeatthemregularly,whilehumanshave
everyrightnottobeeatenbyeitherhumansorcougars.Therearenorightsin
thewild,andnatureisindifferenttothewelfareofparticularanimals.Abison
fellthroughtheiceintoariverinYellowstoneParktheenvironmentalethic
2/17
9/14/2015
there,lettingnaturetakeitscourse,forbadewouldberescuersfromeither
savingormercykillingthesufferinganimal.Adrowninghumanwouldhave
beensavedatonce.Perhapsitwasamistaketosavethosewhales.
Theethicsbyextensionnowseemstoonondiscriminatingweareunableto
separateanethicsforhumansfromanethicsforwildlife.Totreatwildanimals
withcompassionlearnedinculturedoesnotappreciatetheirwildness.Man,said
Socrates,isthepoliticalanimalhumansmaximallyarewhattheyareinculture,
wherethenaturalselectionpressures(impressivelyproductiveinecosystems)
arerelaxedwithoutdetrimenttothespeciesHomosapiens,andindeedwith
greatbenefittoitsmemberpersons.Wildanimalscannotenterculturetheydo
nothavethatcapacity.Theycannotacquirelanguageatsufficientlevelstotake
partinculturetheycannotmaketheirclothing,orbuildfires,muchlessread
booksorreceiveaneducation.Animalscan,byhumanadoption,receivesome
oftheprotectionsofculture,whichhappenswhenwedomesticatethem,but
neitherpetsnorfoodanimalsentertheculturethatsheltersthem.
Worse,suchculturalprotectioncanworktotheirdetrimenttheirwildnessis
madeoverintoahumanartifactasfoodorpetanimal.Acowdoesnothavethe
integrityofadeer,apoodlethatofawolf.Cultureisagoodthingforhumans,
oftenabadthingforanimals.Theirbiologyandecologyneitherjusticenor
charity,norrightsnorwelfareprovidesthebenchmarkforanethics.
Culturedoesmakearelevantethicaldifference,andenvironmentalethicshas
differentcriteriafrominterhumanethics.Cantheytalk?and,Cantheyreason?,
indicatingculturalcapacities,arerelevantquestions,notjust,Cantheysuffer?
"Equality"isapositivewordinethics,"discriminatory"apejorativeone.On
theotherhand,simplisticreductionisafailinginthephilosophyofscienceand
epistemologytobe"discriminating"isdesirableinlogicandvaluetheory.
Somethingabouttreatinghumansasequalswithbighornsandcougarsseemsto
"reduce"humanstomerelyanimallevelsofvalue,a"nomore"counterpartin
ethicsofthe"nothingbut"fallacyoftenmetinscience.Humansare"nothing
but"nakedapes.Somethingabouttreatingsheepandcougarsastheequalsof
humansseemstoelevatethemunnaturally,unabletovaluethemforwhatthey
are.Thereissomethinginsufficientlydiscriminatinginsuchjudgmentsspecies
blindinabadsense,blindtotherealdifferencesbetweenspecies,valuational
differencesthatdocountmorally.Tothecontrary,adiscriminatingethicistwill
insistonpreservingthedifferingrichnessofvaluationalcomplexity,wherever
found.Compassionaterespectforlifeinitssufferingisonlypartoftheanalysis.
Twotestsofdiscriminationarepainsanddiet.Itmightbethoughtthatpainisa
badthing,whetherinnatureorculture.Perhapswhendealingwithhumansin
cultureadditionallevelsofvalueandutilitymustbeprotectedbyconferring
rightsthatdonotexistinthewilds,butmeanwhileatleastweshouldminimize
animalsuffering.Thatisindeedaworthyimperativeinculturewhereanimals
areremovedfromnatureandbred,butitmaybemisguidedwhereanimals
remaininecosystems.WhenthebighornsheepofYellowstonecaughtpinkeye,
blinded,injured,andstarvinginresult,300bighorns,overhalftheherd,
perished.Wildlifeveterinarianswantedtotreatthedisease,astheywouldhave
inanydomesticherd,andastheydidwithColoradobighornsinfectedwithan
introducedlungworm,buttheYellowstoneethicistsleftthemtosuffer,
seeminglynotrespectingtheirlife.
Hadtheseethicistsnomercy?Theyknewratherthat,whileintrinsicpainisa
badthingwhetherinhumansorinsheep,paininecosystemsisinstrumental
3/17
9/14/2015
pain,throughwhichthesheeparenaturallyselectedforamoresatisfactory
adaptivefit.Paininamedicallyskilledcultureispointless,oncethealarmto
healthissounded,butpainoperatesfunctionallyinbighornsintheirniche,even
afteritbecomesnolongerintheinterestsofthepainedindividual.Tohave
interferedintheinterestsoftheblindedsheepwouldhaveweakenedthespecies.
Eventhequestion,Cantheysuffer?isnotassimpleasBenthamthought.What
weoughttododependsonwhatis.Theisofnaturedifferssignificantlyfrom
theisofculture,evenwhensimilarsufferingispresentinboth.
Atthispointsomeethicistswillinsistthatleastinculturewecanminimize
animalpain,andthatwillconstrainourdiet.Thereispredationinnature
humansevolvedasomnivores.Buthumans,theonlymoralanimals,should
refusetoparticipateinthemeateatingphaseoftheirecology,justastheyrefuse
toplaythegamemerelybytherulesofnaturalselection.Humansdonotlookto
thebehaviorofwildanimalsasanethicalguideinothermatters(marriage,
truthtelling,promisekeeping,justice,charity).Whyshouldtheyjustifytheir
dietaryhabitsbywatchingwhatanimalsdo?
Butthedifferenceisthattheseothermattersareaffairsofculturetheseare
persontopersonevents,noteventsatallinspontaneousnature.Bycontrast,
eatingisomnipresentinwildnaturehumanseatbecausetheyareinnature,not
becausetheyareinculture.Eatinganimalsisnotaneventbetweenpersons,but
isahumantoanimaleventandtherulesforthiscomefromtheecosystemsin
whichhumansevolvedandhavenodutytoremake.Humans,then,canmodel
theirdietaryhabitsfromtheirecosystems,thoughtheycannotandshouldnotso
modeltheirinterpersonaljusticeorcharity.Wheneatingtheyoughttominimize
animalsuffering,buttheyhavenodutytorevisetrophicpyramidswhetherin
natureorculture.Theboundarybetweenanimalsandhumanshasnotbeen
rubbedoutafterallonlywhatwasaboundarylinehasbeensmearedintoa
boundaryzone.Wehavediscoveredthatanimalscountmorally,thoughnotyet
solvedthechallengeofhowtocountthem.
Animalsenjoypsychologicallives,subjectiveexperiences,feltinterests
satisfied,intrinsicvaluesthatcountmorallywhenhumansencounterthem.But
thepains,pleasures,interests,andwelfareofindividualanimalsareonlyoneof
theconsiderationsinamorecomplexenvironmentalethicthatcannotbe
reachedbyconferringrightsonthemorbyahedonistcalculus,howeverfar
extended.Wehavetotravelfurtherintoamorebiologicallybasedethics.
Organisms
Ifwearetorespectalllife,wehavestillanotherboundarytocross,from
zoologytobotany,fromsentienttoinsentientlife.InYosemiteNationalPark
foralmostacenturyhumansentertainedthemselvesbydrivingthroughatunnel
cutinagiantsequoia.TwodecadesagotheWawonatree,weakenedbythecut,
blewdowninastorm.Peoplesaid:Cutusanotherdrivethroughsequoia.The
Yosemiteenvironmentalethic,deepeningovertheyears,said:No!Youought
nottomutilatemajesticsequoiasforamusement.Respecttheirlife!Indeed,
someethicistscountthevalueofredwoodssohighlythattheywillspike
redwoods,lesttheybecut.IntheRawahWildernessinalpineColorado,old
signsread,"Pleaseleavetheflowersforotherstoenjoy."Whentheyrottedout,
thenewsignsurgedalesshumanistethic:"Lettheflowerslive!"
Buttreesandflowerscannotcare,sowhyshouldwe?Wearenotconsidering
animalsthatareclosekin,norcantheysufferorexperienceanything.Plantsare
4/17
9/14/2015
notvaluerswithpreferencesthatcanbesatisfiedorfrustrated.Itseemsoddto
claimthatplantsneedoursympathy,oddtoaskthatweshouldconsidertheir
pointofview.Theyhavenosubjectivelife,onlyobjectivelife.
Perhapsthequestionsarewrong,becausetheyarecomingoutoftheold
paradigm.WeareatacriticaldivideyouseewhyIearlierwarnedthatthose
whoseekonlytoextendahumanistethictomammalcousinswillgetlost.
Seeingnomorallandmarks,theymayturnbacktomorefamiliarterrain.Afraid
ofthenaturalisticfallacy,theywillsaythatpeopleshouldenjoylettingflowers
liveorthatitissillytocutdrivethroughsequoias,aestheticallymoreexcellent
forhumanstoappreciatebothforwhattheyare.Buttheseethicallyconservative
reasonsreallydonotunderstandwhatbiologicalconservationisinthedeepest
sense.
Ittakesethicalcouragetogoon,abiologicpastahedonist,humanistlogic.
Pains,pleasures,psychologicalexperiencewillnofurtherbeusefulcategories,
butlestsomethinkthatfromhereonIasaphilosopherbecomeillogicallose
allethicalsenseletusorientourselvesbyextendinglogical,propositional,
cognitive,andnormativecategoriesintobiology.Nothingmatterstoatree,but
muchisvital.
Anorganismisaspontaneous,selfmaintainingsystem,sustainingand
reproducingitself,executingitsprogram,makingawaythroughtheworld,
checkingagainstperformancebymeansofresponsivecapacitieswithwhichto
measuresuccess.Itcanreckonwithvicissitudes,opportunities,andadversities
thattheworldpresents.Somethingmorethanphysicalcauses,evenwhenless
thansentience,isoperatingwithineveryorganism.Thereisinformation
superintendingthecauses,withoutittheorganismwouldcollapseintoasand
heap.ThisinformationisamodernequivalentofwhatAristotlecalledformal
andfinalcausesitgivestheorganismatelos,"end,"akindof(nonfelt)goal.
Organismshaveends,althoughnotalwaysendsinview.
AllthiscargoiscarriedbytheDNA,essentiallyalinguisticmolecule.Bya
serial"reading"oftheDNA,apolypeptidechainissynthesized,suchthatits
sequentialstructuredeterminesthebioformintowhichitwillfold.Ever
lengtheningchains(likeeverlongersentences),areorganizedintogenes(like
paragraphsandchapters).Diverseproteins,lipids,carbohydrates,enzymesall
thelifestructuresare"writteninto"thegeneticlibrary.TheDNAisthusa
logicalset,notlessthanabiologicalset,informedaswellasformed.
Organismsuseasortofsymboliclogic,usethesemolecularshapesassymbols
oflife.Thenovelresourcefulnessliesintheepistemiccontentconserved,
developed,andthrownforwardtomakebiologicalresourcesoutofthe
physicochemicalsources.Thisexecutivesteeringcoreiscyberneticpartlya
specialkindofcauseandeffectsystem,andpartlysomethingmore:partlya
historicalinformationsystemdiscoveringandevaluatingendssoastomapand
makeawaythroughtheworld,partlyasystemofsignificancesattachedto
operations,pursuits,resources.Inthissense,thegenomeisasetofconservation
molecules.
Thegeneticsetisreallyapropositionalsettochooseaprovocativeterm
recallinghowtheLatinpropositumisanassertion,asettask,atheme,aplan,a
proposal,aproject,aswellasacognitivestatement.Fromthisitisalsoa
motivationalset,unlikehumanbooks,sincetheselifemotifsaresettodrivethe
movementfromgenotypicpotentialtophenotypicexpression.Givenachance,
thesemoleculesseekorganicselfexpression.Theythusproclaimalifeway,
5/17
9/14/2015
andwiththisanorganism,unlikeaninertrock,claimstheenvironmentas
sourceandsink,fromwhichtoabstractenergyandmaterialsandintowhichto
excretethem.It"takesadvantage"ofitsenvironment.Lifethusarisesoutof
earthensources(asdorocks),butlifeturnsbackonitssourcestomake
resourcesoutofthem(unlikerocks).Anacornbecomesanoaktheoakstands
onitsown.
Sofarwehaveonlydescription.Webegintopasstovaluewhenwerecognize
thatthegeneticsetisanormativesetitdistinguishesbetweenwhatisandwhat
oughttobe.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheorganismisamoralsystem,forthere
arenomoralagentsinnaturebuttheorganismisanaxiological,evaluative
system.Sotheoakgrows,reproduces,repairsitswounds,andresistsdeath.
Thephysicalstatethattheorganismseeks,idealizedinitsprogrammaticform,
isavaluedstate.Valueispresentinthisachievement.Vitalseemsabetterword
foritthanbiological.Wearenotdealingsimplywithanotherindividual
defendingitssolitarylifebutwithanindividualhavingsituatedfitnessinan
ecosystem.Still,wewanttoaffirmthatthelivingindividual,takenasa"point
experience"inthewebofinterconnectedlife,isperseanintrinsicvalue.
Alifeisdefendedforwhatitisinitself,withoutnecessaryfurthercontributory
reference,although,giventhestructureofallecosystems,suchlivesnecessarily
dohavefurthercontributoryreference.Theorganismhassomethingitis
conserving,somethingforwhichitisstanding:itslife.Organismshavetheir
ownstandards,fitintotheirnichethoughtheymust.Theypromotetheirown
realization,atthesametimethattheytrackanenvironment.Theyhavea
technique,aknowhow.Everyorganismhasagoodofitskinditdefendsits
ownkindasagoodkind.Inthatsense,assoonasoneknowswhatagiant
sequoiatreeis,oneknowsthebiologicalidentitythatissoughtandconserved.
Thereseemsnoreasonwhysuchownstandingnormativeorganismsarenot
morallysignificant.Amoralagentdecidinghisorherbehavioroughttotake
accountoftheconsequencesforotherevaluativesystems.Withinthe
communityofmoralagentsonehasnotmerelytoaskwhetherxisanormative
system,but,sincethenormsareatpersonaloption,tojudgethenorm.But
withinthebioticcommunityorganismsareamoralnormativesystems,andthere
arenocaseswhereanorganismseeksagoodofitsownthatismorally
reprehensible.Thedistinctionbetweenhavingagoodofitskindandbeinga
goodkindvanishes,sofarasanyfaultingoftheorganismisconcerned.Tothis
extent,everythingwithagoodofitskindisagoodkindandtherebyhas
intrinsicvalue.
Onemightsaythatanorganismisabadorganismif,duringthecourseof
pressingitsnormativeexpression,itupsetstheecosystemorcauseswidespread
disease.Rememberthough,thatanorganismcannotbeagoodkindwithout
situatedenvironmentalfitness.Bynaturalselectionthekindofgoodstowhichit
isgeneticallyprogrammedmustmeshwithitsecosystemicrole.Despitethe
ecosystemasaperpetualcontestofgoodsindialecticandexchange,itis
difficulttosaythatanyorganismisabadkindinthisinstrumentalsenseeither.
Themisfitsareextinct,orsoonwillbe.Inspontaneousnatureanyspeciesthat
preysupon,parasitizes,competeswith,orcrowdsanotherwillbeabadkind
fromthenarrowperspectiveofitsvictimorcompetitor.
Butifweenlargethatperspectiveittypicallybecomesdifficulttosaythatany
speciesisabadkindoverallintheecosystem.An"enemy"mayevenbegood
forthe"victimized"species,thoughharmfultoindividualmembersofit,as
6/17
9/14/2015
whenpredationkeepsthedeerherdhealthy.Beyondthis,the"badkinds"
typicallyplayusefulrolesinpopulationcontrol,insymbioticrelationships,orin
providingopportunitiesforotherspecies.TheChlamydiamicrobeisabadkind
fromtheperspectiveofthebighorns,butwhenonethingdies,somethingelse
lives.Afterthepinkeyeoutbreak,thegoldeneaglepopulationinYellowstone
flourished,preyingonthebighorncarcasses.ForthemChlamydiaisagood
kindinstrumentally.
Somebiologistphilosopherswillsaythat,eventhoughanorganismevolvesto
haveasituatedenvironmentalfitness,notallsuchsituationsaregood
arrangementssomecanbeclumsyorbad.True,thevicissitudesofhistorical
evolutiondosometimesresultinecologicalwebsthataresuboptimalsolutions,
withinthebiologicallylimitedpossibilitiesandpowersofinteractingorganisms.
Still,suchsystemshavebeenselectedovermillenniaforfunctionalstability
andatleasttheburdenofproofisonahumanevaluatortosaywhyanynatural
kindisabadkindandoughtnottocallforthadmiringrespect.Somethingmay
beagoodkindintrinsicallybutabadkindinstrumentallyinthesystemthese
willbeanomalouscases,however,withselectionpressuresagainstthem.These
claimsaboutgoodkindsdonotsaythatthingsareperfectkinds,orthatthere
canbenobetterones,onlythatnaturalkindsaregoodkindsuntilproven
otherwise.
Infact,whatisalmostinvariablymeantbya"bad"kindisthatanorganismis
instrumentallybadwhenjudgedfromtheviewpointofhumaninterests,often
withthefurthercomplicationthathumaninterestshavedisruptednatural
systems."Bad"assousedisananthropocentricwordthereisnothingatall
biologicalorecologicalaboutit,andsoithasnoforceevaluatingobjective
nature,howevermuchhumanistforceitmaysometimeshave.
Areallyvitalethicrespectsalllife,notjustanimalpainsandpleasures,much
lessjusthumanpreferences.IntheRawahs,theoldsigns,"Leavetheflowersfor
otherstoenjoy,"wereapplicationsignsusinganold,ethicallyconservative,
humanisticethic.Thenewonesinviteachangeofreferenceframeawilder,
morelogicalbecausemorebiologicalethic,aradicalethicthatgoesdowntothe
rootsoflife,thatreallyisconservativebecauseitunderstandsbiological
conservationatdepths.Whattheinjunction,"Lettheflowerslive!"meansis:
"Daisies,marshmarigolds,geraniums,larkspursareevaluativesystemsthat
conservegoodsoftheirkind,and,intheabsenceofevidencetothecontrary,are
goodkinds.Therearetrailsherebywhichyoumayenjoytheseflowers.Is
thereanyreasonwhyyourhumaninterestsshouldnotalsoconservethesegood
kinds?"Adrivethroughsequoiacausesnosufferingitisnotcruel.Butitis
callousandinsensitivetothewonderoflife.
Species
Sensitivitytothiswonder,however,cansometimesmakeanenvironmental
ethicistseemcallous.OnSanClementeIsland,theU.S.FishandWildlife
ServiceandtheNaturalResourcesOfficeoftheU.S.Navyplannedtoshoottwo
thousandferalgoatstosavethreeendangeredplantspecies,Malacothamnus
clementinus,Castillejagrisea,Delphiniumkinkiense,ofwhichthesurviving
individualsnumberedonlyafewdozens.Afteraprotest,somegoatswere
trappedandrelocated.Buttrappingallwasimpossibleandmanythousands
werekilled.Wecountplantspeciesmorethanmammallives,afewplantsmore
thanthousandsofgoats.
7/17
9/14/2015
Thosewhowishtorarespeciesofbigcatstothewildshaveaskedaboutkilling
geneticallyinbred,inferiorcats,presentlyheldinzoos,inordertomakespace
availableforthecatsneededtoreconstructandmaintainapopulation
geneticallymorelikelytosurviveuponrelease.AlltheSiberiantigersinzoosin
NorthAmericaaredescendantsofsevenanimalsifthesewerereplacedby
othersnearertothewildtypeandwithmoregeneticvariability,thespecies
couldbesavedinthewild.Whenwemovetothelevelofspecies,wemaykill
individualsforthegoodoftheirkind.
Orwemaynowrefusetoletnaturetakeitscourse.TheYellowstoneethicistslet
thebisondrown,calloustoitssufferingtheylettheblindedbighornsdie.Butin
thespringof1984asowgrizzlyandherthreecubswalkedacrosstheiceof
YellowstoneLaketoFrankIsland,twomilesfromshore.Theystayedseveral
daystofeastontwoelkcarcasses,whentheicebridgemelted.Soonafterward,
theywerestarvingonanislandtoosmalltosupportthem.Thistimethe
Yellowstoneethicistspromptlyrescuedthegrizzliesandreleasedthemonthe
mainland,inordertoprotectanendangeredspecies.Theywerenotrescuing
individualbearssomuchassavingthespecies.
ColoradansareconsideringwhethertobuildtheTwoForksDamtosupply
urbanDenverwithwater.Thiswouldrequiredestroyingacanyonandaltering
thePlatteRiverflow,withmanynegativeenvironmentalconsequences,
includingfurtherendangeringthewhoopingcraneandendangeringabutterfly,
thePawneemontaneskipper.Elsewhereinthestate,waterdevelopment
threatensseveralfishspecies,includingthehumpbackchub,whichrequiresthe
turbulentspringrunoffstoppedbydams.Environmentalethicsdoubtswhether
thegoodofhumanswhowishmorewaterfordevelopment,bothforindustry
andforbluegrasslawns,warrantsendangeringspeciesofcranes,butterflies,
fish.
Aspeciesexistsaspeciesoughttoexist.Anenvironmentalethicsmustmake
theseclaimsandmovefrombiologytoethicswithcare.Speciesexistonly
instantiatedinindividuals,yetareasrealasindividualplantsoranimals.The
claimthattherearespecificformsoflifehistoricallymaintainedintheir
environmentsovertimeseemsascertainasanythingelsewebelieveaboutthe
empiricalworld.Attimesbiologistsrevisethetheoriesandtaxawithwhichthey
maptheseforms,butspeciesarenotsomuchlikelinesoflatitudeandlongitude
aslikemountainsandrivers,phenomenaobjectivelytheretobemapped.The
edgesofthesenaturalkindswillsometimesbefuzzy,tosomeextent
discretionary.Onespecieswillslideintoanotheroverevolutionarytime.Butit
doesnotfollowfromthefactthatspeciationissometimesinprogressthat
speciesaremerelymadeup,notfoundasevolutionarylineswithidentityin
timeaswellasspace.
Aconsiderationofspeciesisrevealingandchallengingbecauseitoffersa
biologicallybasedcounterexampletothefocusonindividualstypically
sentientandusuallypersonssocharacteristicinclassicalethics.Inan
evolutionaryecosystem,itisnotmereindividualitythatcounts,butthespecies
isalsosignificantbecauseitisadynamiclifeformmaintainedovertime.The
individualrepresents(represents)aspeciesineachnewgeneration.Itisatoken
ofatype,andthetypeismoreimportantthanthetoken.
Aspecieslacksmoralagency,reflectiveselfawareness,sentience,ororganic
individuality.Theolder,conservativeethicwillbetemptedtosaythatspecific
levelprocessescannotcountmorally.Dutiesmustattachtosingularlives,most
8/17
9/14/2015
evidentlythosewithaself,orsomeanaloguetothis.Inanindividualorganism,
theorgansreporttoacenterthegoodofawholeisdefended.Themembersof
aspeciesreporttonocenter.Aspecieshasnoself.Itisnotabounded
singular.Thereisnoanaloguetothenervoushookupsorcirculatoryflowsthat
characterizetheorganism.
Butsingularity,centeredness,selfhood,individuality,arenottheonlyprocesses
towhichdutyattaches.Amoreradicallyconservativeethicknowsthathavinga
biologicalidentityreassertedgeneticallyovertimeisastrueofthespeciesasof
theindividual.Identityneednotattachsolelytothecenteredorganismitcan
persistasadiscretepatternovertime.Thinkingthisway,thelifethatthe
individualhasissomethingpassingthroughtheindividualasmuchas
somethingitintrinsicallypossesses.Theindividualissubordinatetothe
species,nottheotherwayaround.Thegeneticset,inwhichiscodedthetelos,
isasevidentlythepropertyofthespeciesasoftheindividualthroughwhichit
passes.Aconsiderationofspeciesstrainsanyethicfixedonindividual
organisms,muchlessonsentienceorpersons.Buttheresultcanbebiologically
sounder,thoughitreviseswhatwasformerlythoughtlogicallypermissibleor
ethicallybinding.Whenethicsisinformedbythiskindofbiology,itis
appropriatetoattachdutydynamicallytothespecificformoflife.
Thespecieslineisthevitallivingsystem,thewhole,ofwhichindividual
organismsaretheessentialparts.Thespeciestoohasitsintegrity,its
individuality,its"righttolife"(ifwemustusetherhetoricofrights)anditis
moreimportanttoprotectthisvitalitythantoprotectindividualintegrity.The
righttolife,biologicallyspeaking,isanadaptivefitthatisrightforlife,that
survivesovermillennia,andthisgeneratesatleastapresumptionthatspeciesin
nichearegoodrightwheretheyare,andthereforethatitisrightforhumansto
letthembe,toletthemevolve.
Processesofvaluethatweearlierfoundinanorganicindividualreappearatthe
specificlevel:defendingaparticularformoflife,pursuingapathwaythrough
theworld,resistingdeath(extinction),regenerationmaintaininganormative
identityovertime,creativeresiliencediscoveringsurvivalskills.Itisaslogical
tosaythattheindividualisthespecies'wayofpropagatingitselfastosaythat
theembryooreggistheindividual'swayofpropagatingitself.Thedignity
residesinthedynamicformtheindividualinheritsthis,exemplifiesit,and
passesiton.If,atthespecificlevel,theseprocessesarejustasevident,oreven
moreso,whatpreventsdutiesarisingatthatlevel?Theappropriatesurvival
unitistheappropriatelevelofmoralconcern.
Ashutdownofthelifestreamisthemostdestructiveeventpossible.Thewrong
thathumansaredoing,orallowingtohappenthroughcarelessness,isstopping
thehistoricalvitalityoflife,theflowofnaturalkinds.Everyextinctionisan
incrementaldecayinthisstoppinglife,nosmallthing.Everyextinctionisa
kindofsuperkilling.Itkillsforms(species),beyondindividuals.Itkills
"essences"beyond"existences,"the"soul"aswellasthe"body."Itkills
collectively,notjustdistributively.Itkillsbirthaswellasdeath.Afterward
nothingofthatkindeitherlivesordies.
"Oughtspeciesxtoexist?"isadistributiveincrementinthecollectivequestion,
"OughtlifeonEarthtoexist?"LifeonEarthcannotexistwithoutitsindividuals,
butalostindividualisalwaysreproducible,alostspeciesisneverreproducible.
Theanswertothespeciesquestionisnotalwaysthesameastheanswertothe
collectivequestion,but,sincelifeonEarthisanaggregateofmanyspecies,the
9/17
9/14/2015
twoaresufficientlyrelatedthattheburdenofprooflieswiththosewhowish
deliberatelytoextinguishaspeciesandsimultaneouslytocareforlifeonEarth.
Oneformoflifehasneverendangeredsomanyothers.Neverbeforehasthis
levelofquestionsuperkillingbyasuperkillerbeendeliberatelyfaced.
Humanshavemoreunderstandingthaneverofthenaturalworldtheyinhabit,of
thespeciatingprocesses,morepredictivepowertoforeseetheintendedand
unintendedresultsoftheiractions,andmorepowertoreversetheundesirable
consequences.Thedutiesthatsuchpowerandvisiongeneratenolongerattach
simplytoindividualsorpersonsbutareemergingdutiestospecificformsof
life.Whatisethicallycallousisthemaelstromofkillingandinsensitivityto
formsoflifeandthesourcesproducingthem.Whatisrequiredisprincipled
responsibilitytothebiosphericEarth.
Humanactivitiesseemmisfitinthesystem.Althoughhumansaremaximizing
theirownspeciesinterests,andinthisrespectbehavingasdoeseachoftheother
species,theydonothaveanyadaptivefitness.Theyarenotreallyfittingintothe
evolutionaryprocessesofongoingbiologicalconservationandelaboration.
Theirculturesarenotreallydynamicallystableintheirecosystems.Such
behavioristhereforenotright.Yethumanisticethicalsystemslimpwhenthey
trytoprescriberightconducthere.Theyseemmisfitsintherolesmostrecently
demandedofthem.
If,inthisworldofuncertainmoralconvictions,itmakesanysensetoclaimthat
oneoughtnottokillindividuals,withoutjustification,itmakesmoresenseto
claimthatoneoughtnottosuperkillthespecies,withoutsuperjustification.
Severalbillionyearsworthofcreativetoil,severalmillionspeciesofteeming
life,havebeenhandedovertothecareofthislatecomingspeciesinwhich
mindhasfloweredandmoralshaveemerged.Oughtnotthissolemoralspecies
dosomethinglessselfinterestedthancountalltheproduceofanevolutionary
ecosystemasnothingbuthumanresources?Suchanattitudehardlyseems
biologicallyinformed,muchlessethicallyadequate.Itistooprovincialfor
intelligenthumanity.LifeonEarthisamanysplendoredthingextinctiondims
itslustre.Anethicsofrespectforlifeisurgentatthelevelofspecies.
Ecosystems
Aspeciesiswhatitiswhereitis.Noenvironmentalethicshasfounditswayon
Earthuntilitfindsanethicforthebioticcommunitiesinwhichalldestiniesare
entwined."Athingisright,"urgedAldoLeopold"whenittendstopreservethe
integrity,stability,andbeautyofthebioticcommunityitiswrongwhenittends
otherwise."Again,wehavetwopartstotheethic:firstthatecosystemsexist,
bothinthewildandinsupportofculturesecondlythatecosystemsoughtto
exist,bothforwhattheyareinthemselvesandasmodifiedbyculture.Again,
wemustmovewithcarefromthebiologicalclaimstotheethicalclaims.
GiantforestfiresragedoverYellowstoneNationalparkinthesummerof1988,
consumingnearlyamillionacres,despitetheeffortsofathousandfirefighters.
Byfarthelargestfireseverknowninthepark,thefiresseemedadisaster.But
theYellowstonelandethicenjoins:Letnaturetakeitscourse.Letitburn!Sothe
fireswerenotfoughtatfirst,butinmidsummernationalauthoritiesoverrode
thatpolicyandorderedthefiresputout.Eventhen,weekslater,firescontinued
toburn,partlybecausetheyweretoobigtocontrol,butpartlytoobecause
Yellowstonepersonneldidnotreallywantthefiresputout.Despitetheevident
destructionoftrees,shrubs,andwildlife,theybelievethatfiresareagoodthing
10/17
9/14/2015
evenwhentheelkandbisonleavetheparkinsearchoffoodandareshotby
hunters.Firesresetsuccession,releasenutrients,recyclematerials,renewthe
bioticcommunity.(Nearby,intheTetonwilderness,astormblewdown15,000
acresoftrees,andsomeproposedthattheareabedeclassifiedaswildernessfor
commercialsalvageofthetimber.Butasimilarenvironmentalethicssaid:No,
letitrot.)
AspenareimportantintheYellowstoneecosystem.Whilesomeaspenstands
areclimaxandselfrenewing,manyareseralandgivewaytoconifers.Aspen
grovessupportmanybirdsandmuchwildlife,especiallythebeavers,whose
activitiesmaintaintheriparianzones.Aspenarerejuvenatedafterfires,andthe
Yellowstonelandethicwantstheaspenforitscriticalroleinthebiotic
community.Elkbrowsetheyoungaspenstems.Toadegreethisisagoodthing,
sinceitgiveselkcriticalnitrogen,butinexcessitisabadthing.Theelkhaveno
predators,sincethewolvesaregone,andasaresulttheyoverpopulate.Excess
elkalsodestroythewillowsandthisinturndestroysthebeavers.So,inaddition
tolettingfiresburn,rejuvenatingtheaspenmightrequiremanagerstocull
hundredsofelkallforthesakeofahealthyecosystem.
TheYellowstoneethicwishestorestorewolvestothegreaterYellowstone
ecosystem.Atthelevelofspecies,thisispartlyforwhatthewolfisinitself,but
itispartlybecausethegreaterYellowstoneecosystemdoesnothaveitsfull
integrity,stability,andbeautywithoutthismajesticanimalatthetopofthe
trophicpyramid.Restoringthewolfasatoppredatorwouldmeansufferingand
deathformanyelk,butthatwouldbeagoodthingfortheaspenandwillows,
forthebeaversandriparianhabitat,withmixedbenefitsforthebighornsand
muledeer,whosefoodtheoverpopulatingelkconsume,butwhowouldalsobe
consumedbythewolves.Restorationofwolveswouldbedoneovertheprotests
ofrancherswhoworryaboutwolveseatingtheircattlemanyofthemalso
believethatthewolfisabloodthirstykiller,abadkind.Nevertheless,the
Yellowstoneethicdemandswolves,asitdoesfires,inappropriaterespectfor
lifeinitsecosystem.
LettingnaturetakeitsecosystemiccourseiswhytheYellowstoneethicforbade
rescuingthedrowningbison,butrescuedthesowgrizzlywithhercubs,the
lattertoinsurethatthebigpredatorsremain.Afterthebisondrowned,coyotes
andmagpies,foxesandravensfedonthecarcass.Later,evenagrizzlybearfed
onit.Allthisisagoodthingbecausethesystemcycleson.Onthataccount
rescuingthewhalestrappedinthewintericeseemslessofagoodthing,when
wenotethatrescuershadtodriveawaypolarbearsthatattemptedtoeatthe
dyingwhales.
Classical,humanisticethicsfindsecosystemsunfamiliarterritory.Itisdifficult
togetthebiologyright,and,superimposedonthebiology,togettheethics
right.Fortunately,itisoftenevidentthathumanwelfaredependson
ecosystemicsupport,andinthissenseallourlegislationaboutcleanair,clean
water,soilconservation,nationalandstateforestpolicy,pollutioncontrols,
renewableresourcesandsoforthisconcernedaboutecosystemlevelprocesses.
Further,humansfindmuchofvaluepreservingwildecosystemsandour
wildernessandparksystemisimpressive.
Still,acomprehensiveenvironmentalethicsneedsthebest,naturalisticreasons,
aswellasthegood,humanisticones,forrespectingecosystems.Ecosystems
generateandsupportlife,keepselectionpressureshigh,enrichsituatedfitness,
evolvecongruentkindsintheirplaceswithsufficientcontainment.The
11/17
9/14/2015
ecologistfindsthatecosystemsareobjectivelysatisfactorycommunitiesinthe
sensethatorganismicneedsaresufficientlymetforspecieslongtosurvive,and
thecriticalethicistfinds(inasubjectivejudgmentmatchingtheobjective
process)thatsuchecosystemsaresatisfactorycommunitiestowhichtoattach
duty.Ourconcernmustbeforthefundamentalunitofsurvival.
Anecosystem,theconservativeethicistwillsay,istoolowalevelof
organizationtoberespectedintrinsically.Ecosystemscanseemlittlemorethan
random,statisticalprocesses.Aforestcanseemaloosecollectionofexternally
relatedparts,thecollectionoffaunaandfloraajumble,hardlyacommunity.
Theplantsandanimalswithinanecosystemhaveneeds,buttheirinterplaycan
seemsimplyamatterofdistributionandabundance,birthratesanddeathrates,
populationdensities,parasitismandpredation,dispersion,checksandbalances,
stochasticprocess.Muchisnotorganicatall(rain,groundwater,rocks,soil
particles,air),whilesomeorganicmaterialisdeadanddecayingdebris(fallen
trees,scat,humus).Thesethingshavenoorganizedneeds.Thereisonlycatch
ascatchcanscrimmagefornutrientsandenergy,agameplayedwithloaded
dice,notreallyenoughintegratedprocesstocallthewholeacommunity.
Unlikehigheranimals,ecosystemshavenoexperiencestheydonotandcannot
care.Unlikeplants,anecosystemhasnoorganizedcenter,nogenome.Itdoes
notdefenditselfagainstinjuryordeath.Unlikeaspecies,thereisnoongoing
telos,nobiologicalidentityreinstantiatedovertime.Theorganismicpartsare
morecomplexthanthecommunitywhole.Moretroublesomestill,anecosystem
canseemajunglewherethefittestsurvive,aplaceofcontestandconflict,
besidewhichtheorganismisamodelofcooperation.Inanimals,theheart,
liver,musclesandbrainaretightlyintegrated,asaretheleaves,cambium,and
rootsinplants.Buttheecosystemcommunitysocalledispushingandshoving
betweenrivals,eachaggrandizingitself,orelseallindifferenceandhaphazard
juxtaposition,nothingtocallforthouradmiration.
Environmentalethicsmustbreakthroughtheboundarypostedbydisoriented
ontologicalconservatives,whoholdthatonlyorganismsare"real,"actually
existingasentities,whereasecosystemsarenominaljustinteracting
individuals.Oaktreesarerealbutforestsarenothingbutcollectionsoftrees.
Butanylevelisrealifitshapesbehavioronthelevelbelowit.Thusthecellis
realbecausethatpatternshapesthebehaviorofaminoacidstheorganism
becausethatpatterncoordinatesthebehaviorofheartsandlungs.Thebiotic
communityisrealbecausethenicheshapesthemorphologyoftheoaktrees
withinit.Beingrealatthelevelofcommunityonlyrequiresanorganizationthat
shapesthebehaviorofitsmembers.
Thechallengeistofindaclearmodelofcommunityandtodiscoveranethics
foritbetterbiologyforbetterethics.Evenbeforetheriseofecology,biologists
begantoconcludethatthecombativesurvivalofthefittestdistortsthetruth.
Themoreperceptivemodeliscoactioninadaptedfit.Predatorandprey,
parasiteandhost,grazerandgrazedarecontendingforcesindynamicprocess
wherethewellbeingofeachisboundupwiththeothercoordinated(orders
thatcoupletogether)asmuchasheartandliverarecoordinatedorganically.The
ecosystemsuppliesthecoordinatesthroughwhicheachorganismmoves,
outsidewhichthespeciescannotreallybelocated.
Thecommunityconnectionsarelooserthantheorganism'sinternal
interconnectionsbutnotlesssignificant.Admiringorganicunityinorganisms
andstumblingoverenvironmentalloosenessislikevaluingmountainsand
12/17
9/14/2015
despisingvalleys.Thematrixtheorganismrequiresinordertosurviveisthe
open,pluralisticecology.Internalcomplexityheart,liver,muscles,brain
arisesasawayofdealingwithacomplex,trickyenvironment.Theskinout
processesarenotjustthesupport,theyarethesubtlesourceoftheskinin
processes.Inthecompletepicture,theoutsideisasvitalastheinside.Hadthere
beeneithersimplicityorlockstepconcentratedunityintheenvironment,no
organismicunitycouldhaveevolved.Norwoulditremain.Therewouldbeless
eleganceinlife.
Tolookatonelevelforwhatisappropriateatanothermakesacategory
mistake.Oneshouldnotlookforasinglecenterorprograminecosystems,
muchlessforsubjectiveexperiences.Instead,oneshouldlookforamatrix,for
interconnectionsbetweencenters(individualplantsandanimals,dynamiclines
ofspeciation),forcreativestimulusandopenendedpotential.Everythingwill
beconnectedtomanyotherthings,sometimesbyobligateassociations,more
oftenbypartialandpliabledependenciesand,amongotherthings,therewillbe
nosignificantinteractions.Therewillbefunctionsinacommunalsense:shunts
andcrisscrossingpathways,cyberneticsubsystemsandfeedbackloops.An
orderarisesspontaneouslyandsystematicallywhenmanyselfconcernedunits
jostleandseektheirownprograms,eachdoingtheirownthingandforcedinto
informedinteraction.
Anecosystemisaproductive,projectivesystem.Organismsdefendonlytheir
selves,withindividualsdefendingtheircontinuingsurvivalandspecies
increasingthenumbersofkinds.Buttheevolutionaryecosystemspinsabigger
story,limitingeachkind,lockingitintothewelfareofothers,promotingnew
arrivals,increasingkindsandtheintegrationofkinds.Speciesincreasetheir
kindbutecosystemsincreasekinds,superposingthelatterincreaseontothe
former.Ecosystemsareselectivesystems,assurelyasorganismsareselective
systems.Thenaturalselectioncomesoutofthesystemandisimposedonthe
individual.Theindividualisprogrammedtomakemoreofitskind,butmoreis
goingonsystemicallythanthatthesystemismakingmorekinds.
Communalprocessesthecompetitionbetweenorganisms,moreorless
probableevents,plantandanimalsuccessions,speciationoverhistoricaltime
generateaneverrichercommunity.Hencetheevolutionarytoil,elaboratingand
diversifyingthebiota,thatoncebeganwithnospeciesandresultstodayinfive
millionspecies,increasingovertimethequalityoflivesintheupperrungsof
thetropicpyramids.Onecelledorganismsevolvedintomanycelled,highly
integratedorganisms.Photosynthesisevolvedandcametosupportlocomotion
swimming,walking,running,flight.Stimulusresponsemechanismsbecame
complexinstinctiveacts.Warmbloodedanimalsfollowedcoldbloodedones.
Complexnervoussystems,conditionedbehaviorandlearningemerged.
Sentienceappearedsight,hearing,smell,tastes,pleasure,pain.Brainscoupled
withhands.Consciousnessandselfconsciousnessarose.Culturewas
superposedonnature.
Thesedevelopmentsdonottakeplaceinallecosystemsorateverylevel.
Microbes,plants,andloweranimalsremain,goodoftheirkinds,andserving
continuingroles,goodforotherkinds.Theunderstoriesremainoccupied.Asa
result,thequantityoflifeanditsdiversequalitiescontinuefromprotozoansto
primatestopeople.Thereisapushup,lockup,ratcheteffectthatconservesthe
upstrokesandtheoutreaches.Thelaterwegointimethemoreacceleratedare
theformsatthetopofthetropicpyramids,themoreelaboratedarethemultiple
13/17
9/14/2015
tropicpyramidsofEarth.Thereareupwardarrowsoverevolutionarytime.
Thesystemisagamewithloadeddice,buttheloadingisaprolifetendency,not
merestochasticprocess.ThoughthereisnoNatureinthesingular,thesystem
hasanature,aloadingthatpluralizes,puttingnaturesintodiversekinds,
nature1,nature2,nature3...naturen.Itdoessousingrandomelements(inboth
organismsandcommunities),butthisisasecretofitsfertility,producing
steadilyintensifiedinterdependenciesandoptions.Anecosystemhasnohead,
butithasa"heading"forspeciesdiversification,support,andrichness.Though
notasuperorganism,itisakindofvitalfield.
Instrumentalvalueusessomethingasameanstoanendintrinsicvalueis
worthwhileinitself.Nowarblereatsinsectstobecomefoodforafalconthe
warblerdefendsitsownlifeasanendinitselfandmakesmorewarblersasshe
can.Alifeisdefendedintrinsically,withoutfurthercontributoryreference.But
neitherofthesetraditionaltermsissatisfactoryattheleveloftheecosystem.
Thoughithasvalueinitself,thesystemdoesnothaveanyvalueforitself.
Thoughavalueproducer,itisnotavalueowner.Wearenolongerconfronting
instrumentalvalue,asthoughthesystemwereofvalueinstrumentallyasa
fountainoflife.Noristhequestiononeofintrinsicvalue,asthoughthesystem
defendedsomeunifiedformoflifeforitself.Wehavereachedsomethingfor
whichweneedathirdterm:systemicvalue.Dutiesariseinencounterwiththe
systemthatprojectsandprotectsthesemembercomponentsinbiotic
community.
Ethicalconservatives,inthehumanistsense,willsaythatecosystemsareof
valueonlybecausetheycontributetohumanexperiences.Butthatmistakesthe
lastchapterforthewholestory,onefruitforthewholeplant.Humanscount
enoughtohavetherighttoflourishthere,butnotsomuchthattheyhavethe
righttodegradeorshutdownecosystems,notatleastwithoutaburdenofproof
thatthereisanoverridingculturalgain.Thosewhohavetraveledpartwayinto
environmentalethicswillsaythatecosystemsareofvaluebecausethey
contributetoanimalexperiencesortoorganismiclife.Butthereally
conservative,radicalviewseesthatthestability,integrity,andbeautyofbiotic
communitiesiswhatismostfundamentallytobeconserved.Inacomprehensive
ethicsofrespectforlife,weoughttosetethicsatthelevelofecosystems
alongsideclassical,humanisticethics.
Valuetheory
Inpracticetheultimatechallengeofenvironmentalethicsistheconservationof
lifeonEarth.Inprincipletheultimatechallengeisavaluetheoryprofound
enoughtosupportthatethic.Innaturethereisnegentropicconstructionin
dialecticwithentropicteardown,aprocessforwhichwehardlyyethavean
adequatescientific,muchlessavaluationaltheory.Yetthisisnature'smost
strikingfeature,onethatultimatelymustbevaluedandofvalue.Inonesense
natureisindifferenttomountains,rivers,fauna,flora,forestsandgrasslands.
Butinanothersensenaturehasbenttowardmakingandremakingthese
projects,millionsofkinds,forseveralbillionyears.
Theseperformancesareworthnoticingremarkable,memorableandnotjust
becauseoftheirtendenciestoproducesomethingelse,certainlynotmerely
becauseoftheirtendencytoproducethisnoticingincertainrecentsubjectsour
humanselves.Theseeventsarelociofvalueasproductsofsystemicnaturein
14/17
9/14/2015
itsformativeprocesses.ThesplendorsofEarthdonotsimplylieintheirroles
ashumanresources,supportsofculture,orstimulatorsofexperience.Themost
plausibleaccountwillfindsomeprogrammaticevolutiontowardvalue,andnot
becauseitignoresDarwinbutbecauseitheedshisprincipleofnaturalselection
anddeploysthisintoaselectionexploringnewnichesandelaboratingkinds,
evenaselectionupslopetowardhighervalues,atleastalongsometrendswithin
someecosystems.Howdowehumanscometobechargedupwithvalues,if
therewasandisnothinginnaturechargingusupso?Asystematic
environmentalethicsdoesnotwishtobelieveinthespecialcreationofvalues,
norintheirdumfoundingepigenesis.Letthemevolve.Letnaturecarryvalue.
Thenotionthatnatureisavaluecarrierisambiguous.Muchdependsonathing
beingmoreorlessstructurallycongenialforthecarriage.Wevalueathingto
discoverthatweareundertheswayofitsvalence,inducingourbehavior.Ithas
amongits"strengths"(Latin:valeo,bestrong)thiscapacitytocarryvalue.This
potentialcannotalwaysbeoftheemptysortthataglasshasforcarryingwater.
Itisoftenpregnantfullness.Someofthevaluesthatnaturecarriesareuptous,
ourassignment.Butfundamentallytherearepowersinnaturethatmovetous
andthroughus.
Thereisnovaluewithoutanevaluator.Sorunsawellentrencheddogma.
Humansclearlyevaluatetheirworldsentientanimalsmayalso.Butplants
cannotevaluatetheirenvironmenttheyhavenooptionsandmakenochoices.A
fortiori,speciesandecosystems,EarthandNaturecannotbebonafide
evaluators.Onecanalwayshangontotheclaimthatvalue,likeatickleor
remorse,mustbefelttobethere.Itsesseispercipi.Nonsensedvalueis
nonsense.Therearenothoughtswithoutathinker,noperceptswithouta
perceiver,nodeedswithoutadoer,notargetswithoutanaimer.
Suchresolutesubjectivistscannotbedefeatedbyargument,althoughtheycan
bedriventowardanalyticity.Thattheirsisaretreattodefinitionisdifficultto
expose,becausetheyseemtoclingsocloselytoinnerexperience.Theyare
reporting,onthishand,howvaluesalwaysexciteus.Theyaregiving,onthat
hand,astipulativedefinition.Thatishowtheychoosetousetheword"value."
Ifvaluearrivesonlywithconsciousness,experienceswherehumansfindvalue
therehavetobedealtwithasappearancesofvarioussorts.Thevaluehastobe
relocatedinthevaluingsubject'screativityasapersonmeetsavaluelessworld,
orevenavaluableoneoneabletobevaluedbutwhichbeforethehuman
bringingofvalueabilitycontainsonlypossibilityandnotanyactualvalue.
Valuecanonlybeextrinsictonature,neverintrinsictoit.
Butthevaluingsubjectinanotherwisevaluelessworldisaninsufficient
premisefortheexperiencedconclusionsofthosewhorespectalllife.
Conversiontoabiologicalviewseemstruertoworldexperienceandmore
logicallycompelling.Heretheorderofknowingreversesandalsoenhances
theorderofbeing.Thistooisaperspective,butecologicallybetterinformed.
Sciencehasbeensteadilyshowinghowtheconsequents(life,mind)arebuilton
theirprecedents(energy,matter),howevermuchtheyoverleapthem.Lifeand
mindappearwheretheydidnotbeforeexist,andwiththislevelsofvalue
emergethatdidnotbeforeexist.Butthatgivesnoreasontosaythatallvalueis
anirreducibleemergentatthehuman(orupperanimal)level.Acomprehensive
environmentalethicsreallocatesvalueacrossthewholecontinuum.Value
increasesintheemergentclimax,butiscontinuouslypresentinthecomposing
precedents.Thesystemisvalueable,abletoproducevalue.Humanevaluators
15/17
9/14/2015
areamongitsproducts.
Somevaluedependsonsubjectivity,yetallvalueisgeneratedwithinthe
geosystemicandecosystemicpyramid.Systemically,valuefadesfrom
subjectivetoobjectivevalue,butalsofansoutfromtheindividualtoitsroleand
matrix.Thingsdonothavetheirseparatenaturesmerelyinandforthemselves,
buttheyfaceoutwardandcofitintobroadernatures.Valueinitselfissmeared
outtobecomevalueintogetherness.Valueseepsoutintothesystem,andwe
loseourcapacitytoidentifytheindividualasthesolelocusofvalue.
Intrinsicvalue,thatofanindividual"forwhatitisinitself,"becomes
problematicinaholisticweb.True,thesystemproducessuchvaluesmoreand
morewithitsevolutionofindividualityandfreedom.Yettodecouplethisfrom
thebiotic,communalsystemistomakevaluetoointernalandelementarythis
forgetsrelatednessandexternality.Everyintrinsicvaluehasleadingand
trailingand'spointingtovaluefromwhichitcomesandtowardwhichit
moves.Adaptedfitnessmakesindividualisticvaluetoosystemindependent.
Intrinsicvalueisapartinawhole,nottobefragmentedbyvaluingitin
isolation.
Everythingisgoodinarole,inawhole,althoughwecanspeakofobjective
intrinsicgoodnesswhereverapointeventatrilliumdefendsagood(itslife)in
itself.Wecanspeakofsubjectiveintrinsicgoodnesswhensuchanevent
registersasapointexperience,atwhichpointhumanspronounceboththeir
experienceandwhatitisofgoodwithoutneedtoenlargetheirfocus.Neither
thetrilliumsnorthehumanjudgesofitrequirefortheirrespectivevaluingsany
furthercontributoryreference.
Wheneatenbyforagersorindeathresorbedintohumus,thetrilliumhasits
valuedestroyed,transformedintoinstrumentality.Thesystemisavalue
transformerwhereformandbeing,processandreality,factandvalueare
inseparablyjoined.Intrinsicandinstrumentalvaluesshuttlebackandforth,
partsinwholesandwholesinparts,localdetailsofvalueembeddedinglobal
structures,gemsintheirsettings,andtheirsettingsituationacorporationwhere
valuecannotstandalone.Everygoodisincommunity.
Inenvironmentalethicsone'sbeliefsaboutnature,whicharebaseduponbut
exceedscience,haveeverythingtodowithbeliefsaboutduty.Thewaythe
worldisinformsthewayitoughttobe.Wealwaysshapeourvaluesin
significantmeasureinaccordwithournotionofthekindofuniversethatwe
livein,andthisdrivesoursenseofduty.Ourmodelofrealityimpliesamodel
ofconduct.Differingmodelssometimesimplysimilarconduct,butoftenthey
donot.Amodelinwhichnaturehasnovalueapartfromhumanpreferenceswill
implydifferentconductfromonewherenatureprojectsfundamentalvalues,
someobjectiveandothersthatfurtherrequirehumansubjectivitysuperposedon
objectivenature.
Thisevaluationisnotscientificdescriptionhencenotecologyperse,but
metaecology.Noamountofresearchcanverifythat,environmentally,theright
istheoptimumbioticcommunity.Yetecologicaldescriptiongeneratesthis
valuingofnature,endorsingthesystemicrightness.Thetransitionfromisto
goodandthencetooughtoccurshereweleavesciencetoenterthedomainof
evaluation,fromwhichanethicfollows.
Whatisethicallypuzzlingandexcitingisthatanoughtisnotsomuchderived
16/17
9/14/2015
fromanisasdiscoveredsimultaneouslywithit.Asweprogressfrom
descriptionsoffaunaandflora,ofcyclesandpyramids,ofautotrophs
coordinatedwithheterotrophs,ofstabilityanddynamism,ontointricacy,
planetaryopulenceandinterdependence,tounityandharmonywithoppositions
incounterpointandsynthesis,organismsevolvedwithinandsatisfactorily
fittingtheircommunities,arrivingatlengthatbeautyandgoodness,itis
difficulttosaywherethenaturalfactsleaveoffandwherethenaturalvalues
appear.Forsomeatleast,thesharpis/oughtdichotomyisgonethevaluesseem
tobethereassoonasthefactsarefullyin,andbothalikepropertiesofthe
system.
Thereissomethingoverspecializedaboutanethic,heldbythedominantclassof
Homosapiens,thatregardsthewelfareofonlyoneofseveralmillionspeciesas
anobjectandbeneficiaryofduty.Ifthisrequiresaparadigmchangeaboutthe
sortsofthingstowhichdutycanattach,somuchtheworseforthosehumanistic
ethicsnolongerfunctioningin,norsuitedto,theirchangingenvironment.The
anthropocentrismassociatedwiththemwasfictionanyway.Thereissomething
Newtonian,notyetEinsteinian,besidessomethingmorallynaive,aboutliving
inareferenceframewhereonespeciestakesitselfasabsoluteandvalues
everythingelserelativetoitsutility.Iftruetotheirspecificepithet,oughtnot
Homosapiensvaluethishostoflifeassomethingwithaclaimtocareinitsown
right?
Onlythehumanspeciescontainsmoralagents,butperhapsconscienceonsuch
anEarthoughtnotbeusedtoexempteveryotherformoflifefrom
consideration,withtheresultingparadoxthatthesolemoralspeciesactsonlyin
itscollectiveselfinteresttowardalltherest.Isnottheultimatephilosophical
taskthediscoveryofawholegreatethicthatknowsthehumanplaceunderthe
sun?
OtherEcocentricTexts
17/17

Environmental Ethics - Values in and Duties To The Natural World

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Environmental Ethics - Values in and Duties To The Natural World

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

9/14/2015

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi