Class 1

[BK] The Meaning of Leadership by Bernard M. Bass in The Leaders Companion,

pp. 37 38.
[OL] The Two Essentials of Power by James MacGregor Burns in Leadership, pp.
12 23.
Class 2
[OL] Looking Forward but Learning from Our Past: Potential challenges to
developing authentic leadership theory and authentic leaders by Cecily D. Cooper,
pp. 475 493.
[BK] Servant Leadership by Robert K. Greenleaf in The Leaders Companion, pp.
18 23.
[BK] Situational Leadership by Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard in The
Leaders Companion, pp. 207 211.
[BK] The Hero as King by Thomas Carlyle in The Leaders Companion, pp. 53 -54.
[BK] Rulers and Generals are Historys Slaves by Leo Tolstoy in The Leaders
Companion, pp. 55 59.
Class 3
[CR] Leading in Times of Trauma by Jane Dutton et. al..
[OL] Key Points, The Power of Intuition and The Power of Mental Stimulation
by Gary Klein, in Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions, p. 30, pp. 31 44,
pp. 45 74.
Class 4
[OL] Charismatic Authority by Max Weber in The Theory of Social and Economic
Organization, pp. 358 363.
[OL] Origins of Charisma: Ties that Bind the Leader and the Led by Manfred Kets
de Vries, in Charismatic Leadership: The Elusive Factor in Organizational
Effectiveness, pp. 237 252.
Class 5
[CR] Exercising Influence by Linda Hill
[BK] Transactional and Transforming Leadership by James MacGregor Burns in
The Leaders Companion, pp. 100 101.
Class 6
[BK] Leadership in Administration by Philip Selznick (Chapters 1 and 2)
[CR] Why transformation efforts fail by John Kotter, Harvard Business Review,
March-April 1995.
Class 7 (Wednesday, October 10)
[BK] Individual Attributes as Sources of Power by Jeffrey Pfeffer in Managing with
Power, pp. 165-185.
[CR] Power Dynamics in Organizations by Linda Hill
Class 8 (Friday, October 12)
[OL] Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital by James S. Coleman.
[CR] Building Coalitions by Herminia Ibarra.
[BK] Sources of Power pages 69 145 in Managing with Power by Jeffrey Pfeffer.
[CR] Informal Networks: The Company Behind the Chart by David Krackhardt and
Jeffrey R. Hanson.
Class 9 (Monday, October 15)

[OL] Excerpts from The Prince by Machiavelli.

[CR] Managers and Leaders: Are They Different by Abraham Zaleznik.
Class 10 (Wednesday, October 17)
[CR] Managing Your Boss by John J. Gabarro and John P. Kotter.
Class 11 (Monday, October 22)
[OL] Excerpts from Becoming a Leader: The Omaha Years, by Dennis Dickerson,
Militant Mediator: Whitney Young, Jr. (Chapter 4)
[CR] Managerial Networks by Herminia Ibarra
Class 12 (Monday, October 29)
[OL] Power by Rosabeth Moss Kanter in Men and Women of the Corporation.
[CR] The Power of Talk: Who Gets Heard and Why? by Deborah Tannen
Class 13 (Wednesday, October 31)
[CR] Managing Your Team by Linda Hill.
[OL] Will a Category Cue Affect You? Category Cues, Positive Stereotypes and
Reviewer Recall for Applicants by Todd Pittinsky, Margaret Shih, and Nalini Ambady.
Class 14 (Friday, November 2)
[CR] Using Logic to Make Your Argument by Michael Hattersley
[CR] Change through Persuasion by David Garvin and Michael Roberto
Class 15 (Monday, November 5)
[CR] Choosing Strategies for Change by Leonard Schlesinger and John Kotter
[BK] Timing is (Almost) Everything by Jeffrey Pfeffer in Managing with Power, pp.
227 245.
Class 16 (Wednesday, November 7)
[CR] Note on Organization Structure by Nitin Nohria.
[OL] Substitute for Hierarchy by Ed Lawler.
[OL] The Bureaucracy Busters by Brian Dumaine.
[OL] Restoring American Competitiveness: Looking for New Models of
Organization by Tom Peters.
[CR] Making Differences Matter: A New Paradigm for Managing Diversity by
David A. Thomas and Robin J. Ely
[OL] The Role of the Founder in the Creation of Organizational Culture by Edgar
H. Schein in Reframing Organizational Culture.
[OL] The Smile Factory: Work at Disneyland by John van Maanen in Reframing
Organizational Culture.
[OL] What is Culture? by Edgar H. Schein in Reframing Organizational Culture.
Class 17 (Wednesday, November 14)
[CR] A Note for Analyzing Work Groups
Class 18 (Monday, November 19)
[CR] Evaluating an Action Plan
Class 19 (Monday, November 26)
[OL] The Design of Work Teams by J. Richard Hackman.
Class 20 (Wednesday, November 28)

[CR] Organizational Alignment: The 7S Model

Class 22 (Wednesday, December 5)
[OL] The Bakeoff: Project Delta Claims to Create the Perfect Cookie by Malcolm
Gladwell
Class 23 (Friday, December 7)
[OL] Beyond the Charismatic Leader: Leadership and Organizational Change by
David Nadler and Michael Tushman.
[CR] Why Change Programs Dont Produce Change by Michael Beer, Russell
Eisenstat, and Bert Spector.
[OL] Creating Change by Peter Senge and Katrin Kaeufer
Class 24 (Monday, December 10)
[CR] Leadership for Change Rosabeth Moss Kanter
Class 26 (Monday, December 17)
[OL] Developing Your Leadership Pipeline, by Conger and Fulmer (in class
distribution)

The Meaning of Leadership by Bernard M. Bass in The Leaders Companion

Leadership is a sophisticated concept, it doesnt just mean formal power or whos the boss
There are lots of definitions to what it means, can be ambiguous and overlap
Meaning of leadership may depend on the institution in which it is found
Matter of personality, influence, inducing compliance, persuasion, etc.

James MacGregor Burns, The Two Essentials of Power

The two essential of power are motive and resource. Lacking either one,
power collapses

To understand the nature of leadership requires understanding the essence

of power, for leadership is a special form of power

Power and power wielders

The power process as a process in which power holders (P) possessing

certain motives and goals have the capacity to secure changes in the
behavior or a respondent (R), human or animal, and in the environment by
utilizing resources in their power based, including factors of skill, relative to
the targets of their power-wielding and necessary to secure changes. (13)

The motives of power wielders may or may not coincide with what the
respondent wants done; it is Ps intention that controls. Power wielders may or
may not recognize respondents wants and needs; if they do they may
recognize them only to the degree necessary to achieve their goals; ad if they
must make a choice between satisfying their own purposes and satisfying
respondents needs, they will choose the former (15)

THUS power over other persons, we have noted, is exercised when

potential power wielders, motivated to achieve certain goals of their own,
marshal in their power base resources that enable them to influence the
behavior of respondents by activating motives of respondents relevant to
those resources and goals. This is done in order to realize the purposes of the
power wielders, whether or not these are also the goals of the respondents.
Power wielders also exercise influence by mobilizing their own power base in
such a way as to establish direct physical control over others behavior, as in a
war of conquest or thought measures of harsh deprivation, but these are
highly restricted exercises of power (18)

Leadership and Leaders

In CONTRAST, leadership over human beings is exercised when persons

with certain motives and purposes mobilize, in competition or conflict with
others, institutional, political, psychological and other resources so as to
arouse, engage and satisfy the motives of followers. This is done in order to
realize goals mutually held by both leaders and followers...In brief, leaders
with motive and power bases tap followers motives in order to realize the
purposes of both leaders and followers. (18)

Leaders do not obliterate followers motives thought they may arouse

certain motives and ignore others. They lead other creatures, not things. All
leaders are actual or potential power holders, but not all power holders are
leaders (18)

I define leadership as leaders inducing followers to act for certain goals that
represent the values and the motivationsthe wants and needs, the
aspirations and expections, of both leaders and followers. And the genius of
leadership lies in the manner in which leaders see and act on their own and
their followers values and motivations (19)

leaders address themselves to followers wants, needs and other motivations

as well as to their own, and thus they serve as an independent force in
changing the makeup of the followers motive base through gratifying their
motives (20)

Two types of leadership

transactional leadership occurs when one person takes the initiative in

making contact with others for the purpose of an exchange of valued things
each party to the bargain is conscious of the power resources and attitudes of
the other. Each person recognizes the other as a person. Their purposes are
related, at least to the extent that the purposes stand within the bargaining
process and can be advanced by maintaining that process. But beyond this
the relationship does not go. The bargainers have no enduring purpose that
holds them togetherA leadership act took place, but it was not one that
binds the leader and follower together in a mutual and continuing pusuit of a
higher purpose (20)

transforming leadership occurs when one or more persons engage with

others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher
levels of motivation and moralitytheir purposes, which might have started
out as separate but relatedbecome fusedtransforming leadership
iltimately comes moral in that it raises te level of human conduct and ethical
aspiration of both leader and led, and thus it has a transforming effect on
bothis dynamic leadership in the sense that the leaders throw themselves
into a relationship with followers who will feel elevated by it and often
become more active themselves. (20)

Measuring power and leadership

my own measurement of power and leadership:power and leadership are

measured by the degree of production of intended effects (22)

Cecily D. Cooper, Looking Forward but Learning from Our Past: Potential
Challenges to Developing
Authentic Leadership Theory and Authentic Leaders
Abstract: recently researchers have introduced a new leadership construct, referred to as
authentic leadership. There has been considerable interest in this new area of study.
Scholars conducting work on authentic leadership believe that the recent upswing in
corporate scandals and management malfeasance indicate that a new perspective on
leadership is necessary. In order to address these negative societal trends, proponents of
authentic leadership take a very normative approach, placing astrong emphasis on the
creation of interventions to facilitate the development of authenticity. We concur with the
basic tenets of this initiative. However, in this article, we note that it is premature to focus
on designing interventions to develop authentic leaders before taking further steps in
defining, measuring and rigorously researching this construct. We draw attention to these
issues with the hope of insuring that any development initiatives that are implemented are
practical and effective for leaders and organizations (475)

According to the author, before designing strategies for authentic leadership

development, scholars need to give careful consideration to four critical
issues:

1) defining and measuring the construct

2) determining the discriminant validity of the construct

once researchers create an appropriate measure for the authentic

leadership construct, it will then be necessary to determine its
discriminant validity. Empirically testing discriminant validity is
necessary in order to ascertain whether the construct is redundant
with other similar constructs

3) identifying relevant construct outcomes (i.e. testing the constructs

nomological network

identifying the key dimensions of authentic leadership and creating a

theoretically-based definition of the construct

after suitable measures have been developed and discriminant validity

analyses have been conducted, research will need to further map the
dimensions and subdimensions o the nomological network of variables
that may be associated with authentic leadership

4) ascertaining whether authentic leadership can be taught (477)

authentic leadership is not like other areas of leadership for which

competency sets might be acquired in traditional training programs

alternatively, to begin to think about how to develop authentic leaders,

we must think outside the parameters of traditional leadership training.

Specifically, the four major issues which any authentic leadership

development intervention must address are 1) ensuring that the
program itself, is genuine. 2) determining how trigger events can be
replicated during training, 3) deciding whether ethical decision-making
can be taught and 4) (if these first three issues can be addressed)
determining who should participate in authentic leadership training.
Conclusion: although the purpose of this piece is to inform initiatives for the development
of authentic leaders, we suggest that the timinig of such an impetus may be somewhat
premature given how little we know about this construct. As we have argued here, if
authentic leadership scholars have a sincere desire to develop leaders who possess ethical,
positive capabilities, they can best achieve this goal by conducting research on authentic
leadership and its development in a thorough, systematic, manner. By revisiting some of the
challenges that leadership researchers have faced in the past, we have identified a set of
core concerns that we believe need to be addressed before the study of authentic leaders
and subsequently, their development can further progress. (491)

Servant Leadership by Robert K. Greenleaf in The Leaders Companion (p. 1823)

Greenleaf asserts that his sense of the present leads him to believe that the roles of servant
and leader can be fused in one real person in all levels of staus or calling and that the
servant-leader can live and be productive in the real world of the presenthis thesis is that
more servants should emerge as leaders and that we ought to follow servant-leaders

begins by discussing the role of Leo in the book Journey to the East by Hesse.
The story is about a group of men on a mythical journey who are accompanied
by Leo, the servant. Leo does their chores and provides them with inspiration
through his singing. One day Leo disappears and the group falls into disarray
and abandons the journey. The narrator eventually finds Leo and discovers
that Leo, whom he had first known as servant, was in fact the titular head of
the Ordera great and noble leader

believes that this story represents that the great leader is seen as a servant
first, and that simple fact is the key to his greatness

the servant leader is servant first. It begins with the natural feeling
that one wants to serve, to serve first. Then conscious choice brings
one to aspire to lead. That person is sharply different from one who is a
leader first, perhaps because of the need to assuage an unusual power
drive or to acquire material possessions. For such it will be a later
choice to serveafter leadership is establishedthe different
manifests itself in the care taken by the servant first to make sure tat
other peoples highest priority needs are being served (22)

thus at the heart of the individual is a desire to serve others

rather than increase their power. Their objective is to enhance
the growth of individuals.

if one is servant, either leader or follower, one is always searching,

listening, expecting that a better wheel for these times is in the
making (20)this bottom up approach is what makes a servant a
good leader

He believes that the best test of leadership is:

do those served grow as persons? Do they, while being served

become healthier, wiser, freer, more autonomous, more likely
themselves to become servants? And what is the effect on the least
privileged in society? Will they benefit or at least not be further
deprived? (22)

this type of leadership emphasizes collaboration, trust and the ethical

use of power (the mes we have discussed through out the semester)

Situational Leadership by Hersey and Blanchard in The Leaders Companion (p.

207-211)
Situational Leadership holds that managers must use different leadership styles depending
on the situation. The model allows you to analyze the needs of the situation you are in and
then use the most appropriate leadership style (characterized in terms of the amount of
direction and support that a leader gives to their followers). Depending on the employees
readiness (the ability and willingness of followers to perform a certain task) a leaders
leadership style should vary from one person to another.

Identifies 4 developmental stages of readiness progressing from R1 to R4

R1: low ability (or competence), low willingness (or commitment)

generally lacking the specific skills required and the motivation to
tackle the taskunable and unwilling or insecure

R2: Moderate competence, high commitmentunable but willing or

confident)followers respond to leaders assistance which builds
confidence and commitment and increases skills

R3: High Ability, Variable Willingnessthey have learned to perform

the task but then go through a self-doubt stage where they question
whether they can perform the task without the help of the leader
(causing variable commitment)

R4: High Ability, High Commitmentonce the self doubt is overcome,

the followers move to the level of a peak performer

Depending on the development level of the followers, situational leadership

prescribes the use of one of four different combinations of task behavior (the
extent to which the leader engages in one way communication and tells the
follower what to do) and relationship behavior (the extent to which a leader
engages in 2-way communication, listens, provides encouragement, facilitates
interaction and involves the followers in decision making)

S1: high task behavior, low relationship behaviorreferred to as

Telling: this is appropriate for a group with a readiness level of R1
who lack the competenceprovides a clear specific direction and close
supervision and addresses inability to do the task

S2: High Task Behavior, High relationship behaviorreferred to as

selling: This is appropriate for a group with a readiness level of R2
(followers who have some competence and are willing to learn)is a
coaching style that provides dual task behavior (because of lack of
confidence) but also supportive behavior to build confidence and
enthusiasm. Leader must keep the responsibility for and control over
decision-making untilt he group acquires the necessary task
competence

S3: Low task behavior, High Relationship Behaviorreferred to as

participating: the control over day-to day decision-making and

problem solving shifts from leader to followers. Appropriate for R3

people who are competent but have variable commitment towards task
which is a function of a lack of confidence or insecurity

S4: Low relationship and low task behaviorreferred to as

delegating: is appropriate for a group with readiness level R4 who
are able and willing and confident. In this style, leaders discusses the
problems with followers until a joint-agreement is achieved. Decisionmaking process is delegated totally to the followers. Followers run
their own show

In summary, situational leadership describes a way of adapting leadership

behaviors to features of the situation and the followers. The key point is that
the leader provides what is lacking in the situation.

Emphasizes the theme we have discussed concerning the importance of fit

between leadership style and context

The Hero as King by Thomas Carlyle

Carlyle calls Kingship, the Commander over Men, the last form of Heroism. He, as Priest,
Teacher, and all other forms of Heroism, tells us what to do. All social procedure should be
aimed at finding the Ablest Man and once found, he should be made King and given absolute
authority. The Ablest Man is the wisest, most just, noblest, and most fit for Kingship. With
that, we would have the perfect state.

Rulers and Generals Are Historys Slaves by Leo Tolstoy

Tolstoy argues, in this passage from War and Peace, that man lives consciously for himself,
but is an unconscious instrument in the attainment of historic, universal, aims of humanity,
and as such, the more people a man is connected with and the more power he has over
others, the more he is caught up in the pursuit of mans universal and historic aims. His
actions are predestined and inevitable. Therefore, a king is historys slave. History uses
every moment of the life of kings as a tool for its own purposes. In historic events, the socalled great men are labels giving names to events, and like labels they have but the
smallest connection with the event itself. Every act of theirs, which appears to them an act
of their own will, is in an historical sense involuntary and is related to the whole course of
history and predestined from eternity.

Leading in Times of Trauma by Jane E. Dutton, et al.

Explains how leaders can foster an environment of compassion in their organizations

in the aftermath of a crisis (organizational compassion)

Compassionate leadership involves taking some public action that eases peoples
pain and inspires others to act as well.

2-Level Compassionate Institutional Response

1. Context for Meaning: leader creates an environment in which people can freely
express and discuss the way they feel
2. Context for Action: leader creates an environment in which those who experience or
witness pain can find ways to alleviate their own and others suffering
Meaning Amid Chaos
After a crisis, people undertake deep soul-searching, looking for meaning
The leaders job is not to answer deep questions, but to provide an environment
where people can openly discuss them
Things leader can do: show your own humanity and express your own emotions; be
present, physically and emotionally; take care of grieving peoples basic needs;
communicate and reinforce organizational values, reminding people of larger
purpose; make symbolic gestures
Actions Amid Agony
Creating a context for action can unleash an organizations power to heal
Prompt the organizational infrastructure to reinforce and institutionalize
compassionate acts
Things leader can do: model behaviors you want to see; reallocate resources to
support people in need; use existing infrastructure, networks, routines to address
trauma-related problems (organizing groups, locating resources, etc.); set up new
routines or networks designed to accelerate aid in the event of a crisis
Bottom-Up
Recognize and support compassionate actions at the lower levels of a company
Bottom-Up compassion can have a transformative effect; organizational compassion
can be contagious
Case for Compassion
Hard to document positive effect of compassion on employee retention and
productivity, but employees will reward companies that treat them humanely
Conversely, ignoring compassion in the workplace, especially in times of trauma, can
have devastating effects
Use leadership to begin the healing process; foster an environment to find meaning and
enable compassionate action

[OL] "Key Points," "The Power of Intuition" and "The Power of Mental Stimulation" by Gary
Klein, in Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions, p. 30, pp. 31 44, pp. 45 74.

How People Make Decisions by:

The Power of Intuition and the Power of Mental Simulation gives examples of great decisions
that were made and the situations they were made in.
For example, the article mentions nurses, military men, and firefighters. They give
situations where a person making the decision just had a feeling or intuition and they
acted on it. The article is arguing that this intuition comes from experience and familiarity.
The people making the decisions actually have developed a sense for what is normal and
have learned to act quickly on just an intuition that something in a situation is different. The
article uses interesting examples to prove this point.
Decisions based on intuition depend on:
-pattern matching
-familiarity
- Recognition
- quick and accurate understanding
ADVICE FOR COMPANY: Use this theory to argue for a training program with realistic
situations and obstacles. Also, this model is related to pattern- matching exercises.
The second part of the reading was the Power of Mental Simulation where a decision-maker
can look at the starting point and determine a strategy to reach a specific end. When doing
this, many transition steps are determined to ensure success. Part of these considerations is
looking for factors that would effect the outcome and changing or altering strategy to allow
for the factors.
Weakness in Mental Simulation- Imagining contradictory evidence away
PUT INTO ACTION: Ask employees to imagine future of a new plan, ask police officer to
imagine different situations with the same end, imagine failures and its causes, also to
imagine how consumers would react to a developed product

Charismatic Authority by Max Weber

In The Theory of Social and Economic Organization
Charisma: certain quality of an individual that sets him apart from ordinary people and is
treated as endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least specifically exceptional
powers or qualitiesregarded as of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them
the individual concerned is treated as a leader (i.e. prophets, leaders of the hunt, heroes in
war, shamans, saviors, etc.) with followers and disciples

FOLLOWERS: Having followers validates charisma; they worship and absolutely trust
the leader. Genuine charisma has followers who see it as their duty to embark on
this charismatic mission.
CHARISMATIC SUSTAINABILITY: If proof of his charismatic qualities fails the leader for
long, or if his leadership fails to benefit his followers, his charismatic authority will
likely disappear. The leader tends to think his god or his magical or heroic powers
have deserted him (gift of grace).
COMMUNAL ORGANIZATION: The organization surrounding such a leader is
communal. The administrative staff is not technically trained but rather chosen for
their charismatic qualities. There is no hierarchy, no appointment, no dismissal, no
promotion. The leader simply intervenes as he sees fit. No formal rules or
regulations, only charismatic authority; true leaders preach, create, demand new
obligations. Charismatic authority is opposed to routine.
ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS: Charisma is foreign to economic considerations,
especially the routine everyday economizing and rational cost analysis. Charismatic
leaders are supported by gifts, bribes, and other irregular unsystematic acquisitive
acts.
Charisma is the greatest revolutionary force. Charisma involves a subjective or
internal reorientation born out of suffering, conflicts, or enthusiasm, resulting in
radical alteration of the central system of attitudes (tradition vs. charisma).

Routinization of Charisma

If charisma is to be sustained, it needs to be traditionalized or rationalized, or both

In its pure form, charismatic authority exists only in the process of originating, and is
unstable

Origins of Charisma: Ties That Bind the Leader and the Led
by Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries

Seeks to answer the question of what psychological forces make for the mysterious,
almost mystical, bind between leader and led
Charismatic leaders appear at crisis points in history, and have a messianic quality;
they are products of their times, but they then succeed in shaping the forces that
brought them to power
Charismatic Leaders create order out of disorder, providing new systems of
coherence, continuity, and justice; skilled at channeling diverging interests into a
common goal, focus

Taking Advantage of the Historical Moment

To be effective, some congruence is needed between leaders own concerns and

societal concerns; personal struggles become universally shared concerns
Leader must possess ability to draw upon and manipulate cultures body of myth, and
associate himself with sacred symbols (cultural management)
Leader is legitimized by the perceptions of followers; followers project desires and
hopes and ideals onto leader, whether or not leader truly possesses or stands for
those qualities

Influence of Transference

Appeal of leaders, according to Freud, is the return of the primal father; followers in
times of crisis are scared and abdicate responsibility, giving it to the leader and
projecting their ideals onto him, leading to a communal atmosphere with the leader
at the top
3 types of Transference
1. Idealization: followers idolize leaders, ascribing unrealistic qualities to
them (regression to seeing parents as all-powerful and perfect)
2. Mirroring: leader seeks much attention and admiration, is idolized by
followers, but begins to believe unrealistic descriptions of himself and
develops a sense of self-grandiosity
3. Persecutory: leader cannot live up to followers idealization of him, and
blames others for his flaws to maintain his own ideal self-conception

Exercising Influence by Linda Hill (p 74 in Course Reader)

To convert raw power into persuasive influence requires both empowering those who you
depend on and cultivating networks and enduring partnerships.. New managers erroneously
focus on exerting their institutional authority as a way to impact results, yet they soon
realize that hands-on power does not equal influence. Trust and credibility must be
established before a manager can influence anyone; the best way to establish trust, change
attitudes and gain credibility is by empowering (sharing power) with subordinates.
Credibility and trust are functions of perceived competency and character, in addition to
ability to empower. As for networks, Hill states simply that the primary way managers
exercise influence and get things done is by providing resources and services to others in
exchange for resources and services they require and thus, to exercise influence, managers
must cultivate mutually-beneficial networks to ensure exchanges of services, resources, or
information. Three important questions for managers to ask: whose cooperation do I need?
Whose compliance do I need? Whose opposition would prevent my success? Once you, as a
manager, identify on whom you are dependent, envision their own position: what are their
goals (how are they different/aligned with your own) and what power do you have to help
them achieve their goals? Additionally, it is critical to identify what currencies you have and
what currencies others have so you are prepared to exchange (information, money, services,
work-flow, high-profile projects etc).
Having Power Ability to Empower Incr. Trust & Credibility Ability to Influence

LEADERSHIP IN ADMINISTRASTION (p.5-48)

Organizations and Institutions

Administrative organizations has a formal set of rules and objectives
Organization vs. Institution: Organization is an expendable tool engineered
to do a job Institution is a natural product of social needs and pressures.
We mostly see a mixture of both designed and responsive behavior (mix of
organization and institution characteristics)
Institutionalization according to the outside world become a social group!
Aware of outside forces dependence changes until reach a point of comfort
and security. At which point flexibility is gone, and institutionalization sets in.
Adaptive change important! The occur as a result of unplanned situations
they are not planned! Based on natural tendencies:
Development of Ideology
Dependence on and sustaining of Elites
Expressing Interest groups
Institutionalization= to infuse with value! (and some self maintenance)

Leadership
Work done to meet needs of social situation
Does not have to be by someone in a formally high position
Leadership is dispensable as the natural process of insititutionalization is
eliminated or controlled.
Common faults: not setting goals, not fully infusing goals with
Decisions
Technical or routine methods of addressing decisions that frequently occur
Dynamic adaptation occurs at that place where administration and policy
meet.
Organization character~ emphasis on institutionalization (embodiment of value)
Historical productcreation
Integrated productinternally and externally
Functional productaids adaption
Dynamic new and active forces

Leading Change: Why transformation efforts fail, by John Kotter (p 107)

John Kotter is a retired Professor of Leadership at HBS and he examines why companies
fail at change efforts. This summary is copied nearly verbatim from an exhibit in his
article (page 110 in course pack). There are eight steps to initiating and implementing a
transformation to an organization failures can occur at any step, but over 50% occur at the
first step. I)Establish a Sense of Urgency (examine market, discuss possible crises or timely
opportunities). II)Form a Powerful Guiding Coalition (assemble a group with enough power
to lead the change effort, encourage teamwork). III)Creating a Vision (create and articulate
vision to direct the effort, develop strategies to achieve the vision). IV)Communicating the
Vision (Use every method to express vision and strategies, teach desired behaviors by
examples of the guiding coalitions). V)Empower Others to Act on the Vision (get rid of
obstacles to change, change systems that threaten success, encourage risk-taking and
nonconventional ideas). VI)Plan for and Create Short-Term Wins (plan for visible performance
increases, recognize and reward employees involved in those changes) VII)Consolidate
Improvements and Produce More Change (use increased credibility to extend changes, hire
and promote employees who can implement and sustain vision, reinvigorate process with
new people, projects, tasks) VIII)Institutionalize New Approaches (articulate connections
between the new behaviors and corporate success, develop the means to ensure leadership
development and succession).

Managing with Power in Jeffrey Pfeffers Managing with Power

Pfeffer analyzes the key attributes that allow certain individuals, such as Lyndon Johnson,
to acquire and sustain power in organizations. As they are interdependent bodies, it is
imperative to master these abilities to augment ones positional power in the body. Johnson,
primarily the ability to read other peopleor sensitivity to the strengths and weaknesses of
others, epitomized much of these characteristics. This section is crucial when explaining
power in organization, and how an individual accumulates it. Here are the six individual
attributes Pfeffer discusses:

ENERGY AND PHYSICAL STAMINA: Whenever a staffer saw Lyndon Johnson coming up
Capitol Hill, he was running. He got to work earlier than everyone else, and really
never left the job. Robert Moses, Frank Stanton, and numerous others also fit this
model of energetic, strong, leadersallowing them to outlast opponents and surpass
them in intelligence, skill, and institutional knowledge.
FOCUS: People who exercise great influence tend to focus their energies and efforts
in a single direction. Energy is not endless; one must focus and avoid wasted effort.
Johnson took this to the extremealways thinking of the Presidency, using every
opportunitysocial or politicalto improve his chances of success.
SENSITIVITY TO OTHERS: This is what Johnson was best at thisunderstanding
others, their interests, their desires, and how to reach them. If you reach them, you
then know how to influence themget their vote, their support, and most of all, their
allegiance. By 1951, Johnson, with just two years in the Senate, was a chair of a
subcommittee, respected member of the Southern Caucus, and close friend with Sen.
Richard Russell, the power behind the Senate, because he was the master of
reading people and knowing how to influence, cajole, and win them.
FLEXIBILITY: And then, one must change his/her behavior to align with the interests of
others. It allows someone to stay detached form the situation in order to do whatever
necessary to focus on the ultimate objectiveinfluence and power.
ABLILITY TO TOLERATE CONFLICT: Power can be defined as the ability to overcome
oppositionso on this path, there is conflict. Dont just get along, go along, but
rather, assert ones views and as a result, one can obtain power in the situation as
the prevailing, strongest opinion. Robert Moses was best at thishe thrived in
conflict, never backing down to get his goal in place.
SUBMERING THE EGO AND GETTING ALONG: But one must also build alliances and
networks at the right times. This change of behavior, and knowing when to change,
involves almost all of the previous traits, and is crucial.

Other ideas: In politics, there is a power vacuum that this leader can fill. These qualities
foster effectiveness in the organization. And finally, the currency of transactional leadership
such as resides in informal networks, in ones use of these networks.

Power Dynamics in Organizations by Linda Hill (p 128)

Many claim that power corrupts, but powerlessness also corrupts. Power is the
potential for a group or individual to influence another group or individual. Influence is the
exercise of power to change behaviors, attitudes, and values. Managers face the triple
challenge of interdependency, diversity, and power gaps; Hill suggest law of reciprocity
and networks as the dual solutions. Factors to prevent political conflict over resources in
any organization can include a common culture, shared goals, and strong leadership to
maintain these. There are also factors that precipitate additional strife, and they are: lack of
unifying values, power vacuums, or competition between units. Power and influence are
the mechanisms by which the inevitable political conflicts in organizations get resolved.
Power derives from several places. First, positional power is often synonymous with formal
authority and stems from the persons location in the hierarchy. Other dimensions of
positional power include: centrality in organization (information network or work-flow
network), visibility, relevance to core priorities and autonomy. Second, personal power
derives from expertise and the perceived competency, ones historical track record of
achievement and failure, the attractiveness of a person (behaviorally, physically, or
charisma) and the effort an individual puts in. To understand the power dynamics in an
organization and analyze or predict internal political conflict, one must identify the existing
interdependencies and determine which sources of power buttress relevant parties.

Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital, by James Coleman

This article seems fairly irrelevant was never mentioned in class. It is briefly
summarized below:
Social action composed of two parts: 1) actor as socialized, action governed
by social norms (sociologist interpretation); 2) actor as having goals
independently developed and wholly self-interested (economist interpretation)
Colemans definition of social action synthesizes these two viewpoints: social
capital accepts principle of ration action and accounts for actions of
individuals in particular contexts and the development of social organizations
Social Capital as a resource for action: has three forms:
Obligations and expectations: obligations to and expectations of others
can dictate ones behavior and depend on the trustworthiness of the
social environment
Information channels: potential for information that inheres in social
relations; information provides a basis for action
Social norms: norms and effective sanctions can constitute powerful
form of social capital

Sources of Power in Managing with Power p 111-145

Social Network Position
Power is a function of ones position in the social network, and of the power of
those you are connected to
Well placed to receive and communicate information, make the right friends
Control of information flow
Centralized structures (one hub) good for well-structured tasks, and all-channel structures
(everyone talks to everyone) good for unstructured tasks
Physical centrality is important: example of person whos office is next to bathroomgets to
see everyone
Interdependence is key to influence as it puts you in a central communication position
(though it also makes you depend on others more for your work)
The Nature of Formal Authority
Power to lead is conferred by the governedthey have to respect your decision
Milgram shock experimentspeoples willingness to comply with authority figures requests
Any team environment requires a team plan of action, which requires a formal authority to
determine (or else everyone would be acting uncoordinatedly)
People in formal positions of power can often be assumed to be more skilled and
knowledgeable (assuming they had to climb the ladder to get where they are)
Position implies credentials (so some people can fake their creds and still be left in positions
of power)
People tend to follow established cultural norms, including that of listening to formal
authority
People tend to be nicer when they have more power (and powerless people are not happy)
Authority and reputationi established early on will maintain itself and snowball
Winning in arguments gives you the reputation of being a winnerchallenged less

Informal Networks by David Krackhardt and Jeffrey R. Hanson

Thesis: Much of the real work of companies happens despite the formal organizations
It is important, as a manger, to understand these networks because they can enhance
the efficient process of a business but also has the power to stall it. As a metaphor, the
skeleton of the company is the formal structure (hierarchy, et al.) and the central nervous
system is its informal sector. Mangers need to uses analysis to gain a map of this network,
discovering three types of networks and utilizing them: the advice network that shows
prominent players that can solve problems, the trust network that comes into play in crisis,
and the communication network that shows general connection between employees.
The rest of the article analyzes how a manger can use network analysis to help them.
The important message, however, is that what matters is the fit, whether networks are in
sync with company goals. A manager must look at this map and make sure everyone is
on the same page, must fix a situation if, for example, there are two different cultures
emerging, which may conflict with each other. Other problems include: imploded
relationshipsbetween departments of mangers, irregular communication patters, fragile
structures, and most importantly, network holes that must be glued back together. One must
revamp the informal networks if there are problems, but first, the manager must know what
these informal networks are.
This relates to social capital theory with the leaders we discussed later in the year: Part
II, Influence and Persuasion. Katherine Graham and how she worked with her staff is a good
example.

Managing Your Boss by John J. Gabarro and John P. Kotter.

In order to effectively Manage Your Boss you must:
1. Understand Your Boss
1. His: Goals and Objectives
2. Pressures
3. Strengths, Weaknesses, Blind Spots
4. Preferred Work Style

2. Understand Yourself
1. Your: Strengths & Weaknesses
2. Personal Style
3. Way you respond to authority

You then combine these two sources of information to

3. Develop a Relationship
1. It is based on: Compatible Work Styles
2. Mutual Expectations
3. Flow of Information
4. Dependability and Honesty
5. Good use of Time and Resources

Managerial Networks by Herminia Ibarra (p 223)

A managerial network is the set of relationships critical to your ability to get things
done, get ahead, and develop personally and professionally. Networking refers to the
activities associated with developing and managing these relationships. There are three
types of networks. First, task networks involve the exchange of job-related resources.
Second, career networks are made up of people who provide guidance and direction. Third,
social networks involve friends, or people with common backgrounds or interests. A
manager has a core network made of long-term, high-reciprocity ties as well as short-term,
instrumental ties, in addition to the extended network of distance or indirect acquaintances.
If you are connected to a person in your network, you also open all the resources of all the
branches of his/her network through indirect connection. Building a useful network hinges
on two dimensions: similarity (common group, values or interests) and exchange (swapping
your currencies for their resources etc). Managers should strive to always assist those in
their network in hopes of ensuring reciprocity as well as working to increase social capital as
well.

Power by Rosabeth Moss Kanter in Men and Women in the Corporation

Kanter says that power in organizations means autonomy and freedom of action. The
powerful can afford to risk more, and can afford to allow others their freedom. People who
are powerful have the credibility to get things done. On an individual basis, power works in
a cycle: power brings more power and powerlessness brings more powerlessness. Women
are often caught in cycles of powerlessness. People who prefer men as their leaders actually
just prefer their power: people bet that men are more likely to be successful power-holders
than women. People have stereotypes that women leaders are bossy, but bossiness is
actually a characteristic attributed to powerlessness. Women managers often are assigned
to manage relatively powerless subordinates, and because these powerless subordinates
take out their frustration by resisting their managers, the managers might have to adopt a
more coercive leadership style, thus perpetuating negative stereotypes of women leaders.
Leadership thus reflects situation more than sex.

The Power of Talk: Who Gets Heard and Why by Deborah Tannen
The way you say things is crucial, and this affects how people interpret what you say.
Women have a different style of speaking, which can make them seem less self-assured and
competent than they really are. This style is called linguistic style, which means a persons
characteristic speaking pattern, a set of culturally learned signals by which we not only
communicate what we mean but also interpret others meaning and evaluate one another as
people. The place in which you are also affects this: a woman in Texas was seen as
confident and outgoing, but in Washington D.C., people thought she was shy; both of these
judgments were made based on the how long she paused before speaking. You can also say
the same thing in different ways that convey the relative status of the speakers: Sit down!
(shows you have higher status, you know the person well, or you are angry) vs. I would be
honored if you would sit down (shows great respect or great sarcasm). There are some
differences in linguistic style between men and women: women are more reluctant to take
credit for things for fear of bragging; women are more likely to downplay their
accomplishments; men are more likely to minimize their doubts; women are more likely to
ask questions; and men are more worried about losing face. As a leader, it is important that
one moves beyond linguistic style to make sure one understands what is actually being
said.

Managing Your Team by Linda Hill

Teamwork is necessary to make and implement high-quality decisions. A manager must
manage the teams boundary (those outside the team) and the team itself. An effective
team has three characteristics: 1) the teams output meets the standards of those who have
to use it, 2) the team experience contributes to the personal well-being and development of
the team members, and 3) the team experience enhances the capability of the team
members to work and learn together in the future. To design the team, the manager must
set the agenda, determine the coordination the team members (baseball team/surgical
team/Henry Ford assembly line, football team/symphony orchestra, or tennis-doubles
team/improvisational jazz ensemble), figure out the team composition and structure,
facilitate the team process, shape the teams culture, and coach and guide the team along
the way. There are a few managing paradoxes a manager will have to deal with: 1) embrace
individual differences and collective identity and goals, 2) foster support and confrontation
among team members, 3) focus on performance and learning and development, 4) balance
managerial authority and team member discretion and autonomy, and 5) remember that
because of their formal authority, managers are not ultimately members of the team.
People working in transnational teams must be aware that nationality influences peoples
assumptions, perceptions, knowledge, values, demeanor, and thus their behavior on
transnational teams. Diversity can increase ambiguity, complexity, and confusion, but at
the same time, diverse groups can be more creative and invent more options and solutions
than homogenous groups.

[OL] Will a Category Cue Affect You? Category Cues, Positive Stereotypes and
Reviewer Recall for Applicants by Todd Pittinsky, Margaret Shih, and Nalini
Ambady.
Summary: This was a psych study on how stereotypes influence performance, focusing on
gender and ethnicity.
Research question: Most empirical research on stereotypes and recall has examined how
a single social category of a target can influence a perceivers recall. Will subtle cues of one
or another social category of a target lead reviewers to markedly different recall?
Basis: Common cultural stereotypes hold that Asians have superior quantitative skills
compared to other ethnic groups and that women have inferior quantitative skills compared
to men. Participants reviewed the college application of a female Asian American high school
senior, which included her score on the math scholastic aptitude test (SAT).
Findings: When cued about her gender as a female, it resulted in participants recalling
significantly lower math performance for the applicant, while cues of her ethnic category
resulted in participants recalling significantly higher math performance, compared to a
control condition for which neither category was cued.
Conclusion: Positive stereotypes can influence reviewer recall, and subtle category cues
can result in markedly different recall of an applicant. Findings suggest that category cues
and multiple social categories are under-appreciated aspects of stereotyping in general and
stereotyping.

Using Logic to Make Your Argument by Michael Hattersley

Hattersley provides some lessons on using logic to make your argument.
Two types of logical argument:
1. Deductive: sweeping major premise minor premise conclusion
2. Inductive: minor premises (data) major premise (trend/principle) conclusion

Both follow given, since, therefore

1. Given: That we all agree on this basic problem (deductive) OR That we have
assembled this body of data (inductive)
2. Since: Addressing this problem with benefit us (deductive) OR This data
demonstrates the following trend or principle (inductive)
3. Therefore: We should take this course of action.

To make a good argument, you must check each part, especially the given to make sure
everybody agrees on it.
Five types of argumentative strategies:
1. Argue from Definition: major premise has a definite meaning (i.e. given the light is
red, and since red lights mean stop, therefore I will stop)
2. Argue from Cause and Effect: gives a why answer to problem (i.e. Given we are losing
customers to X, and since X did so by lowering prices, therefore we should lower
prices)
3. Argue from Experience: rely on past (i.e. Given that in the past higher interest rates
drove sales up, and since the interest rate just went up, therefore sales will go up)
4. Argue from Identity: identifying with another entity (i.e. Given that our quality is the
same as our competitors, and since their sales went up when they began advertising
quality, therefore we should advertise quality)
5. Argue from Analogy: using an analogy as explanation (i.e. Given that employees are
upset, and since a boiling pot is likely to explode, therefore we should address their
concerns immediately)

Extra Note: Make sure to include unless in your arguments (i.e. Given this, and since that,
therefore we should do this unless X)
Four types of evidence to support arguments:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Facts and Figures: data, surveys, costs, expertise, etc.

Appeal to common knowledge: using agreed upon truths, definitions, etc.
Anecdotal Evidence: specific instance of a larger pattern
Appeal to authority: citing a higher-up, an expert, etc.

[CR] Change through Persuasion by David Garvin and Michael Roberto pp 313 322
Main Point: There is a powerful lesson in all this for leaders. To create a
receptive environment, persuasion is the ultimate tool. Persuasion promotes
understanding; understanding breeds acceptance; acceptance leads to action.
Without persuasion, even the best of turnaround plans will fail to take root.

Why a persuasion campaign?

Differentiation from the past
How to accomplish?
4-part communications strategy: set the stage, create a frame through which
information and messages are interpreted, manage the mood so that
employees emotional states support implementation and follow-through,
provide reinforcement to ensure that the desired changes take hold without
backsliding.
Enable routines but crush dysfunctional routines (serve as barriers to action)
described as the toughest challenge faced by leaders during a turnaround.
Example:
Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (BIDMC) in Boston lead in a turnaround
by Paul Levy.
Article shows how Levy accomplished each part of the 4-part strategy above.

[CR] Choosing Strategies for Change by Leonard Schlesinger and John Kotter pp 326-337
Main Point: Today, managers must lead their organizations through more change
than ever before. There is no one strategy for implementing change, but rather
many factors must be considered.

Diagnosing Resistance (managers need to understand why people may object to

change)
Possibilities include: self-interest, misunderstanding & lack of trust, different
assessments, low tolerance for change.
Dealing with Resistance (managers underestimate how they can positively
influence specific groups during change)
Possibilities include: education & communication, participation,
support, negotiation, manipulation, coercion
Managers need to vary their approach depending on the situation
(specifically situational factors)
Including: amount & kind of resistance expected, position btw initiator &
resistors, who is capable of designing the change and has the energy to
implement it, what are the stakes.
What managers should do: conduct org. analysis that identifies situation, conduct
analysis of factors relevant to producing the needed changes, select a change
strategy, monitor implementation process.

[BK] Timing is (Almost) Everything by Jeffrey Pfeffer in Managing with Power, pp. 227
245.
Main Point: In utilizing the strategies and tactics of power and influence, it is
crucial to determine not only what to do but when to do it.

Being Early & Moving Fast: dont give the opposition time to get mobilized.
Delay: one of the best ways to stop something is to delay it (esp. by calling for
further study)
The Waiting Game: making others wait can increase your power.
Deadlines: deadlines are a great way to get things accomplished, and counter delay
tactics.
Order of Consideration: if you have two proposals, present the weaker proposal
first, to ensure the stronger proposal is more favorably received.
Propitious Moments: look for the right moment to act as it may affect the
outcome.

CR] Note on Organization Structure by Nitin Nohria.

Organization structure serves the following functions:
1. Defines specialization, standardization, and departmentalization of tasks and
functions
2. Coordinates activities, such as hierarchical supervision, formal rules and procedures,
and training and socialization
3. Defines the organization for others to understand

Central concepts
1.
2.
3.
4.

Division of labor
Coordination mechanismsvertical vs. horizontal, e.g. assembly line
Distribution of decision rights
Organizational boundariese.g. do customers interact with the manufacturing plant
or only the sales force?
5. Informal structure
6. Political structure
7. Legitimate basis of authority

Organizational StructureBasic Forms

1. Functional formdivided by function, e.g. engineering dept. with internal pyramid,
marketing dept. with internal pyramid, etc.
2. Divisional Formdivisions are treated as separate business, each retaining their
own depts. One disadvantage is that it loses economies of scale.
3. Hybrid Formscombine functional and divisional
4. Matrix Formneed benefits of functional and divisional so individuals are in a dual
hierarchy, e.g. an engineer is part of the engineering dept., but then is assigned to a
project in another division. After the project is done, s/he goes back to the
engineering dept. to be assigned to another project. This is done when an
organization feels pressure for the shared and flexible use of people and equipment.

Substitutes for Hierarchy Edward E. Lawler III

Hierarchies serve certain functions:
-Motivating

-Recordkeeping -Coordinating

-Assigning Work -Making Personnel Decisions

-Setting Goals

-Planning

-Providing Expertise

-Linking communications

-Training/Coaching -Leading

-Controlling

A combination of practices performed together can often eliminate the need for extensive
hierarchy. These are:
1.Work Design
Instead of dividing labor into routine standardized labor, when work is designed around
whole products or services, much of the need for a supervisor to coordinate work and
motivate workers disappears. The work becomes intrinsically interesting and challenging, and a team is self
managing. A drawback is the considerable amount of skill building and team building
required to make them effective.
2.Information Systems Technology
Computers can be excellent training resources. They can allow workers to perform
recordkeeping themselves, and can provide the control needs of the senior management
who wish to access information.
3.Financial Data
The distribution of financial data to work teams can enhance their awareness of the
economic priorities and results of the organization.
4.Reward System Practices
Gain-sharing and profit sharing encourage teamwork and cooperation and skill based
pay serve to improve motivation and skills of the employee
5.Supplier/Customer Contact
Gettign performance feedback from customers is critical in allowing and motivating
workers to take responsibility for their work
6.Training
On the job peer training can reduce the need for many special staff groups

7.Emergent Leadership
Leaders emerging in work groups can provide a sense of motivation and direction to that
group.
*It is Important to point out that which of these strategies can be implemented depend on
the work environment, what kind of work the company does and what technology it uses.
*Eliminating Hierarchy require that the senior managers adopt a management philosophy
that states their commitment to pushing decision making and information to the lowest
levels of the organization.
*In short, hierachy is not inevitable. It is a manufactured ned. As such the need for it can be
substantially reduced by utilizing the above strategies

Making Differences Matter: A New Paradigm for Managing Diversity by David Thomas and
Robin Ely

A more diverse workforce is good for business:

Diversity will increase organizational effectiveness, lift morale, grant greater
access to new market segments, and enhance productivity.
Diversity as the varied perspectives and approaches to work that members of
different identity groups bring
Benefits of diversity depends on how a company defines diversity and what it does
with the experiences of being a diverse organization
Challenge to benefits of diversity: the leaderships vision of the purpose of a
diversified workforce
Importance of 1) commitment to learning more about environment/structure/tasks of
organization; 2) giving improvement-generating change priority over security of
familiarity

Role of the Founder in the creation of Organizational Culture by Schein

SHORT SUMMARY

Organizations created when a founder has an entrepreneurial idea, creates core

group with common vision, logistically create organization, and finally bring in others
as history is built and they learn how to grow
Culture and assumptions create stability, hard to change once set
Founders have biggest impact on how group solves external problems and grows and
on how it internally organizes itself
The 3 case examples show how organizations begin to create cultures through
founders actions, learned and developed through various mechanisms, often based
on teachings of leaders.
Whatever solves problems and causes stability becomes the culture
EXTENDED DETAILS

Example case of Jones Food Company

Strong ideas for running grocery chain, always looked at customer needs (clean
stores, display trust by issuing credit, took back any returned product) and enforced
with visible management
Power centralized in Jones, all stocks were held by family
Interested in developing good managers and compensated them well, but would not
share stock
Jones wanted open communication and high trust levels but family members given
key managerial positions and favored treatment, another mutual protection society
formed by other managers
Jones did not perceive his own inconsistencies in culture, did not see how no stock
options, rewarding of family members caused other managers to quit
When Jones dies, company experienced turmoil
Basic philosophies of how to run stores were embedded and remained
After several failed family and outsider CEOs, brought on an inside manager who
finally stabilized company. He had strong understanding of culture and family
dynamics

Example case of Action Company

Successful technology manufacturing organization under founder Murphy
Murphy believed strong ideas come from anyone, but on one individual can
determine if idea is correct, so action only taken after idea been debated by several
Decision making and implementation group oriented but managerial responsibilities
and evaluations are individual
Open culture, people can challenge their bosses, open cubicles instead of offices, no
strong status symbols
Maximizing individual creativity and decision quality worked and company grew
But as it grew, hard to always negotiate with groups on action, disorganized
Murphy believed in need for organization and hierarch, but people could still
challenge ideas and were rewarded if successful
Murphy encouraged competing overlapping markets, but this undermined open
communication and knowledge sharing, hard to negotiate decisions

Hiring practices reflected culture of individualistic people who can argue for their
ideas
Leads to family culture, people comfortable and secure in sharing idea. But this is
hard to maintain as company grew
This shows power of founders assumptions, now they are trying to adapt to growing
circumstance

Example case of Smithfield Enterprises

Founder Smithfield built chain of financial service organizations that used
sophisticated techniques
He was creative conceptualizer, believed in getting others to invest, build, and
manage company
He would not put much of his own money because he believed that idea is only good
if he can get others to invest in it
Unlike Jones, he lost interest once idea of the ground and allowed others to run, just
happy to see its success, used same model to start other ventures
Not much corporate culture because no group with shared history or learning
experiences
This shows that it is not automatic that founders impose themselves on organizations

The Smile Factory: Work at Disneyworld by Van Maanen

Disney sells product of happy emotions

This feeling business operates by the bottom employees who interact with
customers most
Depends on the animated workforce so the smile factory has cultural rules
Focused look at Disneyland rider operators, largest category of hourly workers on
payroll

Stock appearance of operators: Exact appearance rules defined in handbook

Most are single, white, males and females, skinny and attractive, token minorities,
minimal interaction with customers required so just need to look neat

Status order: Workers assigned jobs are all ranked and have certain status based on
uniforms, break privileges, and people wanting jobs that require more skills (tour
guide vs. concession stand employee)

Social life: people tend to stay in their status rankings socially as well, cross dating
often occurs, lots of social interactions during and outside of work

Swiftly learned codes of conduct: culture is officially defined

Language is strictly taught and followed (ex. saying guests vs. customers)
Strong training enforcing company propaganda
Suspicious managers, coworkers, and customers maintain that worker is doing job
and smiling or being happy

This culture has little room for personal experimentation and innovation
Emotionless management: Workers go into a numb mode when always asked to be
happy
Disneyland has very defined and accepted work roles and culture. Workers are
trained, paid, and told to be nice and happy. Although this does not always
happened, it is almost an achievement to see how much it actually is maintained.

What is Culture? Schein

SHORT SUMMARY

This paper basically looks at what the concept of culture actually means and how we
can measure or practically apply it
It focuses on conceptual issues involved in defining organizational culture and defines
it explicitly as:

A pattern of shared basic assumptions

Invented, discovered, or developed by a given group
As it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration
That has worked well enough to be considered valid
Is to be taught to new members of the group as the
Correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems
It also explains a process to study culture suggesting an outsider can use a motivated
insider group to decipher culture

EXTENDED DETAILED

There are several competing conceptual and practical definitions of culture:

1. Survey Research approach: starts with a conceptual definition and then measures
it through individual questionnaires; the questionnaires probably do not adequately
cover the conceptual dimensions. This could mean culture is like personality, and the
culture concept will show us the uniqueness of organizations
2. Analytical Descriptive approach: breaks culture down analytically into components.
This is good for research, but not for a conceptual strategy.
3. Ethnographic approach: uses intense observation with interview data and cultural
insiders. This shows uniqueness but since it is limited to culture being enacted in
observable behavior, it leaves out examining the concept of culture.
Why do we need the concept of culture?

Culture implies stability: certain phenomena persisted over time and display stability
Culture emphasizes conceptual sharing: similarity of outlook and consensus in group
meaning some sharing going on
Culture implies patterning: lots of patterns in societies observed
Culture implies dynamics: the perpetuation of observed regularities and patters over
time
Culture implies all aspects of group life: virtually everything we do is colored by a
shared way of looking at things
The author believes one gets a better sense of culture when coming from a clinical
perspective or a consultant perspective rather than a researcher
His formal definition of culture:
A pattern of shared basic assumptions
Invented, discovered, or developed by a given group
As it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal
integration
That has worked well enough to be considered valid
Is to be taught to new members of the group as the
Correct way to perceive, think and feel in relation to those problems
Culture is a property of a human group and the shared common learning output of
facing problems of external adaptation and internal integration

Dynamic model of learning process: founder starts with beliefs, values, and
assumptions and teaches new members through various mechanisms. Group either
succeeds, repeats, and culture is formed or fails and dissolves.
Beliefs = how things are, values = how things should be, assumptions = provide
meaning and structure
Learning: from mistakes for what not to do, learning from predictable patterns
Culture is manifested and can be studied at different levels
Best to use a motivated insider group to decipher culture

A Note for Analyzing Work Groups

**Work groups are the building blocks of organizations

We will be looking into the factors that shape the development, dynamics, and
effectiveness of task-performing groups, specifically group culture.
Sample Work Group: the new product team of the Merit Corporation

Background

Family-owned and operated for three generations.

Current CEO is John Kirschner grandson of the companys founder
He is currently thinking about his legacy for the future
Merit was known for their generous employee benefits (health and pension plans)
Turnover was generally low and employee morale was high
Middle Managers were from outside the firm and were carefully selected. Most had
MBAs
It held a dominant position in the kids furniture market
*New Product Design* was their weakness

Problems

Differentiation became a huge deciding factor in this business

Customers were becoming more demanding about design, quality, and safety the
product life cycles were shortening
Competition was heightening
Household furniture manufacturers were venturing into this market
Low-cost producers placed pressure on costs

Solution Strategy

New Products group was essential to their success

Kirshner was going to form a group of 6-8 people with diverse and unorthodox
backgrounds to come up with new product ideas

Group Context
These will affect how the group will function

organizations strategy
organizations history

physical setting
customers, suppliers, and competitors
labor market
financial markets
cultural, political, and legal systems

Some issues
1. This new product development is going to be a major endeavor of this company, thus
other might have a problem with Kirschner bringing in outsiders to do this
2. Line managers will probably resist change to existing procedures
3. Kirschner decided to create this new leadership without consulting his people, thus
he does not have their full support
a. Not that big of an issue b/c Kirschner has the credibility and social capital
necessary to introduce the change
b. He is a descendant of respected founders, and has an impressive track record
of his own
c. He is considered a champion of change
4. Kirschner is considering giving this new group the fourth floor for their location,
because there is nowhere else he can put them
a. This might create us versus them issues
b. Or the plans they create may be different from the plans the people
downstairs make
5. Basically, they need support from the rest of the organization to succeed in
establishing this new plan
a. Kirschners decision met no initial resistance, but there was skepticism
b. A internal political conflict quieted most of the managers

The members of the New Products Development (NPD) team:

1. Christopher Kane
a. Kane was the nominal group head.
2. Andrew Jacobson
a. Worked in large corporate environments, so he was more of a systematic
person
b. Very outspoken
3. John OHara
a. Used his artistic ability to translate ideas into 3D drawings
4. Robert Vidreaux
a. He encouraged the group to look for cutting edge ways in which things could
be done.
b. He was skilled in resolving potentially disruptive issues about the groups
process of working together.
5. Susanne Tashman
6. Joan Waters
a. Waters soon became the informal co-leader, drawing upon her organizational
expertise
7. Matthew Kiris
a. He was used to long-term complex projects
b. Never worked for a for-profit company
c. He privately favored a more exploratory attack to the task but didnt want to
make suggestions

8. Raynor Carney

Kirshner believed that they would perform best if given extensive freedom and
encouragement

He only required a biweekly progress report and a monthly financial report so the
executive committee could be kept up to date.
He only structure he imposed was having one person report directly to him, which he
appointed group head Christopher Kane
These people did not know each other at all and did not know what was expected of
them on a daily basis
They realized that they had different methods of doing the work and different
ideas in general
They had different working styles
Kane and Tashman were used to wearing suits to work
OHara always wore jeans and a tee-shirt
Waters dressed casually
Carney could work comfortably only in stacks of clutter
Jacobson was compulsively neat
Kiris worked better with music in the background
Waters and Tashman preferred a quiet work environment

Design Factors

He has provided a direction for the group to pursue to develop new products that
meet the need for value-priced, durable, multipurpose childrens furniture.
He set the group apart physically and in their reporting relationship to him

Design Factors fall under 3 categories:

These are the basic architecture of a group

The design factors and group context factors are interrelated and interdependent, in
which a change in one affects the others
Group composition
Task design
Formal organization
Group Composition
They are diverse in pretty much everything
Heterogeneous groups often find it more difficult to integrate their efforts and
work productively at the outset
The NPD found out that they had much in common
They agreed to share the leadership function as needed, although Kane
was the designated leader
Kane liked seeing his team members as peers, thus he was relieved he
didnt have to be dictator
Task Design

This is the second major design factor influencing a groups development and
effectiveness
This includes: required activities, interactions, interdependencies, variety and
scope, and autonomy
Kirschner is aware he is giving them the responsibility to split the tasks and
figure out how to perform their work most effectively. Self-managed team
Sometimes they wished they had a leader who would provide a clearer
and more compelling sense of what it was expected
Formal Organization
This deals with the formal organizational policies and procedures within which
the group operates: structure, systems, and staffing
This is the one team leaders and members have the least control over
Careful analysis is the first step in creating the conditions that will
increase the likelihood that the group will prosper
In analyzing what a manager should do versus what a manger can do to
improve the performance of a work group, we distinguish among three levels
of control
What he or she has complete control over and can change at will
What he or she can change with the support and assistance of others
What he or she has little or no control over to change

Group Culture

This becomes the rules for how members are to behave and get their work done
They have begun to work together and emerged as a team, as they attempt to adapt
to their circumstances
Norms
Group norms are the ought tos or shared expectations and guidelines for
how group members should behave.
Groups develop norms concerning:
Distribution of power and influence
Communication patterns within the team
What topics are considered legitimate for discussion
How conflicts are managed
Groups tend to punish with some form of social censure
Roles
Roles define the sets of behavioral expectations for particular members of a
group or for those holding certain positions in it
Waters has emerged as an informal leader
Vidreaux is elected to take on the leadership functions of monitoring
the groups process and resolving conflicts
Carney has become a social deviant
Group leaders tend to embody the groups core values and norms

Results

Within its first year of existence, orders dramatically increased, and the product
captured a significant percentage of a market niche
It is not enough for the group to be pleased with its output, the people who use it
makes the output acceptable or unacceptable
It also has to satisfy individual needs and help members develop
It should help enhance the capability of the members to work and learn together in
the future

Kirshners Retirement

When Joe Donaldson replaced Kirshner, he felt that NPD had no additional new
products and was concerned with a couple of other problems
He moved the NPD group downstairs in which he equipped them with
upgraded computers, greater admin and tech support
And teams budget was increased
Problems with the changes
NPD culture began to change
NPD began to complain about feelings of inadequacy and dissatisfaction
Within two months, individuals began leaving for other companies

Conclusion

Donaldson wanted to make his mark quickly and build up credibility, and thought
NPD was losing momentum
He modified some of the groups key design factors, which destroyed the
group culture
Group culture arises from the interaction of the 3 design factors
Groups composition
Task Design
Formal organization within which the group is located
Group culture has a direct impact on team effectiveness

Evaluating an Action Plan

Key Elements of Action Planning

Analysis and diagnosis of the situation (opportunity or problem)

Identification of likely outcomes and contingencies (the what ifs) in order to clarify
your diagnosis and goals
Periodical reassessment and revision of plan in response to new information
Concreteness in identifying earlier steps and flexibility in later ones. (Envision long
and plan short.)

Criteria for Evaluating an Action Plan

1. Define your objectives (short and long-term)
2. Make sure the assumptions underlying your strategy are valid and reliable. Make sure
your action plan is consistent with your analysis, feasible given the situation (timing
in particular), and realistic given your sources of power and ability to exercise
influence.
3. Assess the likely outcomes of your action plan by considering necessary trade-offs,
and the stakes and risks involved for you and other stakeholders.
4. Examine the timing and sequence of the action plan including if urgent matters are
being addressed first, if there are incremental steps in your plan to reduce
unnecessary risk, and if any early steps unnecessarily rule out future alternatives.
5. Consider possible contingencies and plan for them by assessing the likelihood of
success at each step and developing alternatives if the likelihood is low.
6. Put in place a process that will ensure that you will periodically reevaluate and modify
the action plan if necessary.
7. Make time to reflect on and learn from your experience about yourself and your
situation.

The Design of Work Teams

**The use of quality circles, autonomous work groups, project teams, and management task
forces, suggest that the use of groups is a popular and useful way of getting things done in
organizations
**It is important to note that these groups can also be a negative asset in that they waste
time and enforce norms of low productivity
**Three steps: Input, Process, Output
Normative Model of group effectiveness

We first focus on work-group effectiveness

Then we identify potentially manipulative aspects of the group

Descriptive Research on Group Behavior and Effectiveness

A general framework for generalizations that chart what happens in groups reliably,
validly, and relatively comprehensively
This framework classifies both input and output variables in 3 sets
Those that describe the group as a whole
Those that describe the individual group members
Those that describes the environment the group operates
We analyze the performance difference by comparing the interaction process of the
two groups
The input-process link in the framework deals with the effects of the group
composition variables
Output-process emphasized the impact of group interaction on the attitudes, beliefs,
and behaviors of individual group members
Input-output research
The relationships obtained appear to depend substantially on the properties of
group task being performed
Findings for one type of task does not hold the same for the rest
Implications for team effectiveness
Existing generalizations about group behavior are neither strong enough or
stable enough to serve as guides for managerial practice
Group effectiveness and input/output variables tend to highly dependent or
relatively weak on a particular task
The choice of variables
When appropriately conceived and executed, laboratory research can
generate powerful tests of conceptual propositions
Personal and interpersonal variables and to hold constant or ignore contextual
variables
The major contextual influence in the laboratory is the experimenter
He or she decides where to conduct the study, recruits the subjects
and form them into groups, selects and assigns the group task

In the interest of good experimental practice, some variables may most

powerfully affect what happens in groups, thereby making it impossible to
learn about their effects
The role of group process
The descriptive emphasis when social psychologists study group interaction,
they focus on group processes that develop naturally
These help us understand how groups function in the laboratory and
field settings where the data were collected
Usefulness as a point of intervention
Process interventions are quite popular in consultative work
It is easy to see wasted time and effort, dysfunctional conflict among
members, and a variety of other process problems with group
members
Research findings on the efficacy of process interventions tells us:
Interventions that focus directly and primarily on the quality of
relationships among members usually succeed in changing member
attitudes
Interventions that structure group interaction to minimize opportunities
for "process losses" do improve team effectiveness for certain kinds of
groups and tasks
Research findings regarding process interventions suggest that
structured techniques that minimize process losses (or reduce their
effects) can be helpful.
Stages of Managerial Work in creating an effective group
Stage one: Prework
Establishing and analyzing the work to be done
Determining the level of authority the group will have
Assessing the cost benefits, and feasibility of using a team to do the
work
Stage two: Creating performance conditions
Designing the group task
Selecting group members
Providing contextual support
Arranging for needed material resources
Stage three: Forming and building the team
Helping the group establish its boundaries
Legitimizing and assisting with task redefinition process
Assisting in the development of group norms and member roles
Stage four: Providing ongoing assistance
Providing opportunities for the group to renegotiate aspects of its
performance situation
Providing process assistance as needed to promote positive group
synergy
Providing opportunities for the group to learn form its experiences
Authority of different work groups
Area of Management Responsibility
Design of the organizational context
Design of the group as a performing unit
Monitoring and managing performance processes
Area of group Responsibility
Executing the task

Three

Manager-led work teams

Self-managing work teams
Self-designing work teams
In general, self-designing work teams require the least amount of supervision
from the management, while the manager-led work teams require the most
criteria to assess team effectiveness
The productive output
It should meet or exceed the performance standards of the people who
receive and review the output
The social processes used in carrying out the work should maintain or
enhance the capability of members to work together on subsequent team
tasks
The group experience
It should satisfy rather than frustrate the personal needs of group
members

Implications of Management on Teams

On Leadership
If a group has been designed well and helped to begin exploring the group
norms and member roles it wishes to have, questions of internal leadership
should appear naturally.
The manager's role, then, is to make sure a group confronts the leadership
issue directly (even if members would prefer to deal with it implicitly or avoid
it entirely), not to resolve it for the group.
A manager interested in encouraging a group to work hard, for example,
would try to make the group task more motivationally engaging. And he or
she would try to provide more (or more potent) positive consequences
contingent on hard, effective work.

Organizational Alignment: The 7S Model

To be effective, an organization must have a high degree of fit or internal alignment,
among its seven key elements each S must be consistent with and reinforce the other S's.
1. Strategy
1. What is the company's competitive advantage(ex. quality, service)
2. What are the Company's key strategic priorities(penetrating new markets)
2. Structure
1. What is the basic structural form(Divisional, Matrix, Functional, Network)
2. How centralized vs. decentralized is the organizationa
3. Wthat is the relative status and power of the organizational sub units
3. Systems
1. Does the organization have the systems it needs to run its business(ability to
monitor custormer satisfaction)
2. What are the management systems that top management pays closest
attention to
4. Staffing
1. How does the organization recruit and develop its people
2. What are the demographics of the management team
3. Where are the strongest and weakest leaders found in the organization(in
which functions)
5. Skills
1. What business activities is the company distinctively good at performing
2. What new capabilities does the organization need to develop, and which ones
does it need to unlearn to compete in the future
6. Style
1. How does top management make decisions(participatory vs top down)
2. How do managers spend their time( formal meetings, informal conversations)
7. Shared Values
1. Do people have a shared understanding of the company's vision, and why the
company exists.
2. What types of issues receive the most and least top management
attention(short run vs long run)

Important Implications
1. Manyfacors influence an organization's effectiveness and its ability to change. A
leader is wise to recognize the full range of elements and focus on the ones that will
have the greatest effect
2. All Seven Variables are Interconnected. It is difficult to change one without having to
adjust the others.
3. There is no starting point for a change effort. The importance of each S varies with
each situation.

The Bakeoff by Malcolm Gladwell

Steve Gundrum is the head of Mattson, one of the countrys leading food research-anddevelopment firms, located in Silicon Valley. Mattson created the shelf-stable Mrs. Fields
Chocolate Chip Cookie, the new Boca Burger products for Kraft Foods, and many other
innovations in the food industry. Gundrum launched Project Delta to create the worlds
greatest cookie one that is nutritious and yet tastes as indulgent as the premium cookies
offered on supermarket shelves. Gundrum decided to hold a bakeoff between three teams.
He wanted to challenge the assumption that there was just one way of inventing something
new and so decided that each of the three teams would use a different methodology of
invention:
The first team, known as the XP team after the extreme programming movement in the
software industry, consisted of two Mattson associates Peter Dea and Dan Howell acting
as partners like two computer programmers work passing the keyboard back and forth
between them. The second team, known as Team Stuckey, represented managed
research-and-development consisting of a traditional hierarchical team headed by Barb
Stuckey, an executive vice-president of marketing at Mattson. The third team, known as the
Dream Team, was based on the open-source movement used in the development of Linux
and the idea that a thousand people working for an hour each can do a better job than a
single person working for a thousand hours. The Dream Team consisted of 15 expert foodindustry bakers and scientists from outside Mattson collaborating online with the groups
recommendations carried out by Mattson staffers.
Much like in Ideos lengthy and uninhibited brainstorming process, the Dream Team
produced 34 diverse ideas. In contrast, Team Stuckey and the XP team stuck to developing a
few ideas from the onset. The Dream Teams large brainstorming process, however, became
chaotic and produced conflicts and disagreements between its members. Each member felt
like one of fifteen cogs in a machine and were not enjoying the process. The Dream Teams
15 talented members brought a large pool of expertise but this advantage was cancelled out
by the chaos and friction created in trying to agree on and develop an idea. When the votes
were counted, Team Stuckeys strawberry cobbler cookie beat the Dream Teams oatmeal
caramel cookie. In contrast to Ideos philosophy, Gundrum concluded that while the opensource model works great for projects in which the goals and technical hurdles are clearly
defined like Linux, designing something truly new and innovative requires leaps and
connections between ideas that can only happen in an environment quiet enough to allow
the team to think.

[OL] Beyond the Charismatic Leader: Leadership and Organizational Change by

David Nadler and Michael Tushman.
The authors argue that today, discontinuous organizational change is immensely
important because organizations need to manage through periods of both incremental as
well as revolutionary change. The authors contend that the executive is a critical actor in
the drama of organizational change, providing numerous examples. However, the articles
thesis posits: Vision and/or charisma is not enough to sustain large-system change. While a
necessary condition in the management of discontinuous change, we must build a model of
leadership that goes beyond the inspired individual; a model that takes into account the
complexities of system-wide change in large, diverse, geographically complex
organizations. We must attempt to develop a framework for the extension of charismatic
leadership
The authors use figure 1 (right) to classify types of organizational changes. They say that
strategic changes are necessary; re-creations are risky, and reorientations are associated
with more success because they are done with the time necessary to create coalitions and
proceed with adequate planning.
The authors then affirm the importance of a charismatic leader, which they define in figure 2
(right). However, they outline the limitations of charismatic leadership on page 8. These
include unrealistic expectations, reluctance to disagree with the leaders, need for continuing
magic, potential feelings of betrayal, disenfranchisement of next levels or management, and
limitations of range of the individual leader.
The authors then say that charismatic leadership must be bolstered by instrumental
leadership, through attention to detail on roles, responsibilities, structures, and rewards.
They also say that because organizations are too large and complex for any ne executive
and/or senior team to directly manage, responsibility for large system change must be
institutionalized throughout the management team. The leadership of strategic organization
change must be pushed throughout the organization to maximize the probability that
managers at all levels own and are involved in executing the change efforts and see
concrete benefits of making the change efforts work. Figure 4 below effectively
summarizes the multi-faceted change leadership that the authors advocate.

Why Change Programs Dont Produce Change by Michael Beer et al

There are two misconceptions about organizational change that explains why most top-down
companywide change programs fail to work. The first is the fallacy of programmatic
change the belief that changes in employee attitudes leads to changes in behavior, which
when repeated leads to company-wide change. The second is the misconception that
employee behavior is changed through changes in the formal structure and systems of an
organization. In actuality, individual behavior is shaped by the roles people play in
organizations. Thus, successful organizational change occurs through task alignment,
achieved by reorganizing employee roles, responsibilities, and relationships to solve specific
work problems not by changing abstractions like participation or culture. Thus,
organizational change usually starts at the periphery of organizations in a few divisions or
units far from the management core and later spreads to other units and eventually toplevel management.
Successful organizational change requires that three factors be addressed: commitment,
coordination (between teams, divisions), and competencies (knowledge and skills required).
Companywide change programs usually only address one or two of these and, when they
fail, can detract from the credibility of the change effort and from commitment among
employees and managers to change. Organizational change must rather come from focus on
task alignment, which is easiest in small business units where goals and tasks are clearly
defined. Task alignment can be achieved through a sequence of six steps carried out by
general managers called the critical path, which produces a self-reinforcing cycle of
commitment, coordination, and competence. These steps are:
1. Mobilizing commitment to change through joint diagnosis of business problems. A
shared diagnosis developed among a units management team mobilizes the initial
commitment necessary to begin the change process.
2. Developing a shared vision of how to organize and manage for competitiveness. This
includes defining new roles and responsibilities but not changing the formal structure
like titles and compensation.
3. Fostering consensus for the new vision, competence to enact it, and cohesion to
move it along. This includes encouraging enthusiasm and support among managers,
providing formal training programs when asked for by employees, and replacing
managers who have demonstrated that they cannot function in the new organization.
4. Spread revitalization to all departments without pushing it from the top. In this step,
it is important to allow each department find its own way to the new organization
instead of forcing it upon them in order to preserve commitment.
5. Institutionalize revitalization through formal policies, systems, and structures.
Examples are a implementing a new information system, creating or changing
positions and titles.
6. Monitoring and adjusting strategies in response to problems in the revitalization
process through oversight and planning teams, regular employee attitude surveys.

In effective organizational change, top management creates a climate for change without
imposing it from top-down. Important strategies for supporting change are:

Creating a market for change by setting high standards as dictated by competitive

forces and holding managers accountable for fundamental changes in how they use
human resources.

Use of successfully revitalized units as organizational models for the entire company
by identifying them, providing them with the best managers and resources, and
highlighting them as examples to follow through visits, conferences, and educational
programs.
Developing career paths that encourage leadership development by making
leadership an important criterion for promotion and managing peoples careers to
develop it.
Being willing to change when the critical time comes for top-management to align
with the revitalized units of the organization.

Companies must keep in mind that change requires a unit-by unit learning process rather
than a series of programs and persistence over a long period of time as opposed to quick
fixes.

[OL] Creating Change by Peter Senge and Katrin Kaeufer

In this article, the authors identify 10 forces that impede change. They claim that each
arises as a consequence of some measure of success in a change process. Sustaining
change, they write, requires understanding the sources of these forces and having ways to
deal with themGreat leaders learn how to work with the full range of forces crucial to longterm change.
Below is a list of all of the 10 forces the authors identify, grouped as they are in the article.
Challenges of Initiating
1.
2.
3.
4.

Time: We dont have time for this stuff.

Help: We have no help or Were wasting our time.
Relevance: This stuff isnt relevant.
Walking the talk: Theyre not walking the talk.

Challenges of Sustaining
5. Fear and anxiety: This isnt good.
6. Measurement: This stuff isnt working.
7. True believers (We have the way) and non-believers (They are acting
like a cult.)
Challenges of Redesigning these challenges include concentration of power and
centralized control in shaping strategy and purpose.
8. Governance: They (the powers that be) never let us do this stuff.
9. Diffusion: We keep reinventing the wheel.
10.Strategy and purpose: What are we here for?

The authors conclude by saying that these challenges clarify the roles that different leaders
play in initiating and sustaining change.

Leadership for Change Rosabeth Moss Kanter

There are seven important skills exhibited by successful change masters
1.Sensing Needs & Opportunities: Tuning into the environment
Be mindful. Identify problems at an early stage before they escalate
2.Kaleidoscope Thinking: Stimulating Breakthrough Ideas
Challenge the Pattern or Status quo
3.Setting the Theme: Communicating Inspiring Visions
Turn idea into inspiring, big picture vision
4.Enlisting Backers & Supporters: Getting Buy In, Building Coalitions
Constantly communicate with and appeal to powerholders
5.Developing the Dream: Nurturing the Work Team
Let team form identity naturally. Then constantly supply and support team to help it
maintain focus
6.Mastering the Difficult Middles: Persisting and Persevering
"Everything can look like a failure in the middle" Be Flexible Push Forward Dont Give Up
7.Celebrating Accomplishment: Making Everyone a Hero
Initiative & Innovation thrive on Celebration

*Change is not just a decision, its an ongoing campain

*A leader must choose the change rhythm that is appropriate for that context

Lisa Benton Case Summary

In my opinion, the Lisa Benton case study is really not that important (sorry). The major
point is boss-subordinate relationships and, by extensions, interpersonal relationships
period. Regardless, the story is kind of interesting (and not because it was the only case
study in which major characters were more than likely getting it on). The summary is as
follows: while Lisa Benton she attended Harvard Business School, worked as the first female
manager for Right-Away stores, a company where she won accolades for her roll-up-your
sleeves approach and charmed the president, Scott Kingston, so much that he offered her a

full-time job at Right-Away stores after she graduated. However, she was also offered a job
at Houseworlds Care Division, appealing because of its classical and famous excellent
marketing training. She chose to turn down the higher salary and a bigger position partly
because of her worries of taking on too much responsibility and partly because of RightAways rundown warehouse and lack of other female manager and, instead, joined
Houseworld. At Houseworld, she was charmed by the friendly and professional people she
met initially but ended up under Deborah Linton, who immediately made it clear she was
biased against Harvard MBAs. The friendly people she had met didnt remember her name,
she felt the reception from her boss was cool and disinterested, and, to make matters
worse, her Associate Product Manager, Ron Scoville, was condescending. She was also
working on a product, Pure & Fresh, she felt was unnecessary. What follows in the case study
is a series of run-ins and experiences with Scoville and Linton, where pretty much each time
Benton feels overshadowed, overwhelmed, and unwanted. This leads to the end of the case
study, where she considers calling back Right-Away Stores President Kingston and telling she
made a mistake.
The point of the whole case is, ultimately, the personalities. Linton, Bentons boss,
obviously has an inferiority complex. She never understands Benton and is definitely
inexperienced in managing people. She seems overwhelmed, overworked, and may or may
not (Im voted definitely) is doing the hanky-panky with Scoville. Scoville, Bentons coworker,
is even less of a people person. Hes difficult to work with and, unlike Linton, has what could
best be called a superiority complex. His ego, frustration with not being promoted, and
bizarre misfit status at the company comes together to annoy (and confuse) the heck out of
Benton. Finally, Benton herself seems to have a clip on her shoulder. She has higher
expectations for the job than she should have had and clearly has trouble asserting herself.
She never conveys her potential and is overtly defensive. Finally, she also seems like shes
trying too hard to please people and be liked by them.
In the end (though not in the case study), Scoville and Linton ended up leaving and
Benton got the position of Product Manager a full 9 months earlier than is usual. She had the
potential, then. So? It would have been best if she had managed upward, assuming
responsibility for her own career and development. She should probably have handled Linton
differently, understand what she wanted, what pressures existed, and what the stakes were.
Ultimately, a boss is in many ways dependent on his or her subordinate- for the knowledge
he/she delivers, as a source of information, and as a sounding board. If the subordinate
realizes his or her sources of power, having skills that are tough to replace, specialized
knowledge or information, and centrality to the organization, etc, then the subordinate
should be able to build a partnership with his or her boss. (This is all, for the most, adapted
from Agers slides in class).

Katherine Graham
Abstract: Katherine Graham (Kay), the protagonist of this Harvard Business School Case,
arrived largely untested in 1963 to the Presidency of the Post Company when her husband
Phil passed away. Kays speedy transformation from a silent partner watching from the
sidelines, to an inspirational and transformational leader should prove a lesson for us all.
Katherine Graham (Kay) was thrust into a situation without preparation and with much
animosity. Yet through her transformational leadership as exemplified by her hiring Bradlee,
handling the Watergate Scandal, and preempting the Pressmans Strike, Kay led the Post to
unprecedented success. Although her leadership style may prove uncomfortable to those
acculturated by masculine norms, she proved remarkably effective and left the Post in
excellent position for her son, Don Graham, to take over.
Email David Wyman (dkwyman@fas) if interested in the whole case report.

Building Coalitions
In my opinion, this is a really important article. Honestly, it can apply to almost any form
of relationship between anyone trying to do anything. Which means we can apply it to
almost any case study.
The main point: bringing people whose interests vary greatly into an alliance can be
one of the most effective methods of finding and maintaining a support network for your
agenda. In other words, its crucial to know how to build effective coalitions to get things
done. This HBS article summarizes the kinds of people youre going to be faced with and
how to get them on board.
So, its important to first, figure out what your agenda is and then whose support you need.
Then, deciding whom to focus your energy on and how to get those key players on board are
the crux of building a coalition. There are five types of people the article discusses: allies,
opponents, bedfellows, fence sitters, and adversaries. What follows is a brief description of
these five types of people and an abridged version from the article of what to do with them.
ALLIES: the people with whom you feel most comfortable expressing your ideas and
thoughts.
Involving allies:
1. Affirm agreement on the purpose or project
a. Communicate your objective
b. Confirm their support
2. Reaffirm the quality of your relationship
a. Be honest
b. When you like what they do tell them!
3. Acknowledge doubts and vulnerabilities
a. Own up to your own mistakes
4. Ask for advice and support
a. Secure confirmation on your approach
b. Enlist their aid with respect to your adversaries
c. Listen, listen, listen to their ideas
OPPONENTS: people you have a comfortable relationship with, but due to your respective
positions, you often disagree. Though you share high trust, you also show low agreement.
Your opponents, the article states, give you the rare opportunity to challenge the strength
of your vision in a trustworthy atmosphere. Be careful, it warns, not to jump to conclusions!
They may be more willing to support you than you think.
Influencing Opponents:
1. Affirm your foundation of trust
a. Communicate honestly
b. Preserve the integrity of your relationship
2. State your position
a. Be honest about your agenda and goals
b. Initiate a productive conversation
3. Try to state their position
a. Communicate your understanding of their position
b. Acknowledge your disagreements

4. Engage them in a problem-solving dialogue

a. Gather their insights
BEDFELLOWS: the people who are aligned with our objectives but, when we have contact
with them, dont give us the whole story. That is, unlike with your opponents, with them you
have high agreement, but low trust. In conversation with Bedfellows, you have to be careful
to clearly lay out the boundaries of your relationship- they share your position on a particular
issue, but you also share a rocky history.
Encountering Bedfellows:
1. Affirm agreement on the purpose of your project
a. Communicate your objective
b. Reaffirm mutual goals
2. Acknowledge the caution that exists
a. Frame your hesitancy impersonally
b. Focus their attention on the project, not personalities
3. Clearly state your expectations
a. Establish an honest foundation
b. Be clear about how you will work together
4. Ask bedfellows to do the same (state their expectations, that is)
5. Try to negotiate the terms of your relationship
a. Have a conversation free of threats
b. Secure confirmation on your approach
FENCE SITTERS: the people who simply refuse to take a stand. They are friendly and tend to
be good listeners. The basic point of this section is that Fence Sitters often consume a
disproportionate amount of your time, influence, and energy. At their heart, they have doubt.
So encourage them to take a stand, but dont force them.
Encouraging Fence Sitters:
1. State your position
2. Ask where they stand
a. Listen carefully- often their indecision will reveal a wish for more info
b. Recognize the value of their cautious approach
3. Apply gentle pressure
a. Express your frustration with their neutrality
b. Ask them to continue to think about the issue
c. Ask what it might take to earn their support
ADVERSARIES: finally, these are the people with whom attempts at negotiation agreement
and negotiating trust have failed. This section basically tells you that adversaries take up
an enormous percentage of your emotional energy and time and that usually, this
investment is futile.
Letting Adversaries Go:
1. State your position
a. Communicate honestly and clearly
b. Give it your best shot
2. Try to state their position

a. Attempt to communicate your understanding of their position in a

reasonable way
b. Acknowledge that alternate views exist
c. Your goal is NOT conversion, simply understanding
3. Identify your contribution to the problem
a. Try to diffuse existing hostility
b. Take responsibility for your actions
c. Allow third parties to support you
d. Preserve your integrity
4. End meeting with your plans, but no demands
a. Expect nothing but an exchange of information

Excerpts from Machiavellis The Prince

Going to be honest here, I sparknote-d these instead of read them again. But, not only are
they relevant, theyre also interesting. Especially if the case study has anyone in power who
sees the ends as justifying the means. Here goes:
CHAPTER XIV: THAT WHICH CONCERNS A PRINCE ON THE SUBJECT OF THE ART OF
WAR
Apparently, the point is that the only thing a prince needs to study is the art of war
because, of course, thats the primary disciple of the ruler. Machiavelli gives an analogy of a
man who is armed and another who isnt. The man who is armed would reasonably not feel
like he has to do what the unarmed man says and, similarly, the unarmed man would
reasonably not feel all that safe and probably suspicious. A prince who doesnt understand
warfare, Machiavelli says, is like the unarmed man trying to lead the armed.
CHAPTER XVII: CONCERNING CREULTY AND CLEMENCY, AND WHETHER IT IS BETTER
TO BE LOVED THAN FEARED
Machiavelli says if a prince shows compassion unwisely and doesnt adequately punish
disloyal subjects, then he creates an atmosphere of disorder. Because people get away with
things, crime happens. And crime affects the entire community (whereas executions harm
only the individual who committed the crime). Thus, Machiavelli says, some measure of
cruelty is necessary. Though it should, of course, also be tempered with humanity and
prudence. Machiavelli then considers where it is preferable for a prince to be feared or
loved. THIS IS THE KEY TO THE WHOLE READINGS AND MACHIAVELLI IN GENERAL, YO.
Ideally, Machiavelli says, the prince should be both loved and feared- but this is really tough
to attain. If forced to choose, it is better to be feared than loved. Because people, by and
large, are covetous of gain. In times of danger that is only remote, theyll stand by the
prince. But if real danger happens, theyll turn against him. The bond of love, Machiavelli
argues, is way more easily broken than the fear of punishment, which is always effective.
At the same time, though, its really important to balance creating fear with inducing
hatred. All punishments should always be properly justified. Never, Machiavelli warns, take
another mans woman (Im not making this up) because this breeds hatred (shes my boo,
not yours!). Machiavelli closes the important chapter off with the fact that, with ones army,
theres never such a thing as too much cruelty. Its necessary to keep it disciplined and
united (12 OClock High, anyone?).
CHAPTER XVIII: CONCERNING THE WAY IN WHICH PRINCES SHOULD KEEP FAITH
Machiavelli ultimately argues here that though honoring ones word is praiseworthy,
history proves princes have achieved more success by being cunning, crafty, and tricking
others. Machiavelli defines fighting in two ways: by law or by force. Law comes naturally to
men, and force to animals. To succeed, the prince must ideally learn to fight both with laws
and with force- be half man and half beast. Raaargh!
A prince must break his promises when they put him at a disadvantage. Since men are,
Machiavelli says, naturally deceitful, a prince must, himself, be a master of deception. At the
same time, the prince should always be careful and exude a virtuous aura. He should
APPEAR as a compassionate, trustworthy, kind, guileless and pious ruler. But, Machiavelli
knows all of these are neither possible or desirable. Most men, though, will believe in a

princes virtues if he appears to act virtuously. People judge princes solely on appearance
and results. So, no one cares if he occasionally uses evil to achieve his goals.
CHAPTER XV: CONCERNING THINGS FOR WHICH MEN, AND ESPECIALLY PRINCES,
ARE PRAISED OR BLAMED
Ultimately, Machaivelli says a prince shouldnt concern himself with living virtuously, but
instead just act like it to achieve the most practical benefit. Its unrealistic to assume a
prince would possess all the qualities deemed good by man. A prince should instead be
focused most on safeguarding his state and bad characteristics are sometimes needed to
achieve it. Basically, a prince shouldnt be influenced at all by condemnation from other
men.
CHAPTER XXV: WHAT FORTUNE CAN EFFECT IN HUMAN AFFAIRS, AND HOW TO
WITHSTAND HER
Machiavelli says that, contrary to popular belief, fortune only controls half of ones
actions- while free will determines the other half. Fortune, he continues, is only dangerous
when the prince hasnt planned ahead to avoid it. A prince must be willing to adjust to time
and circumstance unlike most men, who usually stay on the course that brought them
success in the past.

Jeffrey Pfeffer Managing with Power (pg. 69 110)

Pfeffer hopes to analyze whether sources of power are dependent on individual

characteristics or ones location in an organization believes that being in the right
place is more essential
What is powerControl over resources, control and access to information, and formal
position
Situational factors people tend over attribute power to personal characteristics
Power enables people to be different it produces a more self confident and
aggressive behavior
Structural perspectives of power argue that power is derived where each person
stands in the division of labor and the communication system of the organization
Situational power argues that one possesses power simply by being in the right place
by being in a position of authority, or in a position to broker transactions. Some are
more successful than others at their tasks and that is where personal characteristics
come in.
Being in the right place at the right time argues that if Regan and Johnson had
switched eras neither would have been elected because their personal
characteristics appealed to the public and national parties at that specific time in
history.
New Golden Rule, Allies, resources
Golden Rule - The person with the gold makes the rules example Robert
moses
Resources - believed to be anything that is valuable Lyndon Johnson used the little
congress and the press as sources of power to transform himself important to
always control resources and to make them more valuable once you are in
possession of them.
Resources become important provide the necessary attention to the resource to
generate its best value
Allies one of the most important resources to any member of an organization.
Organizations are frequently large, interdependent, and complex systems, in which it
is difficult to get things done by yourself. It is essential to have loyal, trusted,
supporters to help carry out your plans.
Coalition partners are built through promotions and hiring appointments by helping
other to obtain power one gains power themselves.
Building alliances by doing favors by doing favors for people whose support you
need important to capitalize on the norm of reciprocity.