Radar 2009 A - 7 Radar Cross Section 1

Radar Systems Engineering
Lecture 7 Part 1
Radar Cross Section
Dr. Robert M. ODonnell
IEEE New Hampshire Section
Guest Lecturer

Radar Systems Course 1
Radar Cross Section 1/1/2010
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Block Diagram of Radar System

This lecture
Transmitter
Propagation
Medium
Target
Radar
Cross
Section
Power
Amplifier
Waveform
Generation
T/R
Switch
Antenna
Receiver
Signal Processor Computer

A/D
Converter
Pulse
Compression
Clutter Rejection
(Doppler Filtering)
User Displays and Radar Control
General Purpose Computer
Tracking
Parameter
Estimation
Thresholding
Detection
Data
Recording
Photo Image
Courtesy of US Air Force
Used with permission.

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Definition - Radar Cross Section (RCS or )
Figure by MIT OCW.
Radar Cross Section (RCS) is the hypothetical area, that would intercept the
incident power at the target, which if scattered isotropically, would produce
the same echo power at the radar, as the actual target.

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Factors Determining RCS
Figure by MIT OCW.


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Threats View of the Radar

Range Equation
Antenna Gain G
Transmit Power PT
Transmitted Pulse
Target Cross Section
Received Pulse
Figure by MIT OCW.
R
Distance from Radar to Target
Cannot Control
Radar Range Equation

Can Control
Pt G2 2
S
=
N
(4)3 R4 k TS Bn L
Cannot Control

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Outline
Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

Variation with frequency, type of target, etc.
Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

the RCS of a target
Prediction of a targets radar cross section

Measurement
Theoretical Calculation


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Radar Cross Section of Artillery Shell

RCS vs. Aspect Angle of an Artillery Shell
0
Typical Artillery Shell
Radar Cross Section (dBsm)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Courtesy US Marine Corps
20
40
60
80
100
120
Aspect Angle (degrees)

140
160
180
M107 Shell
for
155mm Howitzer

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Radar Cross Section of Cessna 150L

Measured at RATSCAT (6585th Test Group) Holloman AFB for FAA
Radar Cross Section (dBsm)
40
S Band
VV
Polarization
20
-20
Courtesy of Federal Aviation Administration
90
180
Cessna 150L (in takeoff)
Scott Studio Photography with permission

270
360
Cessna 150L (in flight)
Scott Studio Photography with permission

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Aspect Angle Dependence of RCS

Cone Sphere Re-entry Vehicle (RV) Example
Figure by MIT OCW.


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Examples of Radar Cross Sections

Square meters
Conventional winged missile
0.1
Small, single engine aircraft, or jet fighter
1
Four passenger jet
2
Large fighter
6
Medium jet airliner
40
Jumbo jet
100
Helicopter
3
Small open boat
Small pleasure boat (20-30 ft)
Cabin cruiser (40-50 ft)
Ship (5,000 tons displacement, L Band)
0.02
2
10
10,000
Automobile / Small truck

Bicycle
Man
Birds (large -> medium)
Insects (locust -> fly)
100 - 200
2
1
10-2 - 10-3
10-4 - 10-5
Adapted from Skolnik, Reference 2
Radar Cross Sections of Targets Span at least 50 dB


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Outline


the RCS of a target

Measurement


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RCS Target Contributors
Inlet
Body Shape
Exhaust
Seeker
Control Surfaces
Altimeter
Types of RCS Contributors

Structural (Body shape, Control surfaces, etc.)
Avionics (Altimeter, Seeker, GPS, etc.)
Propulsion (Engine inlets and exhausts, etc.)


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Single and Multiple Frequency RCS

Calculations with the FD-FD Technique
RCS Calculations for a Single Frequency
Illuminate target with incident sinusoidal wave

Sequentially in time, update the electric and magnetic fields, until
steady state conditions are met
The scattered waves amplitude and phase can the be calculated
RCS Calculations for a Multiple Frequencies
Illuminate target with incident Gaussian pulse

Calculate the transient response
Calculate to Fourier transforms of both:
Incident Gaussian pulse, and
Transient response

RCS at multiple frequencies is calculated from the ratios of these two

quantities

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Scattering Mechanisms
for an Arbitrary Target
Diffraction at
Corner
Gap, Seam, or
Discontinuity
Echo
Multiple
Reflection
Curvature
Discontinuity
Return
Backscatter
from
Creeping Wave
o
ch
E
ve
Wa
m
f ro
v
Tra
Specular
Surface
Reflection
ave
W
g
elin
Edge
Diffraction
Tip
Diffraction at
Aircraft Nose

Return
From
Engine Cavity
Tip
Diffraction from
Fuel Tank

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Measured RCS of C-29 Aircraft Model

1/12 Scale
Model
Measurement
Full Scale C-29

BAE Hawker 125-800
Courtesy of Arpingstone
20
Fuselage
Specular
RCS (dBsm)
10
Wing Leading
Edge
X-Band
HH Polarization
Waterline Cut
0
-10
-20
-30
0

60
120
180
240
300
360
Adapted from Atkins, Reference 5
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory

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Outline


the RCS of a target

Measurement


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Techniques for RCS Analysis
Full Scale Measurements
Theoretical Prediction
Scaled Model Measurements
Used with Permission


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Full Scale Measurements

Target on Support
Foam column mounting

Dielectric properties of Styrofoam close to those of free space
Metal pylon mounting

Metal pylon shaped to reduce radar reflections
Background subtraction can be used
Derived from: http://www.af.mil/shared/media/photodb/photos/050805-F-0000S-003.jpg


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Full Scale Measurement of

Johnson Generic Aircraft Model (JGAM)

RATSCAT Outdoor Measurement

Facility at Holloman AFB

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Compact Range RCS Measurement

Radar Reflectivity Laboratory (Pt. Mugu) / AFRL Compact Range (WPAFB)
Courtesy of U. S. Navy.
Main
Reflector
Target
Plane
Wave
Low RCS
Pylon
Feed
Antenna
Sub-Reflector
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Scale Model Measurement

MQM-107 Drone in 0.29, 0.034, and 0.01 scaled sizes
Full Scale
Measure at frequency f
Scale Factor
S
(Reduced Size)
Subscale
Measure at frequency S x F

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Scaling of RCS of Targets

Scale Factor
S
Quantity
Full Scale
Subscale
Length
L = L / S
Wavelength
= / S
Frequency
f = S f
Time
t = t / S
Permittivity
Permeability
Conductivity
g = S g
Radar Cross Section
= / S2


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Outline


the RCS of a target

Measurement


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Radar Cross Section Calculation Methods
Introduction
A look at the few simple problems
RCS prediction
Exact Techniques
Finite Difference- Time Domain Technique (FD-TD)
Method of Moments (MOM)
Approximate Techniques
Geometrical Optics (GO)
Physical Optics (PO)
Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD)
Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD)
Comparison of different methodologies


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Radar Cross Section of Sphere
Radar Cross Section / a2
10
Higher Wavelengths
Lower Wavelengths
Rayleigh Region
>> a
= k / 4
Optical
Region
<< a
>> a
10-1
Mie or Resonance
Region
Oscillations
Backscattered
wave interferes
with creeping wave
Resonance or Mie
Region
Rayleigh
Region
Optical Region
<< a
= a2
Surface and edge
scattering occur
a
10-2
10-3
0.1
0.2
Figure by MIT OCW.

0.4
0.7 1
10
20
Circumference/ wavelength = 2a /
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Radar Cross Section Calculation Issues
Three regions of wavelength

Rayleigh
Mie / Resonance
Optical
( >> a)
( ~ a)
( << a)
Other simple shapes

Examples: Cylinders, Flat Plates, Rods, Cones, Ogives
Some amenable to relatively straightforward solutions in some
wavelength regions
Complex targets:
Examples: Aircraft, Missiles, Ships)
RCS changes significantly with very small changes in frequency
and / or viewing angle
See Ref. 6 (Levanon), problem 2-1 or Ref. 2 (Skolnik) page 57
We will spend the rest of the lecture studying the different

basic methods of calculating radar cross sections


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High Frequency RCS Approximations

(Simple Scattering Features)
Scattering Feature
Orientation
Approximate RCS
2
4 A eff
/ 2
Corner Reflector
Axis of symmetry along LOS
Flat Plate
Surface perpendicular to LOS
4 A 2 / 2
Singly Curved Surface
4 A 2 / 2
Doubly Curved Surface
a1 a 2
Straight Edge
Edge perpendicular to LOS
2 /
Curved Edge
Edge element perpendicular to LOS
a/2
Cone Tip
Axial incidence
2 sin 4 ( / 2)
Where:
Adapted from Knott is Skolnik Reference 3


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Radar Cross Section Calculation Issues
Three regions of wavelength

Rayleigh
Mie / Resonance
Optical
( >> a)
( ~ a)
( << a)
Other simple shapes

Examples: Cylinders, Flat Plates, Rods, Cones, Ogives
Some amenable to relatively straightforward solutions in some
wavelength regions
Complex targets:
Examples: Aircraft, Missiles, Ships)
RCS changes significantly with very small changes in frequency
and / or viewing angle
See Ref. 6 (Levanon), problem 2-1 or Ref. 2 (Skolnik) page 57
We will spend the rest of the lecture studying the different

basic methods of calculating radar cross sections


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RCS Calculation - Overview
Electromagnetism Problem
r
A plane wave with electric field, E I , impinges on the target of
interest and some of the energy scatters back to the radar
antenna
r 2
ES
2
Since, the radar cross section is given by: = lim 4 r r 2
r
EI
All we need to do is user Maxwells Equations to calculate the
scattered electric field ES
Thats easier said that done
Before we examine in detail these different techniques, lets
review briefly the necessary electromagnetism concepts and
formulae, in the next few viewgraphs


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Maxwells Equations
Source free region of space:
r r
r r
B( r , t )
E(r , t ) =
t
r r
r r
D(r , t )
H(r , t ) =
t
r r
D(r , t ) = 0
r r
B( r , t ) = 0
Free space constitutive relations:

r r
r r
D(r , t ) = o E(r , t )
r r
r r
B( r , t ) = o H ( r , t )
o = Free space permittivity

o = Free space permeability
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Maxwells Equations in Time-Harmonic Form
Source free region:
r r
r r
E (r ) = i B (r )
r r
r r
H (r ) = i D (r )
r r
D (r ) = 0
r r
B (r ) = 0
Time dependence
{
{
r r
E (r , t ) = Re
r r
H (r , t ) = Re

}
}
r r i t
E (r ) e
r r i t
H(r ) e

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Boundary Conditions
Medium 1
1 1
Medium 2
2 2
r r
E1 H 1
r
r
E2 H 2
Surface
Boundary
r
r
Tangential components of E and H are continuous:
r
r
n x E1 = n x E 2
r
r
n x H 1 = n x H 2
For surfaces that are perfect conductors:
r
n x E = 0
Radiation condition:
As

r r
1
E(r )
r
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Scattering Matrix
Scattering Matrix - S
For a linear polarization basis

r
E VS e ikr S VV
ES =
=
S
E
r
HV
HS
S VH E VI
S HH E HI
The incident field polarization is related to the scattered field

polarization by this Scattering Matrix - S
2
VV = 4 S VV
HH = 4 S HH
2
2
VH = 4 S VH
For and a reciprocal medium and for monostatic radar cross
section:
RR , LL , RL
For a circular polarization basis

VH = HV


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Radar Cross Section Calculation Methods
Introduction
A look at the few simple problems
RCS prediction
Exact Techniques
Finite Difference- Time Domain Technique (FD-TD)
Method of Moments (MOM)
Approximate Techniques
Geometrical Optics (GO)
Physical Optics (PO)
Geometrical Theory of Diffraction (GTD)
Physical Theory of Diffraction (PTD)
Comparison of different methodologies


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Methods of Radar Cross Section

Calculation
RCS Method
Approach to Determine
Surface Currents
Finite DifferenceTime Domain (FD-TD)

Method of Moments
(MoM)
Geometrical Optics
(GO)
Physical Optics
(PO)
Geometrical Theory of
Diffraction (GTD)
Physical Theory of
Diffraction (PTD)
Solve Differential Form of Maxwells

Equations for Exact Fields
Solve Integral Form of Maxwells
Equations for Exact Currents
Current Contribution Assumed to Vanish
Except at Isolated Specular Points
Currents Approximated by Tangent
Plane Method
Geometrical Optics with Added Edge
Current Contribution
Physical Optics with Added Edge
Current Contribution


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Finite Difference- Time Domain (FD-TD)

Overview
Exact method for calculation radar cross section
Solve differential form of Maxwells equations
The change in the E field, in time, is dependent on the change in the H

field, across space, and visa versa
The differential equations are transformed to difference equations
These difference equations are used to sequentially calculate the E

field at one time and the use those E field calculations to calculate H
field at an incrementally greater time; etc. etc.
Called Marching in Time
These time stepped E and H field calculations avoid the necessity

of solving simultaneous equations
Good approach for structures with varying electric and magnetic

properties and for cavities


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Maxwells Equations in
Rectangular Coordinates
=0
Examine 2 D problem no y dependence:
y
Equations decouple into H-field polarization and E-field

polarization
HZ
H Y = o
EX
y
z
t
EX
EZ = o
HY
z
x
t
HY
H X = o
EZ
x
y
t
H-field polarization
H Y EX EZ
EZ
E Y = o
HX
y
z
t
HX
H Z = o
EY
x
t
z
EY
E X = o
HZ
x
y
t
E-field polarization
EY H X H Z
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Maxwells Equations in
Rectangular Coordinates
=0
Examine 2 D problem no y dependence:
y
Equations decouple into H-field polarization and E-field
polarization
=0
=0
HZ
H Y = o
EX
EZ
E Y = o
HX
t
y
z
t
z
y
EX
EZ = o
HY
z
x
t
HY
H X = o
EZ
x
y
t
=0
H-field polarization
H Y EX EZ

HX
H Z = o
EY
t
x
z
EY
E X = o
HZ
t
y
x
=0
E-field polarization
EY H X H Z
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Discrete Form of Maxwells Equations
H-field polarization:
o
H Y (x, y , t ) =
E X (x, y , t )
t
z
E Z (x, y , t )
x
Yees
Lattice
(2-D)
HY
Ex
EZ
z
y
Discrete form:
o
T

X
Z
T
X
Z
T
+
+
+
+
+
H
x
,
z
,
t
H
x
,
z
,
t
o
o
Y o
o
o
Y o
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
Z

X
X
+
+
+
E
x
,
z
,
t
E
x
,
z
,
t
o
Z
o
X
o
o
o
X o
2
2
1
X

Z
Z
+
E
x
,
z
,
t
E
x
,
z
,
t
X
o
o
Z
o
o
o
Z o
2
2
Electric and magnetic fields are calculated alternately by the

marching in time method


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FD-TD Calculations and Absorbing

Boundary Conditions (ABC)
Absorbing Boundary
1
1
1st Order ABC
2 z + x + c t Hy = 0
HY
Scattered Field
Total Field
Ex
EZ
Target
E TAN = 0
Domain of Computation
2nd Order ABC
Layer Perfectly Matched
Perfect Conductor
1 2
1 2 1 2
Hy = 0
+ 2 2
2
2 x
c x t c t
Absorbing Boundary Condition (ABC) Used to Limit Computational Domain
Reflections at exterior boundary are minimized
Traditional ABCs model field as outgoing wave to estimate field quantities outside
domain
More recent perfectly matched layer (PML) model uses non-physical layer, that
absorbs waves
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RCS Calculations Using the FD-TD Method
Single frequency RCS calculations

Excite with sinusoidal incident wave
Run computation until steady state is reached
Calculate amplitude and phase of scattered wave
Multiple frequency RCS calculations

Excite with Gaussian pulse incident wave
Calculate transient response
Take Fourier transform of incident pulse and transient
response
Calculate ratios of these transforms to obtain RCS at multiple
frequencies
From Atkins, Reference 5


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Description of Scattering Cases on Video

Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) Simulations
Case 1 Plate I
Ei
Case 2 Plate II
Case 3 Plate III
Hi
Ei
Ei
15 deg
Case 4 Cylinder I
Ei
Hi
Courtesy of MIT Lincoln Laboratory Used with Permission

Hi
Hi
Case 5 Cylinder II
Ei
Hi
15 deg
Case 6 Cavity
Ei
Hi

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FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Strip

Case 1
Gaussian pulse plane wave incidence

E-field polarization (Ey plotted)
Phenomena: specular reflection
0.5 m
Ey
4m
Courtesy of
MIT Lincoln Laboratory


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Case 1
Courtesy of


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FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Strip

Case 1
Courtesy of


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FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Cylinder

Case 5
Gaussian pulse plane wave incidence

H-field polarization (Hy plotted)
Phenomena: creeping wave
0.5 m
Hy
2m
Courtesy of


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Case 5
Courtesy of


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FD-TD Simulation of Scattering by Cylinder

Case 5
Courtesy of


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Backscatter of Short Pulse from Sphere
Specular
Return
Creeping Wave Return
Figure by MIT OCW.

Radius of sphere is equal

to the radar wavelength

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Radar 2009 A - 7 Radar Cross Section 1

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Radar Systems Engineering

IEEE New Hampshire Section

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Block Diagram of Radar System

Signal Processor Computer

User Displays and Radar Control

General Purpose Computer

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Definition - Radar Cross Section (RCS or )

Figure by MIT OCW.

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Factors Determining RCS

Figure by MIT OCW.

Radar Systems Course 4

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Threats View of the Radar

Radar Range Equation

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

Prediction of a targets radar cross section

Radar Systems Course 6

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar Cross Section of Artillery Shell

Courtesy US Marine Corps

Aspect Angle (degrees)

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar Cross Section of Cessna 150L

Radar Cross Section (dBsm)

Scott Studio Photography with permission

Radar Systems Course 8

Cessna 150L (in flight)

Scott Studio Photography with permission

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Aspect Angle Dependence of RCS

Figure by MIT OCW.

Radar Systems Course 9

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Examples of Radar Cross Sections

Automobile / Small truck

Radar Cross Sections of Targets Span at least 50 dB

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar cross section (RCS) of typical targets

Physical scattering mechanisms and contributors to

Prediction of a targets radar cross section

Radar Systems Course 11

IEEE New Hampshire Section

RCS Target Contributors

Types of RCS Contributors

Radar Systems Course 12

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Single and Multiple Frequency RCS

RCS Calculations for a Single Frequency

Illuminate target with incident sinusoidal wave

RCS Calculations for a Multiple Frequencies

Illuminate target with incident Gaussian pulse

Radar Systems Course 13

RCS at multiple frequencies is calculated from the ratios of these two

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Radar Systems Course 14

IEEE New Hampshire Section

Measured RCS of C-29 Aircraft Model