GENERAL SCOPE AND USES OF

SOCIAL & CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY

Course Name:
ANTHROPOLOGY
Paper No. & Title:
B.A. / B.Sc. 3rd Semester
(Theory)
Topic No. & Title:
(19/22) RELIGION: DEFINITION AND COMPONENTS; MAGIC, RELIGION AND
SCIENCE.

1. INTRODUCTION
Religion is a main concern of man. Man, the social animal, is also a religious or spiritual
being. The institution of religion is universal and it is also found in all the societies, past and present.
Phenomenon of religion is not of recent emergence and its beginning is unknown and dateless.
Some artifacts and evidences of the burial practices of Neanderthal man indicate that human being
was a religious creature long before history began.
Laws, customs and fashion are not the only means of social control. Overriding them all are
religion and morality which formulate the shape of all of them. They are not only influential forces
of social control, but the most effective guides of human behavior. Unless we understand them
thoroughly we shall fail to understand the society.
2. Meaning and definition of Religion:

From the etymological point of view, Bouquet has shown,

religion is derived from the Latin word, religio, which itself is
derived from either the root leg- which means to gather, count or
observe, or from the root lig-which means to bind.
It is not an easy task to give a definition of religion which
satisfies everyone. Though religion is a universal phenomenon, it is
understood differently by different people. There is no consensus
about the nature of religion. Anthropologists are yet to find a
satisfactory explanation of religion. Writers have defined religion in various ways. A few definitions
may be mentioned here.
According to D. N. Majumdar and T. N. Madan (1988), Religion is the human response to
the apprehension of something or power, which is supernatural and supersensory. It is the
expression of the manner and type of adjustment effected by a people with their conception of the
supernatural.

James George Frazer (1922) considered religion as a belief in powers superior to man which
are believes to direct and control the course of nature and of human life.
Emile Durkheim in his book, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life,
defines religion as a unified system of believes and practices relative to
sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden.
Lowie (1948) regarded religion as a spontaneous response to the aweinspiring extra-ordinary manifestation of reality.
According to Malinowski (1948), Religion is a mode of action as well
as system of belief and a sociological phenomenon as well as a personal
experience.
According to Edward Sapir, an American Anthropologist, Religion is
mans never-ceasing attempt to discover a road to spiritual serenity across the
perplexities and dangers of daily life.
According to Ogburn (1950), Religion is an attitude towards
superhuman powers.

3. Characteristics and Basic Component of Religion:

A common characteristic found in all the religions of the world is that

they represent a complex of emotional feelings and attitudes towards
mysteries and perplexities of life. As such religion comprises first,
system of attitudes, belief, symbols, which are based on the assumption
that certain kinds of social relations are sacred or are morally
imperative. Second, a structure of activities governed or influenced by
these systems.
According to Anderson and Parker, each religion consists of four
primary components. These are:

Belief in Supernatural Forces Religion is a matter of belief.

It is a belief in supernatural or super human forces. Some
people believe in several kinds of forces and accordingly,
worship them all. They are called polytheists. Some others
believe in only one force, or the God or the Almighty. He is
formless and shapeless. They consider Him omnipresent,
omniscient and omnipotent. They worship Him in different
ways. They are called monotheists.

Mans Adjustment with the Supernatural Forces - Man believe that he is at the mercy of
the supernatural forces. He expresses his subordination to them by means of prayers,
hymns, kirtans, yagyas and other acts. Failure to perform these acts is regarded as sinful.

Acts defined as Sinful Each religion defines certain acts as sinful. Such acts destroy
mans harmonious relationships with God or the Gods and the sinner suffers the wrath of
God.

Method of Salvation Man needs some methods by which he can regain harmony with
the Gods through removal of guilt. Thus Buddhism provides for Nirvana, and Hinduism
provides salvation to be released from the bondage of karma.

4. Religion, Magic and Science :

Religion and magic are two ways of tiding over crisis. Primitive man must have had to face
the realities of life. He did so with his belief in some superior powers, either by trying to coerce it
into service, i.e. by magic or by praying and offering worship to it, i.e. by the religious approach.
Magic is a system of manipulation by which an effect is sought through the action of unseen
powers. It occupies a very important place in the primitive society. Many writers have defined magic
in different ways. Some of them are given below:
5. Definition of Magic:

According to James Goerge Frazer (1922) Magic is inventory of beliefs and forms of behavior
which are not subject to criticism, recheck and elimination.
According to Beals and Hoijer (1975) Magic is a body of
techniques and methods for controlling the universe on the
assumption that if certain procedures are followed minutely certain
results are inevitable. It presupposes an orderly universe of cause
and effect.
According to Prof. Keesing (1962), A magical act is a rite carried
out to twist nature in a specific way to satisfy human desire.
The classification of magical practices most firmly established, comes to us from J. G. Frazer. He
found that magical formulae are based on two principles:

Like produces like; and

Once in contact always in contact.

He has reduced these principles into laws. The first he calls the law of similarity and the second is
the law of contact, or contagion. Basing on these laws, he classified magic into two categories: (a)
Imitative or homoeopathic magic and (b) contagious magic.

Imitative Magic :
It is the magic which is associated with the law of similarity i.e. like produces like or that an effect
resembles its cause. Following this law, the magical practitioner
infers that he can produce any desired effect by imitating it.
Imitative magic includes both white or beneficial and black or
harmful magic.

White magic-The magical ceremony which is

performed for beneficial end is known as white magic.
Familiar examples are fertility rites to ensure or
increase the growth of crops and the successful birth of animals or human being by acts
as symbolically depicting bountiful harvests or sexual intercourse, pregnancy and
parturition. Like the cave art of the Old Stone Age or totemic rites of Australian
aborigines, imitative magic may also be used to ensure or increase the food supply of
edible animals. Rain magic involving the imitation of falling rain or flowing water is
common among primitive people who subsist chiefly by horticulture. Some tribal groups

believe that thunder with its rumbling noise, is the direct cause of rain. Therefore when
they want rains they go to a hill top, sacrifice a hen or a pig and then start flinging down
stones, rocks and boulders down the hill, expecting rain to follow the rumbling noises
created by their actions, just as it follows thunder.

Black Magic Black magic is that kind of magic which is always used to do harm in the
society. One of the most striking and prevalent form of the black magic is the image
magic. Images range from highly concrete and pictorial, doll-like representations of
human beings or animals to the symbolic representations. The acts which one performs
upon images by imitation are thought to come about in actuality. Thus burning of effigies
is the common form of black magic. It is believed that when the effigy is burnt, its
original will suffer like-wise.

CONTAGIOUS MAGIC :
Contagious magic is associated with the law of contact i.e. things once in
contact with each other remain forever in association even if the contact is
physically severed. Primitives have been found not to use each others
clothing, not for reason of hygiene, but because cloths are regarded as a part
of that persons body who wore them first. The main implication of the law of
contact is that a part is always associated with the whole to which it belongs or
belonged; once a part is always a part. This association is extended to clothing,
nail-cuttings, hair-trimming, utensils, personal effects and so on. It is because
of this belief that the personal belongingness of the dead are not made use of
by many primitive groups but are instead buried or cremated along with the
dead body.

6. Difference between Magic and Religion:

Norbeck (1961:52-3) quotes the distinction between magic and religion from the works of William J.
Goode who makes use of a polar scheme of interpretation. Magic and religion represent a continuum
and these are distinguished only ideal-typically. He provides a useful summary of what he
describes as characteristic emerging most prominently in anthropological writings as theoretical
aides in distinguishing magic and religion.

Concrete specificity of goal relates most closely to the magical complex. This overlaps
towards religious goal more than most characteristic, since religious rewards are usually to be
found in this world. However religious goals do lean more heavily in the direction of
General welfare, health, Good weather, and eschatological occurrences.

The manipulative attitude is to be found most strongly at the magical complex as against the
supplicative, propitiatory or cajoling at the religious complex.

The professional-client relationship is ideally-theoretically to be found in the magical

complex. The shepherd-flock, or prophet-follower, is more likely in the religious component.

Individual ends are more frequently to be found towards the magical end of this continuum,
as against groupal ends towards the other.

The magical practitioner or his customer goes through his activities as a private individual
or individuals functioning much less as groups. At the religious extreme complex, groups
carry them out or representatives of groups.

With regard to the process of achieving the goal, in case of magical failure, there is more
likely to be a substitution or introduction of other techniques. Stronger magic will be used to
off-set the counter magic of enemies, or even a different magician.

The practitioner decides whether the process is to start at all, towards magical complex.
Towards religious goals, the ritual must be carried out. That it must be done, is part of the
structure of the universe.

Defined as instrumental by the society, magic is thought of as at least as potentially directed

against the society. Religious rituals are not thought of as even potentially directed against
the society.

As a final, ideally distinguishing characteristic, magic is used only instrumentally, i.e. for
goals. The religious complex may be used for goals, but at its ideal complex, the practices are
ends in themselves.

7. Relations between Magic and Religion:

Magic and religion are very close to each other in their role as tools of adaptation. The following are
some points of relationship between magic and religion.

Magic and religion are both imbued with the mystery of the world.

Religion seeks an explanation in terms of spirits and gods. Magic does in terms of force.
Nonetheless the roles of magician and priest are often combined in one person.

The art of magician and many religious rituals are meant to create an atmosphere of
suggestibility.

The technique of both magic and religion is ritualistic, the performance of which is
governed by a traditional order.

The veil between the two is very thin. So a slight change in the formulation of words may
convert a magical formula into religious prayer.

8. Difference and Relations between Magic and Science:

Science and magic are closely related. Both science and magic depend
upon mechanistic procedures. The magician must follow the same type of
process as is done by the scientist. But whereas the scientist deals with the
natural world, the magician deals with the supernatural.
Magic and science both assume the existence of non-variant relations and
the operation of impersonal causes in a more or less mechanical fashion. In magic there is assumed
uniformity of cause and effect such as is postulated in natural laws. Frazer says that the two are
essentially the same, the difference being that magic is based on
wrong assumptions regarding causal relations. That is why he calls
magic the bastard sister of science. He holds that science is valid,
magic is invalid and false. Therefore magic is barren. Science is
legitimate, magic is illegitimate. Hence magic is not science. At best,
it appears as science. In other words, it is pseudo-science. When it
become true and fruitful, it would no longer be magic but become
science.
The two attitudes, scientific and magical, differ; the former is matter of fact and the latter has in it
an element of amazement, expectation, uncertainty, etc. Science assumes only natural cause and
arrives at a result after observation, experiment and verification. Magic assumes occult causes and
works in an atmosphere of distinct unreality, excluding verification as part of its technique. The
failures of science are due to inadequate knowledge and can be corrected by further research. The
failures of magic are supposed to be due to some error in the performance of ritual, or else due to
counter-magic by more powerful magicians.
9. CONCLUSION:
Man, the social animal, is also a religious or spiritual being. Religion is a major concern of man. It is
one of the earliest and the deepest interest of human being. Religion is universal, permanent,
pervasive and perennial interest of man. Religion has to do with those areas of life where
supernatural forces are believed to operate and where the appropriate attitudes are those of faith and
reverence. Because religious ideas and practices are pervasive, it is not always easy to separate them
from other aspects of culture. Supernatural forces are not always regarded with owe or reverence,
nor are attitudes of faith and reverence restricted solely to supernatural things.
Within the sphere of religion, a distinction can be made between i) magic and religion; and ii) magic
and science. Magic and religion are two ways of tiding over crises. Primitive man must have had to
face the realities of life. He did so with his belief in some superior power, or powers, either by trying

to coerce it into service, i.e., by magic, or by praying and offering worship to it, i.e., by the religious
approach. Both magic and religion are tools of adaptation; the objective being to help man out of
difficult situations and relieve his tensions. The two approaches seem to have always existed
together and sometimes they come so near each other as almost to blend into each other. Man must
have resorted to supplication only after his ego-driven magical approach failed to produce results
invariably.
Magic is often called a type of primitive science. Magic, like science, pursues practical ends. It is
coercive that certain effects follow certain causes, takes an impersonal attitude towards causation,
and has little to do with morality. The function of magic is to give confidence and a sense of
security. For this reason, the individual must have a non-rational faith in its adequacy. Hence it can
exist side by side with perfectly good scientific and technological practices.