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ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS
OF
QUATERNIONS.
BY THE LATE
SIR
SEOO3ST3D
EIDITIO3ST.
EDITED BY
M.A.,
ANDREWS
VOLUME
I.
CO.,
V,
PRINTED AT THE
PON9ONBY
<Sk
WELDRICK,
no instructions were
my
"
left
as to
ELEMENTS OF
which, but
QUATEENIONS,"
My
to
much engaged
me.
It
was then
matter
First,
me
to consider
work
duty in this
and thirdly,
father,
found
as I
triple
to succeeding generations.
the
how
for
and
came
my
my
duty was
to publish
it,
removed
few typographical
errors,
my
late
Shortly before
subject of the
"
my
father
ELEMENTS."
to develop,
bows
with
after dealing
its
and mechanical
wrote out
all
as,
hands
of
another Ulysses.
more important
And
all
involved
him on the
topics,
is
to be able fully
He
also discussed
that,
"ELEMENTS"
had
cost
him
here I must gratefully acknowledge the generous act of the Board of Trinity
it
Quaternions,"
defrayed
its
entire cost
me
was, surprised
my
father
The announcement
the
less,
when
former book,
"
of
remem
Lectures on
781470
vi
was recorded by him at the end of his Preface to the Lectures," which doubtless
he would have acknowledged, had he lived to complete the Preface of the ELEMENTS."
"
"
He
intended also, I
know,
of a Preface, left in
my
hands of the
manuscript by
or rewritten.
"
my
father,
and
ELEMENTS," I
now
place
them
scientific public.
1st,
1866.
principles as the
"LECTURES,"^)
work can
The
is
is
entirely new,
Table of Contents,
various
by
collecting
may
to
give,
readers
to
but
the
already
it
seems
method
of exposition,
which
it
to adopt.
[2.]
The
present treatise
is
it
The
by a
sufficient
First
Book
First Conception
And
the
********
********
a Second Principal
* This
fragment,
[W.E.
Hamilton.]
Form
in one of his
BOWAN HAMILTON
died on
the
2nd
of
September, 1865,
He intended to have
leaving his great work on Quaternions unfinished.
an Index, and an Appendix con
added some account of the operator*
taining notes on Anharmonic Coordinates, on the Bary centric Calculus, and
v>
In
this edition,
Dublin, the original text has been faithfully preserved, except in a few
I have added notes,
places where trifling errors have been corrected.
distinguished in every case by square brackets, wherever I thought they
were wanted. I have rendered the work more convenient by increasing the
number
of cross-references,
of the articles (for the original references are generally given to articles
not to pages), by dividing the work into two volumes, and by the addition
of an index.
The table of contents has been amplified by a brief analysis
of each article, designed as far as possible to assist the reader in following
Such a table
will be
found at the
end of the table of contents, but for the convenience of students of Physics,
and of those desirous of obtaining a working knowledge of Hamilton s
powerful engine of research, I have amplified it somewhat, duly noting,
however, the
minimum
course.
and adapted
chiefly I
to those readers to
whom
the subject
is
new.
To
those readers
is
Most
of these involve
no real
difficulty,
selected course.
The
First
Book
In a word,
considered without
reference to
it
is
nately
it is
contrary.
him
is
of the
not
com
few passages
associative.! With
mutative, though
noted in the table of a selected course, there is nothing in chaps. II. and III.
essential to a good knowledge of the subject.
They contain, however, an
the exception of a
it is
and
as involving
any vector y is selected in the plane of a and )3, that the product q.y is a
vector in the same
plane whose length bears to that of y the same ratio as
if
the length of
*
|3
to that of a,
j3
fore ultimately
a.
first
xi
expressing the relative length and direction of two given vectors, we have
come to consider a quaternion as an operator on a special set of vectors, viz.
those in its own plane.
Observe that, so far, we have not arrived at the
We
product q
and a vector y in
y of a quaternion q
interpretation
is
assigned to q
its
plane,
j q
.
and while an
unknown.
is
(p.
is
is
The
and on
p.
?=f=ft
is
dicular planes.
(A)
it
associative.
is
it
yk=
deduced, in which
law,
is
is
necessary to determine
Warned by
if
of these specially
in quaternions.
by
#,
associative
law
is
be
= ab
c.
This
also true for quaternions, and it may be regarded as the chief feature
which distinguishes quaternions from other systems of vector analysis. For
example, Grrassmann s multiplication is sometimes associative, but sometimes
is
it is
is
not.
It
is
distributive, or that a (b
arcs,
even
when
is
early investigations
of
Hamilton
multiplication
in 1830.f
Next a quaternion
the product of its tensor
*
is
decomposed
and its versor
in
;
two ways:
into the
(2) in section 12,
sum
of its
t Preface to Lectures
this system.
xii
scalar
and
may
shown,
its
their
tensors,
207) that the addition of the vector parts is reducible to the addition of
vectors, and, as the addition both of scalars and of vectors is commutative
associative, so likewise is the addition of quaternions.
and
The
sum
the
of a scalar
and a vector
multiplication of quaternions
follows,
some
of
is
part,
it
is also
distributive.
long
series
of
examples
well-known con
Section 14
is
entitled
Standard Quadrinomial
"
Quaternions."
This proof
perties.
The
The laws
first
associative
is sufficient
now
(and subtraction)
is
proof
and
is
associative
established.
Addition
Passing over the second and third chapters in this Second Book, which
are chiefly complementary to the development of the theory, we find in
chap.
restriction
restriction
or
already obtained.*
is
In
much
the same
way
as a couple
We
or an
angular
xiii
is
The scope of the remainder of this volume is, I think, sufficiently indi
cated in the table of contents.
The foregoing sketch of the development of
the calculus of Quaternions necessarily presents but a meagre view of the
nature of this work however, my object has been to carry out, as far as I
;
its illustrious
his preface.
With but
slight change, much of Books I. and II. might have been extended to space of
In Book III. advantage is taken of the peculiar simplicity of space of those dimensions
in which but one direction is perpendicular to a given plane, and a legitimate reduction of the number
n- dimensions.
of symbols
is
consequently made.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK
I.
....
CHAPTEB*
..
Pages
3-103
I.
On
and on Equality
of Vectors,
3-4
i>
SECTION
2.
On
Differences and
Sums
of Vectors,
5-7
Art. 5, Intro
subtraction of vectors, p. 5.
[Art. 4, Definition of the geometrical
duction of sign +, regarded as a converse to
by the formula (b - a) + a = b, J p. 5.
Art. 6, The sum of any two co-initial sides of a parallelogram ABDC is the co-initial
,
diagonal, or
AB + AC = AD = AC + AB,
+ # = /8 +
commutative operation, or o
SECTIONS.
On Sums
of
Art. 7, Addition of
p. 6.
o,
two Vectors
p. 6.]
...
* This
Chapter
is
7-8
Art. 9, The ad
Art. 10, Closed
may be referred to, as 1. i. the next as I. n. the first Chapter of the Second
Book, as II. i. and similarly for the rest.
t This Section may be referred to, as I. i. 1 the next, as I. i. 2; the sixth Section of the second
Chapter of the Third Book, as III. n. G and so on. [Article 180 is referred to as (180), and the
;
sum
[
is I.
See
In (180
(6)
(3.)
and
)
is b,
but not a
is
added to
(7).]
it is
is
not commutative.]
a and their
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xvi
Pages
SECTION
4.
On
Coefficients of Vectors,
9-11
= (1 + m) a. if
is a positive or negative integer, p. 9.
[Art. 12, la + ma
Art. 13, The multiplication of vectors by positive or negative integers is a doubly
distributive operation,* p. 9.
Art. 14, This is also true when the coefficients are in
commensurable, i/a xa - (y x) a y (xa) = (yx) a. = yxa X (ft a) = xft xa, p. 10.
or
Art. 15, /3 = xa and a have the same or opposite directions according as x
0,
Art. 16, Division of a vector by a parallel vector, p. 10.
Art. 17, Intro
p. 10.
;
<
>
any misconception
being fatal to progress in the Quaternions. The
Chapter contains explanations also of the connected, but not all equally important, words
of the
"Vector"
vector,"
"op
"pro vector,"
"transvector," "actual and null vectors,"
and successive vectors," "origin and term of a vector," "equal and unequal
vectors," "addition and subtraction of vectors,"
"multiples and fractions of vectors,"
&c.
with the notation B - A, for the Vector (or directed right line) AB and a deduction
or phrases,
"re
posite
of the result, essential but not peculiar^ to quaternions, that (what is here called) the
vector-sum, of the two co-initial sides of a parallelogram, is the intermediate and co-initial
The term u
diagonal.
Scalar" is
CHAPTER
II.
1.
On
12-13
SECTION
2.
13-19
is
and c, p. 14.
Art. 24, a
b
c = BC : CA
AB, when a + b + c - 0, p. 14.
Art. 25, Equation of a line. Anharmonic of four collinear points, p. 15.
Art. 26,
Involution. Homographic division of lines, p. 16.
Art. 27, Vectors to points of
*
first construction, A = OA
Art. 28, Ratios
AB, % p. 17.
BC, B = OB
CA, c = oc
A, B,
of segments
OBC
OCA
of
sides
of
OAB, p. 18.
mean
point, p. 19.]
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xvii
Pages
and to read only the two first Articles (62, 63, pages 44-45)
Section of that Chapter, respecting Vectors in Space, before proceeding to the
first
Second Book (pages 107, &c.), which treats of Quaternions as Quotients of Vectors.
SECTION
On
3.
.......
of second construction,
, Properties of points
Art. 32, Equation of six segments
AB, p. 20.
Art. 33, Points of second construction, A = OA B C , B
Art. 34, Construction of plane net, p. 22.]
p. 21.
[Art. 31
c"
A"
=AB
....
On Anharmonic
4.
in one Plane,
[Art. 35,
co-ordinates,
B"
=CA
CA
"
= OB
transversal, p. 21.
= oc * A B ,
C A , c
"
EC
made by
"
SECTION
=BC
20-23
xa + yb +
zc
p. 24.
...
pencils,
p.
23.
Art. 36,
23-29
Anharmonic
p. 27.
SECTION
On Plane
5.
29-32
and
In
SECTION
........
6.
in a given Plane,
32-43
[Art. 46, Conic touching sides of triangle at points of first construction, p. 32.
Art. 47, An ellipse or circle when o is interior to triangle, p. 33.
Art. 48, Case of
o exterior to triangle, p. 33.
Art. 49, Geometrical criterion of species, p. 34.
Art. 50, Determination of asymptotes of hyperbola and axis of parabola, p. 34.
Anharmonic symbol for tangent, p. 35. Art. 52, Vector to centre of conic,
Art. 53, Circumscribed conic having double contact with the inscribed conic,
Art. 54, Vector expression for a cubic with a conjugate point, p. 37.
p. 36.
Art. 55, Anharmonic generation of general cubic, p. 37.
Art. 56, Tangential Equa
Art. 51,
p. 35.
x*
y*
0, p. 41.
cubic, p. 42.]
other results of this Chapter, a theorem is given in page 38, which seems to
new geometrical generation of (plane or spherical) curves of the third order. The
anharmonic co-ordinates and equations employed, for the plane and for space, were sug
gested to the writer by some of his own vector forms ; but their geometrical interpretations
are assigned.
The geometrical nets were first discussed by Professor Mobius, in his Barycentric Calculus, but they are treated in the
present work by an entirely new analysis
Among
offer a
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
much extended
in the
Chapter
to
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xviii
CHAPTER
III.
SECTION
1.
44-50
= 0, if a,
Art. 63,
7, 5 are any four vectors, p. 44.
[Art. 62, aa + b& +cy + d8
a+b-\-c + d=Q, if ABC and D are coplanar, p. 45. Art. 64, Intersections of lines
in a plane, p. 45.
Art. 65, For any five vectors aa + bfi + cy 4 dS 4 e* = 0, and
,
bc + d+e =
where in
I.,
A, B,
c are
collinear points;
A, B, c,
been recommended to the student to read the first two Articles of this
first perusal of the Volume
and then to pass to the Second Book.
It has already
SECTION
r
On Quinary Symbols
2.
any three
and in III.,
for Points
[Art. 70,
xaa 4
ybft
xa + yb
zcy
zc
4
+
+ wd + ve
Art. 72, (Q = (Q)
tvdS
50-55
vee
,
if
Symbol for a point; Congruence, p. 51.
)
= t (Q } 4
Art. 73, Condition of collinearity
(Q)
(U], where (Z7) = (11 11 1), p. 51.
of three points, p. 52.
Art. 74, Condition of coplanarity of four points, p. 52.
Art. 75, Quinary equation and symbol of a plane, p. 53.
Art. 76, Intersection of a
p. 50.
and a plane,
line
given points,
SECTION
3.
p.
p. 54.
54.
Art. 77, Points, lines, and planes rationally related to five
Art. 78, Syntypical points, p. 55.]
On Anharmonic
Co-ordinates in Space,
.....
55-60
Art. 80,
[Art. 79, Quaternary or anharmonic symbol of a point in space, p. 55.
Anharmonic symbol and equation of a plane, p. 56. Art. 81, Trace of a plane on a
Art. 82, Formulae of collineation and coplanarity, p. 56.
given plane, p. 56.
Art. 83, Ratios of co-ordinates expressed as anharmonics of pencils of planes, p. 57.
Art. 84, Anharmonics of groups of points and of pencils of planes, p. 58.
Art. 85,
SECTION
4.
On
p.
61.
61-81
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
On Bary centres
5.
plex Means
[Art. 96,
(1), (2)
Simple mean
Systems
of Points
of coinitial vectors
Mean
Com
point
Gauche
81-87
quadrilateral
p. 81.
Barycentres, p. 84.]
On Anharmonic
6.
.........
SECTION
of
of Vectors,
xix
Pages
and Curves
in Space,
...
87-96
<f>(t)
SECTION
7.
On
96-103
Differentials of Vectors,
Hodograph
(5;
.Developable
An
p.
84.
and third
orders,
is
given.
BOOK
II.
CHAPTER
107-249
I.
Very
since
it
nary intersections, and ellipsoids, in the thirteenth Section, which a student may pass
and which will be indicated in the proper place in this Table.
over,
SECTION
by
1.
Introductory Remarks
107-110
[Arts. 101-2, Comparison between Books I. and II. ; General principles adopted
Art. 103, I. Division must correspond to converse act of
definition, p. 107.
multiplication, or
by
=$
q,
p. 108.
Art.
C 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xx
Pages
the same are equal to one another,
*v
p.
Art.
109.
106, IV.
and
*v
-:-=-;
a
Art. 107, V.
denominator, p. 109.
SECTION
2.
common
=
pan
-, p. 109.]
two Vectors
of
a Quater
110-113
nion,
The
Art. 109,
quotient of two vectors is not generally a scalar, p. 110.
But depends on their relative direction as well as on their relative length, p. 110.
Art. Ill,
Art. 110, The relative direction may be specified by a rotation, p. 111.
[Art. 108.
rotation is defined
Art. 112,
quaternion, p. 112.]
SECTION
Additional Illustrations,
3.
113-114
is
relation of
Many
connexion
"Quaternion,"
with
"
SECTION
On
4.
Equality of Quaternions
work.
of a
Quater
115-119
nion,
in one plane
[Art. 117, The quotients of corresponding sides of similar triangles
Art. 118, But are unequal (and
are equal when the similarity is direct, p. 115.
Art. 119, Coplanar and diplanar
conjugate) when the similarity is inverse, p. 115.
Art. 120, Two geometric quotients can be reduced to a common
quaternions, p. 115.
denominator, and therefore their sum, difference, product, and quotients are quater
nions, p. 116.
p. 117.
Art. 122,
reduced to a
8 HI a, 0,
HI
xa.
common
or
- and ft
q,
(I)
8 \\\q,
-, F
p. 118.
\\\
Art, 125, If
p. 118.
Art. 123, If
denominator, p. 117.
rt
--=
-,
-, then, inversely,
ay
Art. 126,
=
xa
- and xq
a
|,
|||
a, 0,
and
and
alternately,
<>
if
qx
5.
On the Axis and Angle of a Quaternion
a Right Quotient, or Quaternion,
SECTION
x isascalar,
...
;
p. 119.]
of
119-122
[Arts. 127-8,
q, p. 120.
The
by Ax.
>
mined uniquely by
its
Index, p. 122.]
<
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
On
6.
nion
The
134,
p. 122.
Ax. Kg- =
5-,
and conversely,
=-=
Art. 139,
Norm
= L
Kq =
q, if qis
Art. 141,
And
is
a
Art.
KK=
Which
K(-
(1(7)2, p.
SECTION
.q
q"
K^ =
L q
>
is
zero
or
<
if
g)
(1)
L q
0, if
and
= -K?;
<
p. 125.
or
-,
>
Art. 144, Of
of a
K- = =-\ qKq = Nq
Kq
127.]
On
7.
2
14o,K =
122-131
Ax. q
q
:
q"
+-=
Quater
Art. 138, L
of a
Ax. q
Art. 136,
q p. 123.
More generally q + Kg
conversely.
126.
(2), p.
is
a scalar, p. 125.
is
p. 125.
a right quotient.
right line
p. 124.
+ Kq
And
Art 142,
in algebra q
= -
Ax.
Art. 140, q
= -
reciprocal of q
As
Art. 135,
~i P- 123.
.......
[Art.
xxi
Pages
131-134
Art. 147,
1 are limiting
[Art. 146, Definition of a Eadial (or Versor), p. 131.
cases of radials.
Right radial, p. 132. Art- 148, The square of a right radial is- 1.
= - N#
Generally q*
number
finite
Equation of
if
of values of
-, p. 132.
Art. 149,
\/ -
two classes
circle, p. 133.
Radial, p. 134.]
......
8.
On the Versor of a Quaternion, or of a Vector
General Formulae of Transformation,
SECTION
and on some
135-143
[Art. 151-2, Radials and Versors differ only in the point of view from which they
are regarded, p. 135.
Art. 153-4, Deduction of properties proved in Arts. 147-8 when
a versor
is
Art. 155,
same direction
i_
136.
Art.
156,
Uq =
= UK0,
the
TJfl
And U^ = U- = ==a
Ua
p. 136.
by
as a, p.
q,
uniquely determined
Art 158,
KU# =
= U-
or
Art. 159, Uxq = + TJq or - Uq according as the scalar x
0,
= U, p. 140.
a quaternion or a vector, p. 139.
Art. 160, U 3 =
Art. 161, Transformations of Uq.
Geoinetrica proofs and illustrations, p. 140.]
p.
whether g
In the
quaternion
138.
>
<
UU
is
five
is
are unequal ;
systems
The Symbol V
;
sections, or
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxii
Pages
On
SECTION
9.
.....
This Section
which show
is
is
r>
Art.
p. 147.
169,
= Kq q
versors qq
Art.
p. 148.
(q"
and conversely,
q"
only
if
q"
q;
\\\
p. 150.
On
SECTION 10.
i,
= - 1 ;/* = -!;
I.
ik
i,
j,
II.
Art.
j,ip. 157.
j,
fact,
Symbols,
QUATERNION may be
157-163
Art. 182,
p. 157.
ji=-k-
kj
= -i;
The
to
ijk,
183,
of the
=-
Fundamental Formula,
in the
In
Laws
and Jt Fundamental
and III. derived from
of
System
i*=ji = k* =
ijk
=-
l.
(A)
form,
=w +
ix
+jy
-f
(B)
kz,
in
=+
k,
but
since
we
ji=-k;
and
.....
1 1
On the Tensor of a Vector, or of a Quaternion
Product or Quotient of any two Quaternions,
SECTION
and on the
and quotients,
p. 171.
= -
Art. 192,
?
p.
173.
Art.
their indices,
= !?
K<?
ff
K<7.
K#
Examples on
circles,
9.
=, P-
175.]
163-176
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxiii
Pages
SECTION 12.
SECTION 13.
Art. 202,
Art. 203,
quotient, p. 193.
And
S -
a and
#"
=V -
and
\q.
The multiplication
quaternions, p. 210.
distributive.
Art. 210,
Trigonometry,
p.
211.
,
On
SECTION 14.
Quadrinomial Form
Multiplication of Quaternions,
Arts.
213-220 (with
.......
may be
omitted at
first
242-249
reading.
Art. 222,
221, Standard quadrinomial form of a quaternion, p. 242.
Expression for derived functions. Law of the Norms, p. 243. Art. 223, Proof of the
associative principle of Multiplication.
Examples and Interpretations, p. 245. Art.
[Art.
CHAPTER
II.
ON COMPLANAR QUATERNIONS,
The
first six
ii.)
may
be passed over in a
first
perusal.
SECTION 1.
On Complanar Proportion of Vectors; Fourth Proportional to
Third
Three,
Proportional to Two, Mean Proportional, Square Root
General Reduction of a Quaternion in a given Plane, to a Standard
250-256
Binomial Form,
;
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxiv
Pages
SECTION
2.
On Continued
of
whole
256-261
Powers and
229,
Illustration, p.
256.
General roots of
unity, p. 258.
SECTION
3.
On
Trigonometrical
262-268
Powers,
[Art. 235, Amplitude of a quaternion, p. 262.
of amplitudes.
Examples, p. 264. Art. 237,
238,
SECTION
And with
4.
Powers
and on
of Quaternions,
268-276
P(? +
On
Powers with
?")
P?">
<?
TPO
SECTION
Art.
Art. 252, Geometrical proof, p. 280.
Art. 253, Quadratic equation, p. 281.
Art. 255, Construction of triangle, given base,
254, Second geometrical proof p. 284.
product of sides, and difference of base angles, p. 287.]
,
SECTION
6.
On
Equation
of the
.........
288-292
equations,
4
quaternion equation has w roots, p. 290.]
SECTION
7.
Vectors
On
of
of
In this last Section (II. ii. 7) the short first Article 258, and the following Art. 259,
as far as the formula VIII. in p. 294, should be read, as a preparation for the Third
Book, to which the Student may next roceed.
293-300
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
ON DIPLANAR QUATERNIONS,
OR
ITT.
OF
QUOTIENTS
xxv
VECTORS IN SPACE
AND
QUATERNIONS.
may he
This Chapter
omitted, in a
first
perusal.
Pages
SECTION
On some Enunciations
1.
of Multiplication of
...
Diplanar Quaternions,
= rq, and t = ss
q = sr, s
301-307
SKCTION
On some
2.
........
Multiplication of Quaternions,
tive Principle,
SECTION
On some
3.
Additional Formulae,
....
313-317
nions, p. 313.]
BOOK
III.
NIONS,
CHAPTER
ON THE
I.
The
SECTION
first six
On
1.
a First
as a Quaternion,
[Art. 275-7,
vectors /3o =
HAMILTON
.....
Method
of Interpreting a
Introductory, p. 321.
:
Ra,
Art. 278,
tirst
Product of
Two
Vectors
p. 322.]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxvi
Pages
SECTION
On some Consequences
2.
322-328
vectors.
Examples.
2
reciprocal of a vector a
= - To 2
Ra = - =
Square and
Art. 282,
Examples on spheres,
p. 326.]
where
a
interpretation treats the product j3 a, as equal to the quotient
Ea) is the previously defined Reciprocal (II. ii. 7) of the vector a, namely a second
which has an inverse length, and an opposite direction. Multiplication of Vectors is
1
cT 1 (or
vector,
thus proved to be
and some geometrical applications of this fertile principle, to spheres, &c., are
of the Eight Part of a Product of Two Coinitial Vectors, OA, OB, is
proved to be a right line, perpendicular to the Plane of the Triangle OAB, and representing
by its length the Double Area of that triangle while the Rotation round this Index, from
length
The Index
given.
when
product vanishes,
Saj8,
when they
positive.
are rectangular.
.......
On
SECTION
a
is,
3.
I.
[Art. 283,
Iv
v v
#a,
is
v.
Iv
of
329-330
It , if
IV. EIv
substantially identical
4.
On the Symbolical Identification of a Eight Quaternion with its
own Index and on the Construction of a Product of Two Rectangular
SECTION
Lines,
by
.....
331-334
How
[Art. 285,
sible? p. 331.
SECTION
5.
On some
two rectangular
..........
Right Yersor,
Ax. = UV,
In this second interpretation, which is found to agree in all its results with the first,
is better adapted to an extension of the theory, as in the following Sections, to
ternary products of vectors, a product, of two vectors is treated as the product of the two
It is shown that, on
quaternions, of which those vectors are the indices (II. i. 5).
but
right
the same plan, the
Sum
is
a Quaternion.
334-337
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
6.
On
xxvii
Pages
..........
as a Quaternion,
337-356
Cartesian expressions.
Product of any number of vectors, p. 344.
Anharmonic
the product of sides of polygons inscribed in a sphere.
On
functions, p. 347.]
This interpretation
is
affected
ix
+jy +
kz
(C)
which i,j, k are the peculiar symbols already considered (II. i. 10), but are regarded
now as denoting Three Rectangular Vector-units, while the three scalars x, y, z are simply
rectangular co-ordinates; from the known theory of which last, ilhistrations of results
are derived.
The Scalar of the Product of Three coinitial Vectors, OA, OB, oc, is found
to represent, with a sign depending on the direction of a rotation, the Volume of the
so that it vanishes when they are complanar.
Parallelepiped under these three lines
Constructions are given also for products of successive sides of triangles, and other closed
in
- 870
- /3S 7 a + 780)8
= S)87/? + 0Syap + 780)8?
(380)87
pSa)87 = V07Sop + V7oSp + Vo0Sp7
V 7Vo =
.
VyjSa
08)87
08)87
(D)
(E)
(F)
in
which
(G)
SECTION
7.
On
356-379
[Art. 297, The Quaternion fourth proportional to three diplanar vectors fia~ y.
Areas of spherical triangles and polygons, p. 356. Art. 298, Modifications when the
sides of the triangle are
Art. 299, Exceptional case
greater than quadrants, p. 372.
l
of quadrantal
triangle.
vectors, p. 377.]
8.
On an Equivalent Interpretation of the Fourth Proportional
Three Diplanar Vectors, deduced from the Principles of the Second
379-393
Book, .
SECTION
to
...
[Art. 300,
By Book
II.
a)
7 =
Art. 301,
Before adopting
-7
a
=7
ft
if
a.
d2
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxviii
Pages
07/3
1,
p. 382.
Art. 302,
Two
and found
to be satisfied,
p. 382.
quaternion,
On
Method
SECTION
9.
the Third
Yectors as a Quaternion
....
These three Sections may be passed over, in a first reading. They contain, however,
theorems respecting composition of successive rotations (pp. 360, 361, see also p. 368)
expressions for the semi-area of a spherical polygon, or for half the opening of an arbitrary
pyramid, as the angle of a quaternion product, with an extension, by limits, to the
;
(p. 393), connecting a certain system of such (spherical) parallelograms with the foci of a
and the conception (pp. 384, 394) of a
spherical conic, inscribed in a certain quadrilateral
Fourth Unit in Space (u, or + 1), which is of a scalar rather than a vector character, as
;
SECTION 10.
On
[Art. 308,
quaternion
2C
2B
2A
the Interpretation of a
may
power of a vector
is
Power
of a
a quaternion,
p.
396.
Art. 309,
and a
n
7^ 0* a = -
It
may
be well to read this section (III. i. 10), especially for the Exponential
it establishes, between Quaternions and Spherical Trigonometry, or
Connexions which
........
may
suffice to
Supplementary formula,
It
of
p. 421.]
its first
In
this
421-429
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxix
Pages
of the
transcendental equation,
3
and
its
expression
found to be,
is
\q
in
which
lTq
+ /_q.UVq
(H)
is
usually to
Calculus, although they do not generally possess the elementary property, that the sum
of the logarithms of two quaternions is equal to the logarithm of their product : this
from the corresponding property of quaternion multiplication, which has been already
be
unless q and
not =
seen to be not generally a commutative operation (q
q"q
q"
And
complanar}.
q"
work
as closed.*
CHAPTER
ON
II.
It has
SECTION
1.
On
Chapter
may
be omitted in a
first
430-432
p. 432.]
SECTION 2.
Elementary Illustrations
Geometry,
of the Definition,
432-437
[Art. 322,
Illustration
from Algebra,
p. 432.
Art. 323,
And from
geometry,
p. 435.]
But it is shown at a later stage (Art. 401), that the principles of this
Calculus allow us, whenever any advantage may be thereby gained, to treat differentials
as infinitesimals; and so to abridge calculation, at least in many applications.
generally, small.
* If he should choose to
proceed to the Differential Calculus of Quaternions in the next
Chapter (III. ii.), and to the Geometrical and other Applications in the third Chapter
(III. iii.) of the present Book, it might be useful to read at this stage the last Section
(I. iii. 7) of the First Book, which treats of Differentials of Vectors (pp. 96-102); and
perhaps the omitted parts of, the Section II. i. 13, namely Articles 213-220, with their
sub-articles (pp. 220-242), which relate,
among other things, to a Construction of the
by the present Calculus. But the writer Mill now abstain from
making any further suggestions of this kind, after having indicated as above what
appeared to him a minimum course of study, amounting to rather less than 200 pages (or
parts of pages) of this Volume, which will be recapitulated for the convenience of the
Ellipsoid, suggested
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxx
Pages
SECTION
3.
On some
2
l
[Art. 324, Differential of j and of q~ , p. 438.
438-451
of a differential, p. 448.
and
differentials of functions
of functions.
SECTION
4.
Examples
of
....
Quaternion Differentiation,
451-464
U<7,
One
in situ
Examples,
461.]
p.
is,
The formula
(p.
439),
d?
Aq
(I)
(J)
Tq
and
(p. 454),
ya
^d*
\Jq
a*
is
(L)
It
q being any quaternion, and a any constant vector-unit, while t is a variable scalar.
is important to remember
(comp. III. i. 11), that we have not in quaternions the usual
equation,
dl*
^;
2
unless q
*, if p
equation, which
if
is
if
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
SECTION
On
5.
xxxi
Pagee
..........
of Quaternions,
Second
465-484
p. 465.
and
Taylor
series
differences, p. 479.
several quaternions.
extended to quaternions,
Art. 343,
p. 473.
p. 476.
In this Section principles are established (pp. 469-473), respecting quaternion functions
which vanish together and a form of development (pp. 473-475) is assigned, analogous*
to Taylor s Series, and like it capable of being concisely expressed by the symbolical
= e d (p. 480). As an example of partial and successive differentiation,
equation, 1 + A
;
= rWkj-*rt,
vector, is operated
on
deduce the
of portions thereof
together with the theorem, that the vector sum of the directed elements
of a spheric segment is zero: each element of surface being represented by an inward
normal, proportional to the elementary area, and corresponding in hydrostatics to the
;
6.
On the Differentiation of Implicit Functions of Quaternions
and on the General Inversion of a Linear Function, of a Vector or
a Quaternion
with some connected Investigations,
484-568
SECTION
346-347, The
<
Focal transformations,
equation, p. 560.]
In this Section
it is
= m - m + m ty* - 3
- m + 2 = ^,
w^r
<
<p
whence
m"(f>
(N)
* At a later
stage
new proof but still in
,
(Art. 375), a
a.
it
is
shown how
form adapted
(N
<J>
to quaternions.
to
deduce otherwise
Theorem
is
given, with a
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
xxxii
from
<p,
M=
m+mc+
m"c~
c3
m" .
The connected
algebraical
0,
(0)
S/>0A,
<j>
=
is
satisfied
(P)
0,
2
Op"
C",
7),
hy
in
namely (compare
(Q)
and
from their chief geometrical uses) are assigned, for the vector and scalar functions
one useful pair of such (cyclic) forms being, with real and constant values of g, A, /*,
(J>p
$p = gp
And
-f
VA/>,U,
gp
SAp/xp.
(R)
finally it is
quaternion,
q,
S/)0p
<J>,
simplified proof, of some of the chief results for this important case of selfis given at a later stage, in the few first sub-articles to Art. 415.
conjugation,
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
TABLE OF PAGES FOR THE FIGURES IN VOLUME
xxxiii
I.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
BOOK
I.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
SECTION
1.
ART.
1.
direction, is
and
its final
JEquality of Vectors.
said to be a
point B
VECTOR.
is
A vector AB is conceived to be
is
symbol
formity with this conception,
which will be found to be extensively useful, on account of the analogies which
:
it
and algebraical
A
the extreme points A and B are
operations.
distinct,
(or
an
When
the vector A B or B - A
effective)
vector
but when
said to be
is
or B -
results, is said to
A and A -
an actual
B-^
A_ B
(as
which then
vector
"
be
AA
or
A-
~~kevector.
A,
null.
and
revector.
AB and BA,
Successive
term
c of the second,
transvector.
consider
vector-arcs
and
vector-angles
but
at
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
and term
[I.
i.
1,2.
common
we may
so that
A-A
write,
B-B
= &c. =
other,
lengths,
If then
directions.
quently
bisecting
Conversely,
if
each
some point
in
other,
E.
D - E= E -
A,
and
commedial, or have a
two
- E = E -
lines
B,
AD and BC
E,
are
then
they be parts of one right line, the equaTwo radii, AB, AC, of any one
tion D-C = B-AIS satisfied.
can never be equal vectors ; because their directions differ.
even
if
3.
An
A -
then
or in symbols,
- C = B -
and
an
equidifference of points,
if
A,
D - B = c -
A.
B
Fig.
Two
B,
5.
Fig.
vectors, CD
also equal to
three parallel edges of a prism.
6.
in general, the
ARTS. 2-5.]
SECTION
4.
In order to be able
we next
to write, as in algebra,
with
is co-initial
- A) =
(B
when a
define, that
AC which
- A
(c
first
to the
first
vector AB
- A =
if
B,
c - A,
subtracted
is
it,
term B of the
2.
Differences and
On
is
term
is
is
equal to that
so that if a vector be
is
(B
opposite vections,
A)
= (A - A) -
we have
-
(B
the formula,
= A - B
A)
so that,
der
is
if
5.
Aiming
still
at
-a
which we
we may
write, as in
(b
a)
while relatively to
so that
a.
in
+ a =
-a
is
and
-,
b,
added to
and that
their
sum
is b,
they may
two following consequences
I. If a rector, AB or B - A, be added to
it
term B (Art. 1)
II. If
Q,
its
own
origin A, the
sum
is
its
and
pro-vector
sum
is
or in symbols,
I.
In
fact,
the
(B
first
A)
+ A = B
equation
is
and
II.
(c
B)
+ (B - A) = c -
A.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
the concep
2, 3.
i.
[I.
is
a result
of the
(c
It
is
A)
(B
= c -
A)
B.
and
revector) is
two
of
a null
BA + AB =
line
0, or
(A
so that
B)
(B
A)
0.
more
B - A = B -
and
A,
Fi 8- 7
fully that
- B =
then c - A = c - A
B,
(c
we
+ (B - A) = c -
the
to
sive
third to the
BV be
first,
first
the
and
if
B,
is
- B = c -
two successive
third vector
A, if c
first to
sum
is
the term c of
of
any two
co-
is
the
Fig.
8.
(c
A) + (B
A)
= D -
A, if
D -
= B - A
because
7.
|3
]3
a.
value
which
is
independent
equal vectors, the sums are equal vectors, even if the summands be not given
as successive (comp. 5) ; and if a null vector be added to an actual vector, the
sum
is
or,
in symbols,
+ a =
+ a to +
a.
a,
If then
and
if
we
still
agree to
denote a
AETS. 5-9.]
then +
vector,
we
a,
and
-f
and
-(-a)= + a,
=-(+)= -a,
+ (-a)
SECTION
On Sums of three
The sum
8.
(+ a)
+ (-
a)
0,
&c.
3.
or more Vectors.
/3,
7,
is
fourth vector,
S =7
which
and in
the
is
(|3
-f
a),
or briefly,
=7 +
j3
a,
obtained
like
last to
sum 8
and
so
+ (7 +
on
13
for
BD of the (plane or
gauche) quadrilateral ABCD, and may then at plea
fig.
9) the
two
diagonals AC,
sum
of AB, BD, or as
we
the equation,
a +
|3
a,
which had been previously established for the case of any two such sum
mands, it is easy to conclude that the Addition of Vectors is always both an
Associative
number of given
the
of the
also
sum
remain
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
i.
3, 4.
unchanged
when
[I.
about to consider.
When any
arranged in
may
sides
successive
be
made
a
of
thus equal
any
any order, by transports without rotation) the
of
(in
is
polygon (plane or
closed
Hence,
gauche).
with an arbitrary
number of
be equal
initial point
AB
sides,
EA
which new
For example,
if
we
Fig. 10.
sides shall
EA, taken in
any
arbitrary order.
A B =
CD,
B C = AB,
D =
DE =
EA,
line E A
BC,
DE
of the first
figure (P).
11. Since a closed figure
projected
ABC
is still
a closed one,
when
all its
points are
parallel ordinates
jected figure A B C
to vanish),
may happen
it
number of given
be zero, and if we project them all
vectors a, ]3, 7,
on any one plane by parallel lines drawn from their
extremities, the sum of ihe projected vectors a j3 7
follows that
if
Fi S- 1L
be so placed as to become the
of a closed polygon, even if they be not already such.
is considered as such a polygon, namely, as a triangle
11,
A"B"C"
evanescent area
as well as
AB +
sV +
A -
B"C"
0,
C"A"
0,
and AB + BC + CA =
0.)
(In
icitli
ARTS. 9-13.]
SECTION
On
The
12.
(+ 1) a
a,
in like
or (+ 2)
regarded as a
a,
4.
Coefficients of Vectors.
and
is
also
denoted by la, or by 1 a, or by
a, is denoted by 2a, or
.
&c.
coefficient
la +
ma =
(1
+ m) a;
because
by the
la + Oa = (1 + 0) a = la =
rule,
a,
and
Oa = a - a =
0.
= Oa = 0, we have (- 1) a = - a
1) a
Again, because (1) a + (- 1) a = (1
= - a == (1 - 2) a = (- 1) a = - a,
a
+
since
in
like
manner,
(- 2) a
(1)
(la)
=
=
we infer that (- 2) a
a
a
and generally (- m) a = - (ma),
(2a)
;
m may
be
so that
of
- la,
confusion, omit the parentheses in these last symbols, and write simply,
2a,
- ma.
Fig. 12.
null)
by
may be
and
/3,
represented
by
we have always,
na
and (compare
ma =
(n
and
n,
vectors
may be
denoted
m)
a,
fig. 12),
m ()3
a)
= mf3
ma
ELEMENTS OP QUATEKNTONS.
10
numbers
[I.
4.
i.
soon be removed.
ma =
14. If
a multiple of a
the coefficient
]3,
;
and conversely
being
still
multiple of a vector is
7 = na then 7
9
is
be a sub-multiple of ]3.
said to be & fraction of that vector
a fraction of
which
]3,
is
be different from
multiple of a sub-
thus, if
/3
said to be multiplied
by the
fractional coefficient
It follows that if x
vectors,
x} a,
(xa)
(yx) a
yxa>
results
and 7
said to be the
is
then
xa = (y
ya
]3; also j3
"^
be any two
= ma, and
denoted as follows, 7 =
40
is
be
may
a)
(]3
xa
a?]3
coefficients,
ones.
For any
15.
actual vector
and
a,
for
coefficient
any
of
any
of the
/3,
[3
each of
write
one
if
[|
0,
<
becoming
null if x
with directions
vectors,
/3
0.
>
Conversely,
line],
we can always
and
find, or conceive as
|3
= xa
or, as
we
found, a
coefficient
it, /3
bear to + 1 the
positive or negative number x, so found, will
ratio, as that which the length of the line /3 bears to the length of a.
and the
results,
Hence
it is
from the
of the vector
division
coefficient
shall
we
0,
<
= ax
and
to write,
)3
-f
a,
or x =
or x =
a,
vector,
same
~
x =
an actual
is
/3,
accordingly,
so that
if
a (because both are then parallel, in the usual sense of the word, to
common
16.
but
0,
and
(|3
the dividend-line
if
a)
= -a =
a
j3,
|3
and
be
a =
definition, to
= x
a
ARTS. 13-17.]
We may
vectors.
number x
we
division of
shall
The
8
-
17.
0&
is
so that
11
x = (ax =) p,
by the
identities,
ax
and
]3
a.
= -, which
is
also be called a
sense constructed,
one
common
A
AC
=
B A
AB
c
where the
scalars are,
annexed).
therefore,
quantities) of
work
Such
In
-Tiff.
to
13*
fact it
will be
"
is
a QUATERNION.
c 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
12
CHAPTER
[I.
ir.
1,2.
II.
SECTION
On Linear Equations
18.
WHEN
o,
and future
that point
as OA,
such
vector,
point
sections
1.
are all
is
In the present
the
be
not expressed,
contrary
always suppose,
which we may have occasion to consider, are thus
is
we
shall
a, ]3,
if
origin.
But
if it
o,
vectors a
]3
a = OA =
A- o =
and
j3,
(A
o)
For example, we
(o
o)
to
an
have
such as x
shall
= OA - oo = a - w.
if
o>,
j3
~~I?
some
is
xa, interpreted
B
origin 9 expresses the condition of collinearity, of the points o, A,
20.
The
whereof the
linear equation,
aa +
where a and
OA
is
the
o.
the
and
A,
locus.
/3,
acquires a
bfl
ratio is important.
AETS. 18-21.]
The
x=
1, is
now
answering above to
more symmetrically,
or,
B,
13
a + b = 0.
Accordingly,
when
a=-
b,
b(f$
a)
or
0,
]3
a = 0,
we do not suppose
B = A
coincident points
In general,
OA +
OB =
and therefore
0,
SECTION
b(3
and
= BO
OA.
Co-initial Vectors.
equation of the
2.
with any
0,
whatever, their
directions can neither be similar nor opposite
to each
other
plane AOB, in
sum by
third scalar,
and 7 = oc
is
aa +
and
if
some
c is
some third
15
vector,
/3,
bfi
7, are connected
+ cy =
by the
linear equation,
we make
~~
OA _
OJ3
_
c
and we
oc = OA + OB
so that the figure
A OB
is
shall
on the two
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
14
22. Conversely, if c be
ordinates,
CA and CB
w?/
pom
to the lines
a, b, c,
OA and
OB,
so as to satisfy the
[I.
ii.
2.
it
the
ratios of
two equations,
OA
OB
OA
OB
which we shall have the recent expressions for OA OB with the relation
=
oc OA + OB as before and shall thus be brought back to the linear equation
= 0, which equation may therefore be said to
+
the condition
aa +
after
express
cy
bj3
of complanarity of the four points,
And
o, A, B, c.
we
if
write
it
under the
form,
xa +
+ %y =
2/j3
0,
/3
then be the
is
23. It may happen that the point c is situated on the right line AB, which
here considered as a given one.
In that case (comp. Art. 17, fig. 13), the
AC
must be equal
quotient
to
some
scalar,
suppose
so that
we
shall
have an
or y = a
t,
by comparing which
f>
n*.
(j3
or (1 -
a),
last
we
t)
a +
tfi
y =
linear
0.
This condition
*.
k*. f
and under
known
24.
or
this last
form
OA
it
OB
Fig. 16.
is
otherwise
to exist.
When we
and may
fy3
+ cy =
0,
co-initial vectors
and
a,
]3,
a + b +
0,
if
we
line,
eliminate,
ARTS. 22-25.]
successively
b,
c,
15
we
are conducted
a)
c (y
a)
a (a
c (y
0,
7)
+ a
j3)
=
7)
(]3
(a
|3)
0,
or
Hence
#.AB
We
might
also
= BC
CA
and
+ #. CB.
segments,
AB.
bfi
+ aa
_ cy
+ cy
aa +
bfi
whence
AC - 7 - a
b
=
~
-a
AB
a
+
p
25. If
we
still
treat a
and
j3
= -
-,
&c.
y and oc as
variable, the
equation
right line AB, or that it has this line for its locus
variable quotient
7
then, in like manner,
we
shall
"
we agree
to
is,
+ y$
x + y
ratio of segments,
/
*
C B
then,
indefinite
of a
AC
If,
on the
H.
and
line,
_=
it
CB
while
collinear points,
the notation,
(ABCD) =
AB CD
AB AD
=
BC DA
BC DC
.
(ABCD),
may
be said
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
16
A, B, c,
we
[I. n.
2.
in the present
shall have,
ACBC
AC
,.
AC
26.
When
becomes
(as is
= yx
-?c B
CB
xy
_ xa + yfi
x + y
_xa-
yfi
x - y
the two points c and c are harmonically conjugate to each other, with respect
and when they vary together, in consequence
to the two given points, A and B
;
11
they form
-,
(in
we denote by
point
its
^~Q
--g
JJL
f3
Fig. 17.
=
fj.
JUL
or
a,
ju
= \
(a
|3),
we
MC _ MB
y-ju_^-#_/3-ju
y +
j3-ju
so that the rectangle
gate points,
square
of
generally,
c,
under the
we
interval
MB
distances MC,
half the
if
- M
y
JC
MC
of the
MC"
two
A, B.
points,
More
write
_
x + y
I
Ix
my
iix*
-,
is
any constant
scalar,
then in another
xy
More generally
still, if
xa +
we
establish the
,
1/8
Ixa
x + y
-
being
still
constant, but
lines,
variable points c
and
not
Ix
variable, while a
AB and A B
two equations
+
+ my
= OA
|3
= OB
and 7 = oc
by the
move along one common line.
now supposed
M.
to
Chasles, p. 107.
(Paris, 1852.)
two
ARTS. 25-27.]
27.
"When
tion a + b
+ cy =
subsists, without the rela
three co-initial vectors
the
coefficients, then
between
its
17
bfl
7 are
still
A = OA
that
is
B = OB
BC,
CA,
= OC AB
which the
lines
The
opposite sides.
OAA
three colUneations
&c.,
|3
7 =
f/|3,
27,
where #,
linear equation,
linear equation
and equating
which
results,
to zero the
we
7,
/3,
b/3
each in
+ cy =
its
turn,
-a
y =
b
z
F.
+
new
namely,
arW +
and eliminating similarly
sum
-t
in either of the
, _
7 ~ a+
+a
or
+ aa
II.
b
In
fact
we
and by the
on the line
sions for a,
see,
by
+ a
As another
same vector a
verification,
we may
that
is
on the
line
OA
7 coincide with those which were found in Art. 24, for a, )3, 7
on
the particular supposition that the three
themselves,
points A, B, c were
/3
collinear.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
18
28.
We may
and we
/3
BA _
r
whence we obtain
c~
CB _ a
7
B !"?
at once the
known
BA
AC
AC
C B
It
o.
is
CB
AC
BA
CB
coefficients
BB
2.
may
[I. n.
and
cc
in a
common
ratios of segments,
areas,
in which we must, in
general, attend to algebraic sigm ; a triangle being
conceived to pass (through zero) from positive to negative, or vice versa, as com
pared with any given triangle in its own plane, when (in the course of any
continuous change) its vertex crosses its base.
It may be observed that with
this convention
(which
generalformula) we
is,
have, for
ABC + BAG =
exactly as
we had
(in
AB + BA =
More
fully,
we
0,
0.
triangles, ABC,
two
A B
bear
rotations,
to
which
may
be conceived to be
a = b =
directed.
c,
and
c bisects
AB
ARTS. 28-30.]
is
j3
At
o.
first
19
7 become,
~
7 -
whence
this other
known theorem
results, that
other.
30.
The
linear equation
between
a, |3,
7 reduces
itself,
a +
the three vectors
|3
+ 7 =
a, |3, 7,
or OA + OB + oc =
0,
by
without
transports
accordingly,
if
we complete
rotation
and
JTl.
OA,
we
shall
linear equation,
or,
OA+
and
in fact
it is
have
A /}
B,,
cy
We
shall
where
a/
- a =
^enoe
or the ordinate of the
Fi
o^ -
OA =
(oy A
AA,)
(oo y + O,A) =
20>
AAX -
oo,;
mean point of a
triangle is the
mean of the
ordinates of
three corners.
tht
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
20
SECTION
a, b, c
c"
do
Resuming
more general
the
triangle
or
B C
may
3.
Nets.
we may next
inquire, in
n.
3.
On Plane Geometrical
31.
[I.
a",
]3",
7"
what points
A",
B",
The
first
|3
-CA,
\c"
(c
a) /3
bfi
0,
(a
b)
(c
7 + cy =
whence
b(3-cy _
b - c
(a
+
(a
b)
y
b)
(c
a) fi
a)
but (by 25) one member is the vector of a point on BC, and the other of a
and similarly
of
each therefore is a value for the vector
point on B C
a"
A",
for
]3"
and
7".
We may
b(3
-
therefore write,
cy
_cy -aa
c-a
_ aa
we
bfi
a-b
.
!
set of values of
A",
known
B",
to be)
/3
c"
AKTS. 31-33.]
B, c
= (CB
CA")
= (AC
AB")
And
a",
|3",
BC")
c,
= -
A,
21
so that, in the
1.
7"
-<>,
(6
between
the recent
_ a +
)
(a
B",
line
A"BV
ABC
sides of a triangle
A"C
CB
the
represent any rectilinear transversal, cutting
may
/r
.,
BA^ ~ a -/3
,
b)
c"
A",
21.
fig.
The
32.
we
its coefficients,
c)
AC
a"
b
-, as before,
CB
B
and 7
j3
AC
BA"
I77^
c7B
results.
and 7 between,
j3
with the help of the given linear equation, we arrive at this other
equation, connecting the three vectors a, ]3 7
,
= - aa +
(c
a) |3
(a
b}
if (as
in
fig.
"
= OA
BC
"
new
= OB
"
cV,
aa
W"
>
A B
^0
~2b
///
c+a
~~2c + a + b
or
nf.f
r*
find
first is
= oc
points of intersection
"
we
we make,
21)
a, j3, 7,
2aa + bQ + cy
^
*
*.
,.,.,
/*
2bfi
+ cy + aa
*y
2cy
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBNIONS.
22
And
(b
c)
(2b + c + a)
"_
fi
(2c
"+
as indicated
",
we have
(a
b)
and
respect to B
c",
3>
4.
"=
0,
coefficients
and
we may
(25, 31),
(B
we
(c
collineations,
(a
a]
A",
b)
A"B
"C
B"C"
A"
",
Also, because
(c
a)
"
two other
compared with c
",
employed
two points
and
__
we
b)
by
one,
+ a +
is
[i.
A and with A
pairs of points,
B",
",
write,
"C
A")
(C
B"
B")
= (A We") = -
1.
and
begin, as above,
new
new
new
lines,
and then by a
we may connect
by three
lines, six
points,
A",
points,
these
".
We
points,
fig.
might
by sixteen new
three should be
21),
of
lines, or lines of
a Third Construc
may
be continued, so
common property
ma
+ zcy
xa + yb + zc
where the
coefficients x, y, z
are
ylfi
In
fact
we
31, 33) that such expressions can be assigned for the nine derived vectors,
*
By
Prof. A. F. MOBIUS, in page 274 of his Barycentric Calculus (der barycentrische Calcul,
Leipzig, 1827).
ARTS. 33-35.]
a
",
and
23
it is
not
difficult
to perceive,
connected results will become more completely evident, and their geometrical
signification will be better understood, after a somewhat closer consideration
of anharmonic quotients, and. the introduction of a certain system of (inharmonic
co-ordinates, for points
and
lines in
any applications
of the
same theory
to
space.
SECTION
On Anharmonic
35. If
equations
4.
the corresponding
on the side BC of
CA",
B A
"C
A",
the point o
and similarly
More
ABCD, be any pencil, with the point o for certex ; and let
in
the new ray OD be cut, as in fig. 22,
by the three sides of the triangle ABC,
the three points A I} B l5 d
let also
oc, OD, or briefly o
zcy
VAl
so that (by 25)
we
shall
Ul
yo + zc
and
let
equation (27),
aa +
+ cy =
b(3
0,
oc.
71
y) fy3
+ zaa
"
(-*)**
are,
/3i
and
7,,
//Q>
with
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
24
[I. n.
4.
we have the
relations,
But
in general, for
any four
+ (BA
ACI)
collinear points A, B,
CAI)
c, D,
1.
it is
not
difficult to
prove that
AB
BC
whence by the
AC
CD +
Bl)
= DA
following identity
is
derived,
=
(ABCD) + (ACBD)
Comparing
CB
this, then,
1.
(CAB
B!)
fig.
22,
= (CA BA
X)
and we
was
to be expected
We
at the
of the
same time the Anharmonic of a Pencil ; and, with attention to the order
rays, and to the definition (25), may denote the two last anharmonics
reciprocal expressions
At
(o
CABD)
= ;
(o
BACD)
= -
is
changed
it
being
line.
36.
The
expression (34),
may
represent the vector of any point p in the given plane, by a suitable choice
ARTS. 35-36.]
of the coefficients x,
For
z,
i/,
25
or
which gives
aa + b
Q+
a + b +
we have only
c>
to write
and the proposed expression for p will be obtained. Hence it is easy to infer,
on principles already explained, that if we write (compare the annexed
fig. 23),
PI
we
shall have,
= PA
P 2 = PB
BC,
or p ly
_
=
P 3 = PC AB,
pl
CA,
ybfi
/o 2 ,
of these three
c
zcy + xaa
+ zcy
_ xaa
p3
+ ybfS
A
which give at once the following anharmonics of
Fig. 23.
pencils, or of groups,
(A
BOCP)
(B
COAP)
(c
AOBP)
= (BA
CPI)
=-
x
;
y
whereof we see that the product
is
unity.
given
and therefore
proportional
to
those pencils,
when
Any
may
it
may
HAMILTON
ELEMKNTS OF QUATERNIONS.
?/,
z}.
ANHARMONIC CO-ORDINATES
and
origin
of
while the point P
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
26
With this
A"
"
(1, 0, 0),
(0, 1, 1)
(0, 1,
(2, 1, 1),
37. If PI
if
(1, 0, 1),
1, 0, 1),
For,
"
(1, 2, 1),
(1, 1, 0)
(1,
(I, 1, 1)
1, 0)
(1, 1, 2).
P2 =
(a?,
a),
y*>
tXi
p^.
c"
o =
(0, 0, 1),
4.
P =
right line
is collinear
and
"
fig.
(0, 1, 0),
= (-
B"
1),
[I. n.
(in
other words)
situated on the
is
we make
if
and
x^aa +
x^a +
x z aa +
x*a +
xaa +
xa +
(x^a
.)
pi
+ u
sum
(x z a
.)
pz
of the coefficients
P2
PI,
unless
its
(xa
by the
+
is zero.
.)
linear equation,
must
which, in the
may
known notation
of determinants,
be thus written,
or,
more
x,
y,
<TI,
2/1,
z
1
fully,
or briefly
where
/,
lx
my
scalars,
-f
nz,
A and we
;
shall find
it
AETS. 36-39.]
the
coefficients
of that
Line
line
may
also be denoted
A
38.
n, in that equation, as
m,
Z,
which
m,
[/,
27
by the Symbol,
].
AB
have
x =
and
y =
0,
0,
[0, 1,
lines B C
A",
y +
-# =
[-
1],
C",
fig.
-x =
0,
AB
B",
[0, 0, 1].
[0, 1, 0],
The
The
0,
x - y=
0,
1, 0, 1],
[1,
0,
1, 0].
+ v - y =
0,
0,
H-
0,
or
A"B
B"C
"C
",
2/
",
s-3#
[-
line
A"B"C"
0,
of
what
of the
same
manner
+ # - 3y =
[1,
x + y - 3z =
0,
3, 1],
[1, 1,
3]
Q,
is
we may remark
is
",
3, 1, 1],
x + y +
Finally,
"B
represented
and the
C"A
"A
[1,1,-!];
[I,-!,!],
[-1,1,1],
the lines
0,
that on the
or
[1,1, 1].
often called the line at infinity, or of the locus of all the infinitely
ax + by +
cz
0,
and
[a, b, c]
an
infinite distance
o,
(37)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
28
[I. n.
^ =
0,
0, z
4, 5.
(38),
may
L =
But we had
(0, n,
it is
= (-
N =
O,/);
n,
(tn,
/,
0).
A"=(0,
whence
- w)
1,-1);
B"-(-
1,0,1);
c"=(l,-l, 0);
"
L-
"
"
(CB"AM)
(AC"BN)
1.
is easily
A"B"C"
equations,
BA"
CB"
AC"
A"C
B"A
C"B
BL
CM
LC
MA NB
We
might therefore in
AN _
~
latter,
this
led, without
I,
any
m,
n,
defined as
-,
and then
it
(CB"AM),
(AC"BN)
scalars,
/,
m, n
(or
any
others proportional thereto), are sufficient to determine the position of the right
line A, or LMN, considered as a transversal of the
given triangle ABC so that
:
they might naturally have been called, on this account, as above, the anharmonic co-ordinates of that line. But although the anharmonic co-ordinates of
a point and of a line may thus be independently defined, yet the geometrical
utility of such definitions will be found to depend mainly on their combination :
or on the formula Ix +
my +
nz =
of 37,
which
may
at pleasure be considered
some
ABTS. 39-42.]
41. If AI
A2
or (in
may
infinite distance),
where
I,
and u are
given plane,
lines in the
29
in the
the inter
finite or
scalar coefficients.
the equation
37),
/.
must be
if
satisfied
because,
- n\m^) + &c.
(ftiift?
if
IX +
must
mY+ nZ =
Y+
n,Z =
l,X +
0,
Y + n Z = 0,
2
Conversely, this co- existence will be possible, and the three lines
point (which may be infinitely distant), if the recent
co-exist.
have a
will
l,X + m,
0,
common
\_a,
b, c]
has been
seen (in 38) to be the symbol of the line at infinity (at least if we still retain
the same significations of the scalars a, b, c as in Articles 27, &c.), it follows
that
A =
are symbols of
all
m,
[/,
n],
two parallel
and
lines ;
[I
+ ua,
ub,
n +
uc~],
infinity.
In general,
when
between
eliminations
treated
by
this
the mechanism of such calculations being for the most part the
known method
of trilinear co-ordinates
although
(as
we have
SECTION
On Plane Geometrical
42. If
we now
geometrical
nets,
resume, for a
and
tively,
which have
lines, in
Nets, resumed.
points
5.
lines,
respec
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
30
numbers
is
irrational, or that
it is
when
its
integers
it
we may assume
is
we
5.
lines
[I. n.
wards conduct
as initial,
c,
to
and
may
In fact?
be rational, in the sense just now defined.
and the subsequent eliminations (41) can never after
all
kind
two rational points being always a rational line and the point of
two rational lines being necessarily a rational point. The
assertion made in Art. 34 is therefore fully justified.
connects
intersection of
43. Conversely, every rational point of the given plane, with respect to the
four assumed initial points OABC, is a point of the net which those four points
determine. To prove this, it is evidently sufficient to show that every rational
=
point A!
(0, y, z),
constructed.
as in fig. 22,
Making,
= OAi
B!
we have
and
CA,
Ci
= OAi
AB,
B =
I
from which
it is
vV>
0,
y -
*),
(*,
y, 0)
C B!
BC =
(0, y, z
y},
BC =
CI
numbers y and
may
(0,
z, z)
z),
which
so that it
PiP 2 P 3
with
net-lines,
then writing
and
if
be
made
as small as
we may
desire.
coin
but
44. If p, p l5 p 2 be
of 37 apply,
by continuing the
x^a
may always
any
+ y^b +
ZiC
Vi,
x^a
y-J)
zz c
vz ,
ARTS. 42-45.]
we
shall
tVi
in
31
which the
coefficients tut
+ uv^pz
,_ fvipi
t Vi
Ul\
+ u
+
v-ipi
IIV*
ii
be.
may
We
xy^
&c.,
and similarly for every other group of the same kind. Hence every group of
four collinear net-points, and consequently also every pencil of four concurrent
net-lines, has a rational value for its anharmonic function ;
four
initial points
It
initial constants, a, b,
was thus
</"
c,
were
all
which
harmonic
may
45.
of transformation of
anharmonic co-ordinates, we may already see that if we select any four netpoints GI, AI, BI, GI, of which no three are collinear, every other point p of the
same net is rationally related (42) to these; because (by 44) the three new
anharmonics of pencils,
(AI
SiO^p) =
Si
are
&c.,
rational:
and therefore
if
or, in
its
p. 362.
t This theorem (45) of the possible reconstruction of a plane net, from anyone of its quadrilaterals,
and the theorem (43) respecting the possibility of indefinitely approaching by net-lines to the points
above called irrational (42), without ever reaching such points by any processes of linear construction
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
32
interstice in fig. 24)
[I.
As an example, we may
be known.
5, 6.
four points OA B C in fig. 21 are given, and that it is required to recover from
them the three points ABC, which had previously been among the data of the
For
construction.
this purpose, it is
A"
",
points A, B,
c,
*
B"
c",
",
as the intersections
A",
B",
c",
as B C
B"
",
&c.
after
which the
as intersections of
known
right lines.
SECTION
6.
46.
When,
in the expressions
34 or 36 for a variable
a?, ?/,
vector p
= OP, the
z are connected
by any
fp (x,
y, *)
0,
th
supposed to be rational and integral, and homogeneous of the p degree, then
the locus of the tewn P (Art. 1) of that vector is a plane curve of the_p** order;
is
it
cut in
For example,
if
we
write
t
where
the
t,
sum
u, v are three
is zero,
then,
new
by
aa + u*bft + v*cy
"W+M +
tfc
we
x = P,
we
y =
u*,
z
,
+ u + v =
0,
=fp =
so that here
p=
2,
x*+y*
- %xy
of P is a conic section.
In
fact, it is
the conic
which touches the sides of the given triangle ABC, at the points above called A ,
=
for if we seek its intersections with the side BC, by making x
B c
^38),
,
of the land here considered, have been taken, as regards their substance (although investigated by a
treatise of MOBIUS, which was referred to in a
totally different analysis), from that highly original
former note
(p. 22).
upon
nets in space.
AETS. 45-48.]
CUBYES.
33
we
for the
two other
sides.
lines
AA
BB
cc concur, be
then
all
cut internally,
by the points A B
,
b, c
so that
and the
t,
render
infinite
u, v
The
that vector p.
conic is therefore
an
25,
fig.
inscribed
inscribed circle,
when
or 1
b~
l
:
c~
- a
- b
48.
But
Fig. 25.
if
ABC, so that two of its sides are cut externally, then two of the three ratios of
be treated as
b
will
<
>
0,
0,
>
0,
AA
bola,
circle)
a + b
0,
fig.
ellipse
>
if
0,
b, c
we suppose
>
itself,
prolonged, as in
<
Thus
0.
>
constants a,
may
that
0,
o will be on the
26; and
(including
or a parabola, or an hyper
c) t*
+ 2ctu +
(b
c)
u2 =
0,
and
or Illrd, real
Fig. 26.
is,
according as
we have
be
+ ca
HAMILTON
is
b~
ab
-f
>
0,
or =
0,
or
<
-f
c~
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
l
<
0,
or = 0,
or
>
0.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
34
For example,
known
if
ratios of
[I.
is
n.
circle,
6.
the
b~ l
c~
= -
- b
and
-s + s-c +
More
49.
if
generally,
be
c,
AC = CB
we
<
ing as cy c
which
AB
AB
AC = a +
an
ellipse, parabola, or
still,
hyperbola, accord
represented in
is
trically, if
>
and
c,
or = or
<
cc, is
AB = - a
s-b<0.
falls, 1st,
or Ilnd, on that
is
is
0,
<?
>
+ b
0,
c<0,
the point A
c)
-f
be
<
(b
is still
upon the
side BC
and
be
itself,
but
<
0,
is
before.
50.
conic
When
is
its
case
when
roots real
t,
And
equation,
<?&
f=
(46),
the
may
so that the
be found, by
for
we
and unequal,
same
drawn from
o, so as to
meet the
may
so as to inquire (on
known
principles of
or cuts
it,
TANGENTS POLAKS.
DIFFERENTIALS
AKTS. 48-52.]
be considered as
line
it,
real.
51. In general,
if /(a?, y, z)
35
and
the differen
if
y, z)
d/>,
Xdx
Fdy + Zdz
then because, by the supposed homogeneity (46) of the function/, we have the
relation
Xx
we
shall
have also
Xx
x
if
0,
this other
+ Ty + Zz =
Ty + Zz =
y - y
f
0,
= dx
dy
dz
that
is
written,
or
[X, Y, Z},
V,
[D,/,
D,/]
f=
lately considered,
at
any point
of this curve
(x, y, z)
[x-y
may
(x
z),
y-z-x,
-z,
z-x-y]
proportional to them.
Thus
to the
tangent
at the point
may
or (by 36) at
(0,
1,1), which
is
evidently (by the form of /) a point upon the curve, the tangent is the line
that is (by 38), the side BC of the given triangle, as
[- 2, 0, 0], or [1, 0, 0]
;
(46).
And
in general
Y\ Z
~\
is (in
it is
(x, y, z),
is
Xx
+ Yy + Zz =
0,
* In the
theory of quaternions, as distinguished from (although including) that of vectors, it will
he found necessary to introduce a new definition of differentials, on account of the non-commutative
property of quaternion-multiplication : but, for the present, the usual significations of the signs d and
D are
sufficient.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
36
which for a
conic
may
be written as
x+
Y y + Z z = 0,
(#,
s)
?/,
t/ 9
z) is
is
which
(by known
6/3
satisfies
the conditions a~
which the
aa +
6.
it
n.
to a tangent
(#,
[I.
vector
+ cy =
OK
is
TC
by the help
easily reduced,
(b
X=
c,
b~
a, a
=
+
c~
b)
of
the form,
(27), to
(be
ca
+ ab)
with the verification that the denominator vanishes, by 48, when the conic is a
In the more general case, when this denominator is different from
parabola.
can be shown that every chord of the curve, which is drawn through
which point would
the extremity K of the vector K, is bisected at that point K
zero, it
therefore in this
recent articles,
we may,
cumscribed] conic, which passes through the three corners A, B, c of the given
The anharof fig. 21.
triangle, and touches there the lines AA", BB",
cc"
monic
equation of this
new
conic
is
+ zx + xy =
l/z
may
therefore be expressed as
follows,
t~
aa + u~ b3 +
l
v~ c
l
v~ c
+ u + v =
0,
as before.
The
vector of
its
centre K
is
found to be
~
a* +
2 a*a +
V3
p+ &_
2bc
- 2ca - 2ab
and
it is
an
two recent
ellipse,
vectors,
/c,
it
* If the curve
/= were of a degree higher than, the second, then the two equations above written
would represent what are called the jfirst polar, and the last or the line-polar, of the point (# y , z ),
with respect to the given curve.
,
ARTS. 52-55.]
centres K,
37
of the two conies here considered, passes through the point of con
AA
BB
cc
More
if
generally,
A = k
scalars
may
= P =
v
elimination of
t,
+ u +
u, v
suffice to
the three
ncy),
Pa +
u*b
an order higher
+
t
v*cy
v*c
3
,
3
y = u
3
,
we
find here
by
be taken
Paa + w 3 i]3 +
Making x -
0, as before.
(x
may
o, L,
with
+ mbfi +
(laa
line.
As an example
54.
A = k
+ mbj3 + ncy),
(la a
much
is
+ y +
z)
- 27xyz =
The mechanism
known
ABC are
briefly here that the sides of the given triangle
remark
(real) tangents
of inflexion ;
21
fig.
and the
B",
c"
origin of vectors
Fig>
A"B"C"
form represented in
fig.
27
having
27
the angles vertically opposite to those of the given triangle ABC, of which the
sides are the three asymptotes.
55. It
would be improper
any
details of discussion of
such cubic curves, for which the reader will naturally turn to other works. f
*
unity
&c.
Dublin, 1852.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
38
But
[I. n.
f>.
may
= 27 to/s,
where
= x + y +
shall
xyzs
in
which
it is
J=
not
PBP
%s
= x,y,z s 3.
,
difficult to
.
(A"
,*
3
B")
or
zs
ys
-.
^j
sx
sz
sy
prove that
PCP
(B"
C")
PAP
.
(c"
A")
We
obtain there
the notation (35) of anharmonics of pencils being retained.
the
sides
fore thus the following Theorem :
If
of any given plane* triangle
"
ABC
any given
PBP
B")
(B"
PCP
A",
c"
B",
for
AB of the
rectilinear transversal,
its plane
.
C")
(c"
common
PAP
=
A")
56.
degree
Whatever the
of the function
any point P =
f in
(x, y, z} is
[/,
we saw
46,
if
any
1,
its
its
and
triangle for
seems to offer a new geometrical generation for curves of
BC, CA,
A"B"C",
anharmonic relation
may
and has
";
the sides
a result which
be, or
whatever
may
be the
m, n],
if
D^/,
D/,
n = D,/;
If then,
mdy + ndz =
by elimination
xdl +
0,
of the ratios of x, y,
z,
y&m
we
+ zdn =
0.
= p
* This
(D,/,
V,
scarcely
D a /),
to spherical curves,
ANHAEMOMC PEOPEETY
AETS. 55-57.]
as one that
(although
we
tion),
is
it
OF CUBIC CUEVES.
may
39
f unction
/=
this elimina
by
shall
F
that must be
as a condition
m, n) =
(/,
0,
line.
differential equations.
dp
we
see that
x y
:
= D?F
we may
n)
x&l +
0,
ydm
+ z&n =
D W F,
(D/F,
A,
locus
to the local
of a point p
/=
equation
0,
Dm F
m,
(/,
m,
,]
in
if (x, y, z)
any one
of
its
is its envelope.
0, of
0,
we
since, if
[I,
D W F, DF),
obtain,
by elimination
of the ratios of
/,
m,
n,
if
it
And when
tional.
the functions
them
/ and
(as
we
to be),
function/) or of the local equation, marks (as before) the order of the curve,
the degree of the other homogeneous function F, or of the tangential equation
F =
0, is easily
(as,
and older methods, it might have been expected to do), the class of
the curve to which that equation belongs or the number of tangents (distinct
of other
or coincident,
and
real
As an example
57.
equations,
/ = x -
where
its
I,
Art. 46,
z,
plane.
(comp. 52),
to that curve,
x,
we
if
n =
eliminate
- x -
y,
Ix
x,
y,
my +
between the
nz = 0,
we
(I,
m,
n)
mn
+ nl + Im =
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
40
among
co-ordinates of contact x, y,
x = U/F =
as follows
z,
an
m,
from
/,
as before
/ = yz + zx + xy =
f=
and
= D xf = y +
0, of 46.
we can
z,
n = x +
= z + xy
now
In
like
y,
so obtain
tangential
local equation
by
6.
it
if this
Conversely,
derive
y = n +
+ n,
0, 0],
|_I.
And
my
+ nz =
0,
as
we suppose
right line
A"B"C",
x + y +
tion
the set
/,
or [1,
m,
n, or
1, 1],
turns
also as the
:
according
the set x, y,
of fig.
line
z,
to be given.
(1, 1, 1),
may
must
I,
+ n =
m, n of every
line,
may
this
point o,
be seen exemplified, in
yh
%%
we may
=
;
* This name of
tangential co-ordinates" appears to have been first introduced hy Dr. Booth in a
Tract published in 1840, to which the author of the present Elements cannot now more particularly
See the reference in Salmon s
but the system of Dr. Booth was entirely different from his own.
refer
Higher Plane Curves, note to page 16.
"
AETS. 57-59.]
41
are
I
or*,
n =
y~%,
so that a
/-i
-i
+ n
-i
z~$
this conic
= o
is,
which evidently, when cleared of fractions, agrees with the first form of the
with the verification (48) that a~ + b~ + c~ = when the curve is a
l
last Article
parabola
that
is,
ar 1
whence
it is
allowed to write
/
jr
z~
at infinity (38).
For the
thus,
also,
= #- 2
n =
/~
s~
2
,
aud
IM*
+ wi =
a form of the tangential equation which, when cleared of radicals, agrees again
with 57. And it is evident that we could return, with equal ease, from these
For the
cubic curve
equation
may
be thus written,*
xl
we may
and a form
its
+ yl +
=
;
art,
si
n =
y~%,
s~l
found to
be,
ft + m-b + n~b = 0.
Conversely,
equation,
if this
we might
by making
x =
H,
y =
wf
?rl,
when
it is
J-*
= F =
*
HAMILTON
+ m~ z + n- 2 - 2
wV +
Compare Salmon
ri*P
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ed.].
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
42
of
fourth
points
that
A"
roots
as indeed
class,
A",
B",
1)
( ~56),
known
The
to be.
- n =
a curve of the
0,
4/w 3 has
,
so that the line [1, 0, 0], or the side BC, counts as three,
nv x f -
may
this cubic is
6.
when we make
(0, *1,
it is
upon
c"
[I. n.
to z
f=
and
is
there
1).
nVyf
0,
A"
three equal
mD z f =
0,
/ (nx,
which
is
ny,
obtained by eliminating
from f(x,
y,
z)
0,
Ix
my) =
0,
(#,
Ix
y]
my + nz = 0,
0,
has two
equal roots x
an
(a, y}
tf
=/
(nx, ny,
Ix
my),
(f),
2p(p
1) in
<j>,
/,
m,
n,
and
of the form,
wPlP-O
(I,
m, n)
this elimina
by the rejection of the foreign factor w^- ), introduced by
=
in
be
will
general of
0, which
tion* we shall obtain the tangential equation F
such being generally the known class (56) of the curve of
the degree p(p - 1)
which the order (46) is denoted by p with (of course) a similar mode of
and
so,
=
*
(x,
y)
{(n
-l)x+(min
Salmon
I)
y}*
2
+ 27w
(Ix
+ my),
new ed.] to
Higher Plane Curves, page 98 [Art. 91,
ARTS. 59-61.]
by eliminating x
43
result presents itself, in the first instance, as of the twelfth dimension in the
tangential co-ordinates
/,
m, n ; but
known
to be.
it is
found to be
divisible ~by
n 6 and
,
is
when
is
(54),
well
on
the
quadratic factor,
(I
and when
reduced
this
factor also
to the biquadratic
n)*
set aside,
(59)
by
2
,
to
my, we obtain a
Ix
=^
(I,
m}
(l-
m?
(Ix
+ my) z + Mm
(I
m}
(Ix
+ my) z +
PmW
we then eliminate I
= n^, = Vmfy, we are conducted to
between the two derived cubics,
the following equation of the twelfth degree,
= % 3 y 3 z 3f(x, y, z), where /has the same cubic form as
in 54.
"We
are therefore thus brought back (comp. 59) from the tangential to the local equation of
z z A
the cubic curve (54)
complicated, however, as we see, with the factor x y z , which corresponds to
the system of the three real tangents of inflexion to that curve, each
tangent being taken three times.
and
if
and not by
we might have
expected to be,
is
that
by the general
2
multiplied the biquadratic function r only by z
,
we
z4 .
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
44
CHAPTER
[I. in.
SI.
III.
SECTION
1.
not Complanar.
When three given and actual vectors OA, OB, oc, or a, /3, y, are not
contained in any common plane, and when the three scalars a, b, c do not all
vanish, then (by 21, 22) the expression act + bj3 + cy cannot become equal to
62.
; it must therefore represent some actual vector (1), which we may, for the
sake of symmetry, denote by the symbol - d$ where the new (actual) vector 8,
or OD, is not contained in any one of the three given and distinct planes, BOC,
zero
some
vanishes
shall thus
have a
aa +
which
will give
- aa
~d~
i
bj3
~d~~
aa
/
,
or
bfl
cy
~d~
is projected,
b, c,
We
vectors,
d$ =
OD = OA + OB
oc
,
;
-cy
-f
or
-6/3
,
four
+ cy
than zero.
d
,
on the
by planes drawn
S, is
given
OA
DA",
DB",
DC"
parallel
Fig. 28.
to the three
OA"
= OB +
OB"
= oc +
oc".
ARTS. 62-64.]
And
45
evident that this construction will apply to any fifth point D of space,
it is
the four points OABC be still supposed to be given, and not complanar : but
that some at least of the three ratios of the four scalars a, b, c, d (which last
if
used as a mark of
differentiation] will
a =
0, if
D be situated in
planes through
63.
cients
S.
o.
We may
must
D may be situated
coeffi
plane ABC; or
()3
S)
8)
a + b +
This equation
(62),
we
see that
is,
+ d =
0.
may
- a
known
expresses a
it
ABCD, referred to three co-ordinate axes OA, OB, oc, which are
common
origin o,
We
- d = DEC
DCA
DAB
have
where
fig.
18
may
ABC
if
we
coefficients
and
areas
replaced by D.
64.
When we
aa +
bfi
+ cy + d$ =
0,
|3,
and
j,
a + b +
+ d=0,
common
plane,
four complanar points, must intersect each other in some point A of the plane,
at a finite or infinite distance.
And there is no difficulty in perceiving, on
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
46
[I.
which thus
for
for B
for C
a =
~r
= AB
i.
c of intersection,
b3 + cy
aa + d$
=
b + c
a + d
DB,
DA,
= CA
)3
+ a
DC,
7 =
+ d
aa + b3
cy + d
a + b
+ d
expressions which are independent of the position of the arbitrary origin o, and
which accordingly coincide with the corresponding expressions in 27, when
we place that origin in the point D, or make S = 0. Indeed, these last results
when
a, /3, y,
aa + b
+ cy + d S =
fi
0,
we form from
a"
a"
a +
+ &c. =
i"/3
0,
c"y
+ eT8 =
between the
0,
coefficients,
yet
if
(a"
and determine
+ ta) a +
by the
(b"
tb
)3
(c"
tc
y +
+ td
(d"
0,
condition,
t
make
a"+b"+<f
= _
a =
+d"
we
shall only
have
to
a"
which
vectors
may
As an Example,
bfi
let the
aa +
its
+ cy =
0,
(2a
c)
"
- aa =
33),
;
and
let it
"
"
".
nation,
(2a
and determining
by the
c)
a"
- aa +
(aa
(a
+ op +
Cy)
condition,
(2a + b +
c)
- a
-f
c)
0,
U,
AETS. 64-66.]
which gives
= -
1,
we have
bfi
2aa +
cy + 2aa
+ cj
+
47
b(3
2a +
+ 2a
whereof the
first
marked
are not
and
"
In the more general case, when the four given points A, B, c, D, are not
plane, let E be any fifth given point of space, not situated on
65.
in
any common
any one
the form
a
EA +
EB
-f
EC + d ED =
.
scalars, a, b,
c,
and
d,
their sum,
aa +
with the
relation,
whereof no one
now
e
66.
Under
a + b +
is, if
+ cy + d$ +
+d+
= (aa +
fy3
+ cy + dty
these conditions,
we denote by
Si
= DE
if
*
ee
Hence
separately vanishes.
D!
that
bfi
we
(a
five scalars a,
b, c, d, c,
also,
d), &c.
write
ABC,
and
C-D!
Si,
we
shall
have
_ aa + ft/3 + cy
a + b + c
In fact, these two expressions are equivalent, or represent one common vector,
in virtue of the given equations
but the first shows (by 63) that this vector
;
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
48
Si
[I.
terminates on the plane ABC, and the second shows (by 25) that
DE
of this
its
line
must therefore
extremity D!
with that plane.
1.
termi
have
"We
it
m.
therefore the
two
equations,
.1.
(a
II.
Si)
b ()3
81)
c (y
SO =
^(S-W + ^e-SO-O;
IT.
= D^C
DXCA
= EDi
DiD
DIAB
the arrangement of the points, in the annexed fig. 29, answering to the case
where all the four coefficients a, b, c, d are positive (or
sign] ,
which
volumes,
rest
Fis>
29 *
I".
= DEBC
DEC A
we may
write
DEAB.
we have
therefore,
by II
.,
DD = EABC
X
DABC
the proportion,
II".
= EABC
DABC.
But
and
a + b +
d=-e;
we may
a:b
:c
d: -
= DEBC
DECA
DEAB
EABC
DABC
the ratios of all these five pyramids to each other being considered as positive,
for the particular arrangement of the points which is
represented in the recent
figure.
49
with a ^V ew pyramid,
AETS. 68-69.]
in the course of
namely when,
With
the
sum
DEBC = BCDE,
be
therefore
may
we
this convention*
CDEA
DECA = CDEA
in
expressed
DEAB
following more
the
EABC
vertices
ABCD
when
We saw
aa +
fy3
+ cy =
a + b +
0,
0,
= BC
CA
AB,
In
o.
like
manner we saw
(in
63)
aa +
+ cy + d$ =
&/3
a + b +
0,
+ d=
0,
d = BCD - CDA
DAB - ABC
:
And we
bfl
is
arbitrary.
cy
we may
OA
I.
OA
II.
BC + OB
BCD - OB
CA + OC
.
OA BCDE + OB
III.
where in
A, B, c are
I.,
in II.,
A, B, c,
and
A, B, c,
in III.,
AB =
CDA + OC DAB - OD
.
ABC =
CDEA + OC DEAB + OD
.
any
EABC + OE
ABCD =
* Among the consequences of this convention respecting signs of volumes, which has already been
adopted by some modern geometers, and which indeed is necessary (comp. 28) for the establishment of
general formula, one is that any two pyramids, ABCD, A B C D bear to each other a positive or a nega
tive ratio, according as the two rotations, BCD and B C D , supposed to be seen respectively from the
,
points
A and A
HAMILTON
directions, as
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
right-handed or left-handed.
JJ
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
50
while o
[I. ni.
1,2.
in each
Book
present
the segments,
or areas,
or volumes,
We might
still
BC
-f
CA + C AB =
.
0,
SECTION
On Quinary Symbols
The equations
omitting
any three
for
by
further
and III
.,
for
2.
for Points
65 being
II".
of Art.
still
xa + yb + zc +
which the
in
ve
In
common
wd +
fact,
drawn
vectors
to
P,
which
may
be
written thus,
xa
PA + y
TT
11.
which the
in
x = tx +
where
.
t
.
and
ee =
and a +
PC +
w d PD =
.
0,
xy
writing, then,
new and
.
x aa
y = ty +
v,
v are two
0,
z c
aa +
O =
PB +
v,
arbitrary
(65J,
we
tz
v,
scalars,
= twf +
v,
assigned above.
*
different interpretations.
Calculus, but
ARTS. 69-72.]
When
71.
the vector p
is
z,
?=(x,y,
But we
between
this
- v
f
:
//,
may
v
w, v).
z,
also
),
differences
x - v
Under
we
condition,
51
= x -
write the
therefore
shall
v.
following formula of
congruence,
f
(x
/,
(x, y, z,
w, v),
we
(x
f
,
(x, y, z,
f
.
w,
v),
Writing
v.
also, generally,
(tx, ty, tz, tw, tv)
f
(x
x,
v)
(x
may
=
,
t (x,
y, z, w, v),
(x,
v),
(1, 1, 1, 1, 1) to
&c.,
quinary symbols
(x,
..?), (x
),
we may thus
(00 -(Q),
in which
and u
(0, 0, 0, 0, 1)
(Q)-t(Q )+u(U);
if
and
(1, 1, 1, 1, 0),
For example,
(0, 0, 0, 1, 1)
(1, 1, 1, 0, 0)
each symbol of the first pair denoting (65) the given point E; and each
symbol of the second pair denoting (66) the derived point DI. When the
coefficients are so simple as in these last expressions, we may occasionally omit
the
still
more
(00001) - (11110)
*
briefly,
(00011) ^ (11100).
indeterminate vector p
= -
but
it
it
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBNIONS.
52
and
termino-collinear (24)
x a +
by w,
with a W// sum of
tion
tmp +
We
2.
limiar equa
m")
m.
p",
we
if
[I.
mp
tf
tm +
m"p"
*"w"
0.
(xaa +
t
where
(xa
t,
scalars a
t"
e,
vet)
(x a +
some new
by
x +
+ v
et)
+ v
e)
t"
t"
(x"a
two equations
may
(65)
v"e)
t"x"
tv
v +
scalar,
briefly be expressed
e,
and the
line.
five
t"v"
= -u,
Hence
satisfied otherwise.
, p",
in
(Q"),
by the equation,
v"et)
p"
one right
supposing that
(x"aa
scalars,
tx
is
(xfaa
f
new
where u
ve]
are three
t, t
u,
t",
D, E, DI,
PP
P"
last
symbolic
are ranged on
(72)
by the quinary symbols, (00010), (00001), (11100), are collinear ; because the
sum of these three symbols is (U). And if we have the equation,
=
(Q")
where
t,
right line
on the
line
74.
(Q")
(Q) + f
then
three scalars,
(Q
(Q"j
(0,
+ u (U),
on the
a symbol for a point
t
denote
0, 0, t,
any point
) may
is
p",
DE.
By
(Q"
u are any
PP
pp
p"p"
an
(Q) +
(Q
(Q")
+
if
"
(Q
")
--u(U),
as follows,
=
(QT")
(Q) +
(Q ) +
t"
(Q")
+ u (U),
ABTS. 73-75.]
P"
t,
c,
u,
t",
(01000),
(10000),
or A, B,
is
situated in the
points,
(11100),
(00100),
53
"
(t,
t"
0, 0)
may
repre
When
a point P
is
and
And
of four
hence,
new and
arbitrary scalars
to
to
by
which
posed
may
locus
v =
x =
(x
tiXi
+ u
tiV l
u,
we
t 2 vz
u.
are conducted to a
form
v)
m (y -
v)
+ n
(z
v)
+ r
(tv
v)
0,
new
coefficients
my +
I,
more sym
nz + rw + sv = 0,
coefficient, s, is
+ n + r +
=
[
I,
m,
is
n, r, s].
For example, the coefficients of the symbol for a point P in the plane ABC
be thus expressed (cornp. 74)
may
x =
u,
y =
ti
u,
t2
+ u,
w=
u,
= u
between which the only relation, independent of the four arbitrary scalars t
u, is
w-v=
this therefore is the equation of the plane ABC, and the symbol of that
.
plane
is [0, 0, 0,
briefly,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
54
[I.
m.
2, 3.
The symbol
76.
(a, y, s,
Combining, for
= P = p PiP 2
v)
u>,
symbol
of that point,
P 3P 4
collinearity
Ix
sv
0,
(&"3
For example,
if
if it
t
be
t^
= u
we
(lx
77.
a point
0,
sr4 )
= 4 + u
ic
of the problem.
also
+ u
(75),
and therefore
hence
*3
(00011) + u (11111),
(Q) - (00011)
or
When
P,
the five coefficients, xyzwv, of any given quinary symbol (Q) for
or those of any congruent symbol (71), are any whole numbers (posi
we
which those
five coefficients,
five points
or briefly, that
determine.
last
(66), D!
On
+ h
sv 3 )
P be a point on the
(Q)
which
ratio
x = y =
but
t3 -
the contrary,
when
we
it is
symbol
And
a Rational Point of
same
five points.
coefficients,
it is
in like
or briefly, that
it is irrational.
is
so as to
right line
ANHAKMONIC CO-ORDINATES IN
ARTS. 76-79.]
two rational
SPACE.
55
be called, on
may
planes,
the same plan, a Rational Line ; and lines which cannot in either of these
two ways be constructed, may be said by contrast to be Irrational Lines. It
is
evident from the nature of the eliminations employed (comp. again 42), that
common
is
and
in like
which
is
is
necessarily a
determined as the
complanar)
is
line
as
is
with a
when
78. Finally,
by the arrangement
(or order) of the coefficients in their quinary symbols, those points or planes
may
or briefly to be syntypical.
For ex
(75) to be
CDE, &c.
Section,
in Space.
But
it
by reducing
(as
we
are allowed
from five
SECTION
On Anharmonic
79.
When we
number of the
3.
Co-ordinates in Space.
coefficient
to do) the
to four.
in the first
form
p, or
vanishes,
suppose
we get
(as
we may)
ma
yb(3 + zcy
xa + yb + zc +
and
may
wd
p =
and
+ wd
(a?,
y, z, w),
although we shall
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
56
[I.
m.
3.
soon see cause for calling it also the Anharmonic Symbol of that point. Mean
while we may remark, that the only congruent symbols (71), of this last form,
are those which differ merely
by the introduction
mine
of a
common factor
the
coefficients
may accordingly
be said (comp. 36) to be the Anharmonic Co-ordinates in Space.
80. When we thus suppose that v = 0, in the quinary symbol of the point
we may
p,
Ix
the fifth
sv
(75)
coefficient, s,
which
is
thus reduced
II
This
of
last
may
m,
[I,
n, r].
is
my +
nz
+ rw =
the four coefficients, Imnr, which we shall call also (comp. again 37) the An
harmonic Co-ordinates of that Plane II, being not connected among themselves
+ s = 0)
since their three ratios (comp.
by any general relation (such as / -f
the position of the plane
in
to
determine
order
all
in
are
79)
general necessary,
.
in space.
81. If
we suppose
is
in,
coefficient,
the plane
ABC; and
may
then be sufficiently
And if we attend
we may
In
this
and
manner, then,
we
my +
nz = 0,
A= [/, m, n], for a right line (37) in the plane ABC, considered
on that plane, of an arbitrary plane n in space. If this plane
to the symbol,
here as the
II
suppress
trace,
be given by
its trace
82.
ABC,
if
A,
its
by simply
we thus
we denote (comp.
case,
72)
its
when the
point p
is
quaternary symbol
and complanarity
and
s.
by
hold good :
be
its coefficient to
ANHARMONIC CO-ORDINATES IN
ARTS. 79-83.]
signifies that
is
in the plane
is
p p
SPACE.
and
V";
if
57
the coefficient
"
and with an
p",
line
P"
whence
(comp. 76) problems of intersections of lines with planes can easily be resolved.
In
like
manner,
for a p/#H0
if
we denote
by
briefly
[JK] the
r
expresses that the plane
II
IT,
IT";
quaternary symbol
[I,
w,
n, r]
the formula
II,
and
if
^"
jr
II
m=
we suppose
An?e planes
0, so that
the formula thus found denotes that the plane II passes through the point of
with any third plane ; or (comp. 41),
intersection of the two planes, FT,
n",
II
n",
may
be said to be
II";
in
Hence
collinear.
appears that
may
..if (Q
II.
t"
(Q"),
that line
in
f
.
[#] +
Space
t"
[JB"~|,
according as
we
consider
The remarks
points, planes,
and
lines
(77)
and those on
types (78J
CDP =
(a?yOO)
may
be denoted thus
C\D\ E
Planes
which
may
is
be thus denoted,
(AB
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
CDEF)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
58
[I. in.
shown respecting
just been
3.
and P
:
/Y*
(CD
AEBP) = (AC BP
= j
(AD
BECP) =
and
-,
(BD
CEAP) =
anharmonics
we have
/y?
<5*
is
On
unity.
also,
AEDP) = -,
(CA
BEDP) = -,
(AB
CEDP) =
so that the three ratios, of the three first coefficients xyz to the fourth coefficient
10,
common
intersection,
by means
is
the
And thus we
that of analogy to expressions already used for points in a given plane), for
a point in
calling the four coefficients, xyziv, in the quaternary symbol (79) for
space, the
84.
Anharmonic Co-ordinates of
In general,
that Point.
if
P3
so
that
(comp. 82) their symbols are connected by two linear equations, such as the
following,
(ft)
(ft)
= t
(ft)
(ft),
(ft) +
(ft),
may be
tit
fowd-jjpi
by considering the pencil (CD POP^PS), and the transversal AB (83).
in like manner, if we have (comp. again 82) the two other symbolic
as appears
And
[ft] + u [ft],
[ft]
is
n
f
3,
f
[ft] + u [ft],
formula,
(IIoILnjI,)
as
may
Jine AB,
uf
, ;
ANHABMONIC CO-OKDINATES IN
ARTS. 83-86.]
if
linear functions of x, y,
Do
11.3
(82),
and
/ (xyzw)
z,
u",
and
we determine
if
59
(xyzw) be
/i
SPACE.
four
collinear
planes
/=0,
/:=/,
/i
fi-kf,
0,
where k
scalar
is
we
shall
Hence we
is
The Quotient of any two given homogeneous and linear Functions, of the
anharmonic Co-ordinates (79) of a variable Point p in space, may be expressed as
"
the
given,
while the fourth passes through the variable point p, and through a given right
line A which is common to the three former planes"
86.
And
Theorem
in
like
manner may be
analogous
The Quotient of any two given homogeneous and linear Functions, of the
anharmonic Co-ordinates (80) of a variable Plane II, may be expressed as the
Anharmonic (PQP^PS) of a Group of Points ; whereof three are given and
"
collinear
right line
is
the intersection,
II,
of their
common and
given
II."
More
fully, if the
For example,
if
we suppose
that
B 2 = (0101),
A 2 = (1001),
A 2 = (1001),
A 2 = DA
SO that
we
BCE, &C.,
I,
= (0101),
and (DA 2 AA
m, n to
r,
= (0011),
= (OOlT),
2
c2
c
2)
= -
1, &C.,
in the symbol
II
\_lmnr~],
may
where
Q, R, s
= (DA , Z AQ)
,
= (DB
2 Bn)
,
-=
II
be
(DC 2 cs)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
60
[I.
m.
3, 4.
cients
I,
n, r, in the
m,
the Anharmonic
II,
may
same plane
notations
so
A",
B",
marked before
shall
if
= (OlIO),
B"
(CA"BL)
A",
=
;
B",
c",
= (1010),
c"
= (1100),
~=
The
we may now
have (comp. 39, 83) these three other auharmonics of groups, with
and the
L,
c"
A"
we
we denote by
be added, that
II is
-=
(AB"CM)
Z,
2,
2,
(BC"AN)
+ w = Q
[E]
= [1111].
the six ratios of the four anharmonic co-ordinates, Imnr, of a variable plane
are therefore situated on the six edges of the given pyramid, ABCD
II,
two points in
each group being corners of that pyramid, and the two others being the inter
sections of the edge with the two planes, [E] and II.
Finally, the plane [E] is
centre
(in a known modern sense) the plane of homolvgy* and the point E is the
of homology, of the given pyramid ABCD, and of an inscribed pyramid AiBiCiDi,
where AI = EA BCD, &o. ; so that D! retains its recent signification (66, 76),
Bl
d=(1101),
=(1011),
And
D^lllO).
if we denote
by A iBWiD the harmonic conjugates to these
with
points,
respect to the lines EA, EB, EC, ED, so that
we have
last
A\ = (2111),
B J = (1211),
G\ = (1121),
v\ = (1112).
Many
of nets in space to
* See
Poncelet
shall proceed.
ARTS. 86-89.]
SECTION
4.
On Geometrical Nets
When we
88.
others
have
we can
are complanar,
61
in Space.
E, whereof no four
given points A
them by a right line, and the three
.
two of
connect
any
by a plane, and determine the point in which these
another
last intersect
and
one
ten points
p l9
We may
First Construction.
distinct lines,
2,
and planes,
2,
new and
P 2 arise
distinct points
all such
new
lines, planes,
then
we might proceed
for ever
To
so
on
planes,
and
And
and
and by quinary
lines,
by quinary symbols
end
of the
VECTORS, which
will
given points,
is
and
will
be (10000)
while
corresponding type
of the
may
AB
c AiBidAaiJaCz
be taken as (00011)
ADE = (01100),
=DA
By
PI,
been seen
provided that
A!
(78) to
the
A2
A, B, c to B, c, A,
the
A = BC
also, in
= EA
PI
are
BCD = (10001),
BCE = (10010);
we
at the
it is
permitted to change
third, first,
ELEMENTS OF QUATEKNIONS.
62
L1
in
and second co-efficients, in the places of the first, second, and third thus,
B = CA* BDE= (10100), &c. The symbol f^/yOOO) represents an arbitrary point
on the line AB and the symbol [00;?rs], with n + r+ s = 0, represents an
:
AB
each therefore
and
itself,
may
same time
at the
Ai
may
and the
ten triangles,
may
pyramids,
ABDE,
CADE,
BCDE,
ABCE,
be called pyramids
R^
is
be taken (78)
ABCD,
and Mangles
of the First
TI,
Con
struction.
we soon
A may be arranged in two distinct groups ; one group consisting of fifteen lines
such as the line* AA DI, whereof each connects two points p and passes
A
2
2 ,i,
l5
also through one point P O , being the intersection of two planes III
ADE
such as B C
PO,
C B
A 2 Ai,
which pyramids
B A C-A,
A c B 2 Bi,
lines
2,2,
A 2 B 2 C 2D!,
namely,
AiBiCiDi
former pyramids
five
through that
l9
whereof the
last
[A]
[E],
The planes II 2 of second construction,
properly to a third construction (88).
form in like manner two groups ; one consisting of fifteen planes n 2 ,i, such
as the plane of the five points, AB B 2 c 1 c 3 whereof each passes through one point
.
PO,
PI,
group
is
composed
2,2,
2,2,
pyramids
R^
It is
planes II 2
and the
* ABic 2 AB 2 ci, DA
,
AI,
lines
other
three lines
lines
as here
five planes
EA
of homology of pyramids,
2 ;
now
required
the thirty-five
by
group.
f Mobius
(in his
Bary centric
ARTS. 89-92.]
types, before
63
second construction.
An
itself,
The
2 ,i-
symbol
particular
plane through the last-mentioned line, which contains also the line AB^ of
the same group and may serve as a type for the group of planes n 2jl
The
line B C and the group A 2 2 may be represented by (stuQQ) and
if
we
[tttm],
/ /
s = t + u, and s = - s
while
the
to
write
B
c
A
and
the
2
agree*
plane
group
n 2)2 may be denoted by [11112], Finally, the plane [E] has for its symbol
;
[11114] and the four other planes [A], &c., of homology of pyramids (90),
have this last for their common type.
;
The
92.
lines
A and
above,
it is
not
difficult
down
some
that construction
II 2 of
planes
which are
A"
A"
all
= (01100)
= (02100)
"
= (21100)
=
(12100)
ABC
first
A IV
=
1
(21100)
(32100)
A V = (02100)
(23100)
the second and third of these having (10011) and (30011) for
congruent symbols
(71). It is easy to see that these eight types represent,
respectively, ten, thirty,
which we
the points P 2
is
290.
p2
belonging to
number
of
be one hundred, so
*_With
distinct points,
we have above
number
mark as P 2)1
then we consent
shall
If
and sixty
2,
l9
II 2 ,
far.
line AB,
may
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
64
To
(1.)
4.
(_I.m.
A 2B
2,
(01100),
= (lOOlO),
A\=
(10001),
= (00011),
T>\
with respect to the ten lines Ai, on which those points are situated; so that
we have ten harmonic equations, (BA CA") = - 1, &c., as already seen (31, 86,
Each point P 2)1 is the common intersection of a line A with three lines
87).
x
2,2
thus
valent,
by
we may
= BC B
= EA DiA 2 B
II 2 ,i
is
CI
C BI
= DA DiAi
six
planes
I1 3 , 2
IL
for example,
c2
fi
c B2
= DE AiA 2 BiB 2
and in
B 2 C2
B^
CiC 2
a point
is
A"
common
to the
twelve planes,
B C
Each
Each
B 2 C2 A 2
BiCiAi,
AI,
line, Ai, or
plane, Hi
A2
2,
or I1 2
DB^BiC
ABiCoCiBo,
B c A2
contains
2,
three
but no line
such points
B 2 C 2 Di.
BjCiDi,
EB B 2 C C2
Cj,
A 2 ,i
contains any.
Il 2 ,i
in
diagonals BjC 2 B 2 Ci of the quadrilateral BiBaCad, which is (by 90) in one of the
planes n 2 ,i, intersect* each other in the point A while the opposite sides CiB!,
B 2 c 2 intersect in
and the two other opposite sides, BjB,, C 2 C! have the point
,
A"
on
The
A VxC
,,
which the
line
centres of
Vc",
whereof the
A"B 2
2,
A
C
3,
2,
AWi,
homology
W,
of the
and
of
two
triangles, ABC, A B C
The same
D! in fig. 29), to represent their centre of homology.
ten points p 2)1 are also ranged six by six, and the ten last lines A 3 are ranged
(replaced
by
Compare the
first
ABT. 92.]
four by four, in
five planes
3,
namely
in the planes of
A
which
WVaB^c
VA
2,
a,
2,
homo logy
of fire pairs of
65
VB
2
lines,
A"B"C"
2,
DAG,
DCB,
DBA,
of the
DA
DABi,
A2 B
in different planes,
We
of homology.
may
C1 ,
faces,
DjBiA!,
AiBiCi,
B2c A
C^
A 2 B 2 c2
although
ABC,
for
A2 B 2 C 2
A // B
line
//
for their
is
A"B"C"
common
axis
2,
of
namely
2,
A"
2, 2
B^C
and B
On
(2.)
2,
which belong
known
to geometers, in
A"
.,
may
be
example, the
employed. For
(82) of the four planes, ABC, A^CI, A 2 B 2 c 2 and [E],
expressed (88),
collinearity
which represent
types
[H12l],
[H112],
[11114],
w-v = Q, x+y+z-2w-v
0,
x+y+
- w - 2v =
0,
o?
+ y+
s+0-4?=0;
with this additional consequence, that the ternary symbol (81) of the common
so that this trace is (by 38)
trace, of the three latter on the former, is [111]
And if we briefly denote the quinary
of fig. 21, as above.
the line
:
A"B"C"
symbols of the four planes, taken in the same form and order as above, by
* The
marked
and harmonic relations between the ten points, which we have above
and which have been considered by Mb bius also, in connexion with his theory of
appear to have been first noticed by Carnot, in a Memoir upon transversals.
collinear, complanar,
as p 2)i
nets in space,
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
66
[-So]
we
= -
[ft]
[A] + [A]
[ft]
by the two
2[ft] + [ft]
if
we denote
(ILn.n .EQ
- 2
is its
mean point
n we
3,
have
relations,
whence
4.
[Lin.
when ABCD
the plane
II 3 ,
a regular
is
or [E], becoming
in this case (comp. 38) the plane at infinity, while the three other planes, ABC,
AjBid, A 2 B 2 c 2 , are parallel; the second being intermediate between the other
We
(3.)
must be a
little
more
on the
seven other
types of points P 2 which indeed, if not so well known,* are perhaps also, on
the whole, not quite so interesting although it seems that some circumstances
of their arrangement in space may deserve to be noted here, especially as
,
in
fig.
line
"
2,2
no other
line,
among
aiming
as well as
we may already
numerous
to be
21, is
3,
and
and the
triangles
points,
3,
of
But without
what we have
must be expected
of that construction,
z,
the subject,
.
3fl
"
is
of
"B
"C"
in
the sides of which new triangle are lines A 3 2 passing each through
fig. 21),
one point P 2 ,i and through two points P 2 2 (like the dotted line A"B
of
such
also
each
P
but
is
the
two
intersection of
new lines of
point 2)2
fig. 21)
,
"
"C
* It does not appear that any of these other types, or groups, of points P 2 , have hitherto heen
noticed, in connexion with the net in space, except the one which we have ranked as the fifth, p 2 5 ,
and which represents two points on each line Ai, as the type P 2 ,i has heen seen to represent one point
on each of those ten lines of first construction hut \h&t fifth group, which may he exemplified hy the
,
DK with the two planes AiB[Ci and A 2 B 2 c 2 has heen indicated by Mobius (in
already cited work), although with a different notation, and as the result of a different
ART. 92.]
67
third construction,
3,3,
"
new
lines,
DA
I,
EA
because,
if
we adopt
"
the second of
its
We may
article)
first
sub-
"
= AA
DA
B C
EA
if
then we write,
AO
= (11100),
BO
= (11100),
= (11100),
new
ternary type.
again
fig.
It is easy
3 ,i
of the triangle
AB
"
"B
is
"C
which
(comp.
is itself
it namely of
(comp. sub-article 1) an inscribed homologue T^\ of a triangle
new
the
common
axis
of
their
with
for
triangle A O B O CO is
homology,
ABC,
A"B"C"
on the contrary an exscribed homologue T3 2 with the same axis A 3}1 of the
But from the syntypical relation existing as above for
1\.
,
between the points A and A O we may expect to find that these two
points P 2)2 admit of being similarly constructed, when the five points P O are
"
space
the constructions.
A 2)i
line
AiA 8
line
and on two
which
lines
3, 3,
soon,
2,2 ,
which
is
= AA
AiA 2
BiB 2 , CiC2
to be
;
cc".
We
found
easily
new
lines
BB"
cc"
which coincide
in position
with the sides of the exscribed triangle A O B O C O are the traces A 3 3 of three
3 ,i, such as ABtC 2 B 2 Ci, which
planes
pass through the three given points A,B,C,
K 2
,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
68
A 2?1 whereon
Every
other plane
[I.
m.
4.
III
the present group every plane n 2 ,i contains eight of them and every plane
n 2;2 contains three; each line A 2 ,i passing through two such points, but each
;
A 2)2
only through one. But besides being (as above) the intersection of
two lines A 2 each point of this group p 2 2 is common to two planes Hi, four
planes II 2 ,i, and two planes II 2 2 while each of these thirt}^ points is also a
line
common corner
mentioned kinds T^\ and T3)2 situated respectively in the two planes of first
construction which contain the point itself. It may be added that each of the
,
line
is
2 ,i,
PI,
PI
on that
line
thus
we have
by which the
(5.)
positions of the
two points A
"
group) of thirty points, ranged two by two on the fifteen lines A 2 ,i, and six by
six on the ten planes II l? but so that each is common to two sucli planes; eacli
two planes
also situated in
is
in two planes
Il 2 ,i,
fI 2)2 ,
and on one
line
A 3 ,i,
which (by sub-art. 1) these two last planes intersect each other, and two of
the five planes n 3 ,i each plane IJ 2 ,i contains four such points, and each plane
fl 2 2 contains three of them
but no point of this group is on any line AI,
in
or
2,2.
The
p2
six points
,3
which are
in the
the corresponding points of the last group) by two ternary types, namely by
(211) and (311) ; and may be exemplified by the two following points, of
which these
ternary symbols
AA
A!
The
A!
IV
= AA
iA 2 Ai
= AA
IV
sub-group A
IV
.
first
are colliuear
3>3
is
and
IV
homologous
which have been hitherto considered, as well as to the two triangles A^CJ and
A 8 B 2 Ca the line of the three former points being their common axis of homology
;
and the
sides of the
new
(comp:.90) of
line
triangle,
IV
homology
is the common
A IV B IV C IV or
A"B"C"
same
AET. 92.]
group
3 ,i,
namely
of [D]
planes
2, 2
and
[E].
69
is
the point A t IV
is
the
lines
we may
contained,
concurrence,
AI
(6.)
3 ,i,
and
is
= AA
IV
A^A
C BO
CO
may
two points
to one of the
on that
line
also
being
other point
jugate of this last point, with respect to the same point P O and the
p 2 2 thus, on the line AA DI, we have the four harmonic equations, which are
not however all independent, since two of them can be deduced from the two
PI
(AA
And
"A
A IV ) = (AA A O A IV ) = (AA^A^) =
P!,
p2
2,
P2
(AD^ A^)
3,
= -
on any such
1.
line
will
2 ,i,
be found (comp. 26) to compose an involution, with the given point P O on the
the other double point of this
line for one of its two double points (or foci)
:
which (by 81, 91) the trace on ABC is the line [411], and therefore is
has
been stated) the side B^CI of the lately mentioned triangle jT3 3 so
(as
[A], of
that
A X = (122) = AA
we
shall
BC"
CB
"
(AA
X
"A
A O ) = (A
X
point A is the common harmonic conjugate of the
A IV A! IV and
O
given point A, with respect to the three pairs of points, A UJ, A
this
new
"A
AX
for its
form
(as
all
lines
1?
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
70
A and therefore
common to three such
n
and each point p
111,
[I.
six
4.
by six in
planes: also
can represent these two new groups by the two ternary types
(021) and (021),
which as symbols denote the two typical points,
Av = BC
we have
c AiA 2
DiAiBi
D]A 2 B 2
and
B!
may
IV
that A VI
A V = BC
It
A VI = BC C/B^a = BC C B O
be noted that A
which
is
is
last point is
AO
AB
D^"
".
C AO, of the
with respect to A O
plane c A A 2 and
and B O on the
x
V
harmonically conjugate to B! , with respect to c
cW) =
(B oBl
VA
will soon
VI
)
= -
so that
1.
Each
line
And
an
6)
points thereof.
c = (001),
^=
A- = (021),
(021),
A =
A,*
(Oil),
A"
two double
line BC,
and repre
= (Oil)
A^ =
(012),
easy
arranged as to
for the
if
B = (010),
it is
(Ol2)
II.
(BA
(A
CA")
= (BA V CA VI ) = (BA/CA^) = -
=
BA"C)
show
1st,
(A
W)
(AV A V)
1,
--
1,
line Ai,
are the
one pair of
form
common form, P 2)4 P 2 ,s
,
and
of
a second involution, obtained by pairing the two points of each of the three other
ART. 92.]
71
Also each of the two points P O on a line Ai, is the harmonic conjugate
of one of the two points P 2 5 on that line, with respect to the other point of
groups.
(cAV^r
= -
thus,
1.
(9.)
symbols, we have
2,
A"
A- =(321);
=(121);
A= =(231);
may
= (112)
AX
= (312)
A!
(in
which
A IX
-n^r/
5 (u
AA
A vn
TJ
CQ.BI
(CO A
&c.,
V
",
&o., of the
6,
same plane
in the
u
B ri
C
n,,
its
,
trace
CO ) in
tweke points p 2
7,
r*
r<
UiU-j
A IX
A/",
&c.
The
line
BB"
(or their
AA
1,
common
trace
DIB")
in
A vm
(2l3).
points, AI
be thus denoted
vi-o vii
BA iv-rj
BI BI
C/A IX ) = -
may
-n
v-r>vi
l/i
iv/i
with lines
2,2
IX
latter
A,
,i
three planes
2, 2 .
The
(10.)
points of the three last groups are situated only on lines A 2 2
but, on each such line, two points of each of those three groups are situated
,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
72
[I.
m.
4.
which, along with one point of each of the tioo former groups, P 2)1 and P 2
and with the two points p l5 whereby the line itself is determined, make up a
system of ten points upon that line. For example, the line B C contains,
,2>
besides the six points mentioned in the last sub-article, the four others:
B = (101)
Of these
A"
(Oil)
"
(211).
pair, as is
And
= (110)
compose a conjugate
A"C
=
")
(B
WA)
(B
A^ C
=-
111
)
1,
PI
with one of the points P 2)7 as its conjugate. In fact, the eight-rayed pencil
/
/
/
//
A VIII A VII A VIII A VI1 ) coincides in position with the pencil (A BCA
(A c B A
A A
VI
Ai Ai
VI
),
and may be
A"
and
fourth, the fifth and sixth, and the seventh and eighth rays forming one invo
lution, whereof the first and second are the two double* rays ; while the first
fifth
pencil.
(11.)
selves,
If
we proceeded
find
among them
many remarkable
lines
and
[Ej = [11103],
[D
= [11130],
which have the same common trace A 3 ,i, namely the line
ABC, as the two planes AiBid, A 2 B 2 c and the two planes [D],
A"B"C",
2,
2,2
and
of these
3 ,i,
on the plane
new planes
3, 2
would be found
M.
Chasles.
p,,,
and each
three points
ARTS. 92-93.]
p 2 ,i,
six points
twenty new
P2
2,
and
three points p 2
It
3.
73
pyramids R
with the
five
given points
But it would lead us heyond
p for the corresponding centres of homology.
the proposed limits, to pursue this discussion further although a few additional
:
(89),
remarks
tion
in
may
derived points,
A n
drawn through two of the given points, and each plane through
or the number of points of the form AB CDE, is easily seen to be,
AT~ f(n \ - n(n-l)(n-2)(n-3)
/W=
so that
(n
three others),
4)
2.2.3~
But
5.
if
we were
to
to the case n = 15, we should find, for that case, the value,
JV = /(15) = 15
and thus
fifteen given
14
13
11 = 30030
might
(relatively to them)
points
PO,
would be found
to be so considerable,
on the five
and although the foregoing examination proves that all the eight
do
types (92)
really represent points P it may appear possible, at this stage, that
some other type of such points has been omitted,
study of the manner in which
the types of points result, from those of the lines and planes of which they are
anticipated
2,
the intersections,
that
way
this question
P2
and
,
8,
it
was, in
fact, in
of points of second
yet
it
* T he
A of complanar lines, when
definition (88) of the points P 2 admits, indeed, Intersections A
they are not already points PO or PI but all such intersections are also points of the form A n so
that no generality is lost, by confining ourselves to this last form, as in the present discussion we
propose to do.
.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
74
may be
[I. in.
4.
(1.)
nations
In
fact, those
25
lines Ai,
PI,
2,
which
combinations of points
collineations,
lines
among
by the
represented
of this sort,
(=
35 -
enumeration of the
and
lines
is
therefore
verified
only remains to verify that the 305 points, P O p b p 2 above
considered, represent all the intersections A II, of the 55 lines Ai, A 2 with the
;
it
45 planes Hi,
(2.)
2 ,i,
Each plane HI
2,2
H^
each plane
each plane
2 2 contains three lines
planes
2 ,i
two planes
and each
II 2
2 ),
and plane
it
240
H!
line
Hence
2,2.
each line
2 ,a
2 ,i
in
is
30 + 30 + 30 + 30 + 60 + 60)
so that the
number
cases
of cases of intersection
is
of coincidence of line
reduced, hereby,
from
because
it is
common
and
H!
point PO
AD and AE.
is
is
common
each point P O
is
common
to three lines
2 ,i,
each of which
is
it
2)1
no one of
represents
Again,
contained in two
of the six planes II i, but intersects the four others in that point P O
which
ART. 93.]
2)1
2 ,i
IIi.
2 ,i
Finally, each
and
it
represents
form A
with plane
intersection
derived points, P I? P 2
(4.)
For
(=
headed as
I. to
IX.
in the follow
ing Table, contain the numbers of such intersections which belong respectively
to the nine forms,
Ar
HI,
AI
2 ,i,
AI -112,2;
A
A
2 ,i
2 )2
P2
,8
Column X.
states
lllj
A 2)2
2 ,i
ii 2 ,i,
A ,i*n
11 2 )1|
2 ,o
2>2
2 ,2j
number
iii,
sum
P!,
p 2)1
entire
number
of intersections
II
which
are represented
first
(5.)
TABLE OF INTERSECTIONS A
to
be discovered.
II.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
76
It
(6.)
IIi,
2
to be
remembered
we have
that
not admitted,
(88),
is
2,
2 ,i
of the third.
we
counted, as
lines
lines
the lines
definition
by our
of that construction,
planes
4.
[I.m.
among
determined
(at
reason
it
may be
2,
ternartj types
of only twenty -two distinct lines in that plane, whereof nine are lines AI,
tioo],
[Til],
[oil],
[in],
[oil],
AA
BC,
B C
2,
are
A"B"C",
[211],
[ail]
lines,
DIA",
AA",
CO
Again, on the same principle, and with reference to the same defini
that new point, say F, which may be denoted by either of the two con
(7.)
tion,
F = (43210) - (01234),
arid which, as a quinary type (78), represents a
its Jive
on account of
is
by us as a point p a
although
group of 120
this
new
point
AA DIC^,
cc
point being
planes.
94.
D^Ao, EB B
2 ,i
common
c c2
all
[iloii],
.
It
2 ,i
[imo],
new group
in passing,
every such
evident from what has been shown) to three such
From the foregoing discussion it appears that the five given points P O
the
three hundred derived points PJ, P 2 , are arranged in space, upon \kv fiftyand
ARTS. 93-94.]
and in the
2,
III,
of the
contains ^#A
forty-five planes
Each
as follows.
2,
what may be
it
Each
77
line
2 ,i
line
AI
one, namely the (/wen point, P O , has been seen (in the earlier sub- art.
to be a double point of another involution, to which the three derived pairs of
whereof
(6.))
p,,
P2
Again, each plane HI contain $ fifty-two points, namely three given points, four
Eacli plane
2 ,i con
points of first and 45 points of second construction.
42 are points P 2
of
which
last,
is
88 are situated on
PI,
and
in the plane,
* These theorems
respecting the relations of involution, of given and derived points on lines of
and second constructions, for a net in space, are perhaps new although some of the harmonic
to whom, indeed, as has
relations, above mentioned, have been noticed under other forms by Mcibius
been stated, the conception of such a net is due. Thus, if we consider (compare the note to page 66)
first
we
= DE
be denoted
may
EI
they
are, therefore,
by Art.
92, the
E2
AiBiCl,
= DB
A 2 B2 C2 ,
(00012),
two points
P2,s
on the
(00021)
line
DE
stated at the end of sub-art. (8.), the harmonic conjugate of each, taken with respect to the other and to
the point DI, must be one of the two points D, E on that line. Accordingly, we soon derive, by comparison
(DiDE 2 Ei)
(8.)
=-
equations,
which belong
to
(DiEEiEa)
=-
but these two equations have been assigned (with notations slightly different) in the formerly cited
page 290 of the Barycentric Calculus. (Comp. again the recent note to page 66.) The geometrical
last equation may be illustrated,
by conceiving that ABCD is a regular pyramid, and
mean point ; for then (comp. 92, sub-art. (2.) ), DI is the mean point of the base ABC; DID
is the altitude of the
DiE 2 are, respectively, the quarter,
pyramid and the three segments DIE,
the third part, and the half of that altitude
they compose therefore (as the formula expresses) a
harmonic progression ; or DI and EI are conjugate points, with
But in order to
respect to E and E 2
exemplify the double involution of the same sub-art. (8.), it would be necessary to consider three other
points p 2 on the same line DE whereof one, above called D I, belongs to a known group P 2 ,i (92, (2.))
but the two others are of the group p 2 ,4, and do not seem to have been
previously noticed. As an
example of an involution on a line of third construction, it may be remarked that on each line of the
group As,3, or on each of the sides of any one of the ten triangles T3 2 in addition to one given point
and that the two first
PO, and one derived point p 2 ,i, there are two points r 2 ,2, and two points r 2 ,e
meaning of the
that E
is its
]>iEi,
points are the double points of an involution, to which the two last pairs belong
AOBCO of the exscribed triangle AoBoCo, or on the trace of the plane BCiA 2 AiC2,
we have
the two
harmonic equations,
(BA O B"CO)
(BA
=-
T
"B"CI
1.
")
Again, on the trace A CO of the plane A ciC 2 (which latter trace is a line not passing through any one
v
of the given points), CQ and BI IT are the double
points of an involution, wherein A is conjugate to Ci
and A IX to B TI . But it would be tedious to
such
instances.
multiply
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
78
[I.
m.
4.
but four are intersections of that plane n 2 ,i with four other lines of second
Finally, each plane II 2 2 passes through no given point, but
contain $ forty-three derived points, whereof 40 are points of second construction.
construction.
of
lines,
P2>4,
Ai,A 2
1*2)5?
,i>
2 ,2,
Pa,i,
P2,8,
all
by any points
or lines in
any plane
2 ,i,
nor
illustrate,
by some
P 2 in a plane
PO, PI,
View of
the
n
A
i5
in that plane,
and the
traces
in a
it.
Plane of
First Construction.
In
ABC
is
and DU
a regular pyramid ABCD (comp. sub-art. (2.) to 92)
inscribed
The
mean
its
be
to
is
first
point (29).
again replaced by o,
supposed
and the axis of homology
triangle, A B C
therefore, bisects the three sides
lateral base of
A"B"C"
is
the
the
number
1,
on the
line
cV
prolonged,
the
to
being designed to suggest that the point
type P 2 ,i, or belongs to the first group of points of second construction.
A",
which that
line tends, is of
AETS. 94-95.]
by the
bisecting point
but with an
AoBoCo, to
"B
"C
",
number 2 placed
A
accent, 2
"
which
fig.
21
may
be consulted,
at the
The
3,
IV
which
point A
,
on the dotted
accent, lower
infinitely distant, is
A!
And
IX
.
only
now
is
is
to suggest that
A IX
remind us that
number with an
for
79
of the point A! IT
,
",
5, 5
6,
7,
AX, A vm A/
,
1
",
above mentioned,
may
analogous property (42) of the plane net, that every point, line, or plane, to
or
which such constructions can conduct, must necessarily be rational (77)
;
that
it
must be
because
the (inharmonic co-ordinates (79, 80) of every net-point, and of every net-plane,
are equal or proportional to whole numbers. Conversely (comp. 43) every point,
or plane, in space,
is
Every anharmonic
ratio,
and
to
Finally, any five points* of such a net, of which no four are in one plane, are
* These
general properties (95) of the space-net are in substance taken from Mb bius, although (as
has been remarked before) the analysis here employed appears to be new
as do also most of the
theorems above given, respecting the points of second construction (,92), at least after we pass beyond
:
the first group p 2 ,i of ten such points, which (as already stated) have been
long.
known comparatively
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
80
[I.
m.
4, 5.
sufficient
As an Example,
(1.)
be given
and
let
it
let
structions,
of
homology
and
will be
the traces on that plane of ike four sought planes, ABC, &o.,
common
If
&c.
DI,
it
pyramid, we might
A = AiB^i
A^E
this other
formula of intersection,
A = EAi
Or the
A 3 B 3C3
33iA
Iv
.
by the anharmonic
(EAAiA.,)
equation,
3,
(p,)
(p,)
x& -
t (p
it
4)
=-
e (P.)
(17)
includes, namely,
v\
e v&
satisfies
the
equation,
(p
= xa (?0 + yV
(P 2 )
(P 3 )
+ wtf (p 4 ) + ve (p 6 ) + u (U)
found that this last point P can be derived from the five
p
5
points P!
by precisely the same constructions, as those by which the
=
As an example, if
point P
(xyzwv) is derived from the five points ABODE.
then
it
will be
.
= x + y +
w -
3v,
is
derived from A
MEANS OF VECTOBS.
ARTS. 95-96.]
81
may
It
(3.)
ratios, as
we
EA
In general,
in space,
if xi/zic
we may
be
AiA = SEBidDi
AiBjCiDi.
write,
PBCD
EBCD
PCDA
ECDA
with other equations of the same type, on which we cannot here delay.
SECTION
On Barycentres
96.
is
divided (16)
by
5.
of
any number
a m = OA m
of co-initial vectors,
= OM = - 2a = - SOA,
m
is
this
mean
Mean
vector terminates,
of those
and
of
vectors
common
origin o,
m points,
AI,
=
or that the
sum
of the system,
that these
Ilnd, that
HAMILTON
if
(a,
of the
ju)
vectors,
(a m
/i)
= S
drawn from
(a
the
/i)
Am
is
.
is
in
which
easily seen
said to be the
Mean
It is evident that
2MA
mean point M,
to
the points A
Aud
equal to zero.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
82
m.
[I.
5.
on any assumed plane (or line), the projection M of the mean point u,
is the mean point of the projected system : and Illrd, that the ordinate MM
of
the mean pointy is the mean of all the other ordinates, AIA I,
A WI A WI
It follows,
ordinates,
also, that if
denote the
vectors,
ON and
= n
mean point,
numbers,
(1.)
and
and
(v
mean
last
and
if s
be the
points obtained by
while v and cr may
points
then we shall
so-
cr),
MS = w
SN
s, is
M and N
which are
SN,
of the
two
nv = Sj3,
Bn
os, of these
m (a - p)
so that the general
Bn
+ n =
mean
and
inversely proportional to
n.
As an Example,
let
ABCD be a gauche
quadrilateral,
and
let
E be
its
fully, let
OE = 5 (OA + OB + 00 + OB),
= |
or
that
is
to say, let a
6/,
(a
+ y +
j3
S)
OA!
OA 2 =
Ql
a2
= i (j3 + 7 +
= \ (a + 8),
S),
&
= i
(a
72
= J
(7
shall
following
/3
7),
S),
vector,
namely, the
= !(
=
And
we
/ = i(+/3),
OA = a =J(|3 + 7 ),..
we
+ 3a,) =
(S
+ 380
-..*(/+
4( +aO
7.)-
AE = 3EAi
A E = EA
2,
DE = 3EDi
C E
= EC 2
which prove (what is otherwise known) that the four right lines, here denoted
DD!, whereof each connects a corner of the pyramid ABCD with the
by AAu
.
mean
point of the opposite face, intersect and quadrisect each other, in one
r
common point, E and that the three common bisectors A A^, B BJ, c c 2 of pairs of
;
ART. 96.]
opposite edges,
mean
point
which
plane,
bisects
bisect
c2 ,
83
and BD.
point E
this
of the derived
is
nine
is
point
In
(2.)
number
namely, in the notation lately used for the net in space, four
A 2 ,i,
Of these
2 ,i.
may
lines (as
nine
triple planes,
In general,
(3.)
mean points
let
(f)
(s)
a total system of
s of
given points,
lines,
which
is
those
( )
point
+
:
so that
0(4) =7,
Then
it is
easy to perceive
lines,
/(4)-6,
that if we
*(4) =
3,
F(4)=9.
c,
each old
line
MN
according as
<p
(s
+ 1) =
(s)
2<j>
+ 1
(s)
= 25
1.
(4.) Again,
(M) (N) (P) be any three partial systems, which jointly
make up the old or given total system (S) and if, by grouping a new point a
if
M NP,
MN
P,
MNP
ELEMENTS OF QTJATEENIO^S.
84
[I. in.
KL, will give one new triple plane, OKI, nor can any
have, therefore, this
triple plane be obtained in any other way.
while each old
line,
We
equation in differences
But we have
if
we
then
seen that
(s
write, for a
moment,
= 20
1)
(s)
=
/(3)
Also,
1,
=*(*)
2X
and
= 3s
2/(s)
Finally,
Sf(s)
because the
+ +
= }* ()
(.s)
so that
and
(*
(s)
1)
^(* +
equation in
= 2
relation,
= (2- -
1)
2s - 3
1) (2
1)
three,
all
+ 3
- 4F
l)
1.
s of
= 2 25
(s)
and
last
ft ()
2^
1,
- 2s +
each treated as
triple planes,
treated as one,
we have the
clear that
it is
= 3
(s)
5 1
!.
X (3)=4:
tf>(3)=3,
therefore,
which
X (i + 1)-8 X () +
(5.)
new
new
/W+*W
we have
5.
25
+ 2
S ~2
(*)
- 3s -
- 3 5-
= 3
s-1
lines*
Hence,
1
;
- 25
-4^(s) =3/(s);
finite differences
interpretation.
For
(6.)
0(5) = 15;
so that
it
we assume
/(5)=25;
(5)
= 30
(5)
= 55
E,
of fifteen lines, of the kind above considered, all passing through this sixth
point F
and these
will
97.
More
initial vectors,
if ai
generally,
and
if
a^
a m be
a,,,
be, as before, a
any system
of
system of
given
and
co-
ARTS. 96-97.]
new
n =
n
is
--!a
#!
by the equation
or
which
2a
(a
+ amam
=
+ am
Sa
)3)
0,
85
or OB
20BA =
or
0,
may
voint B, of
is
position is
o,
.,
centres, of partial
and
to
total systems,
As an example,
those
A and
B,
is the barycentre
with the weights a and b while,
;
under the conditions of 27, the origin o is the barycentre of the three points
A, B, c, with the three weights a, b, c; and if we use the formula for p,
assigned in 34 or 36, the same three given points A, B, c, when loaded with
xa, yb, zc as weights, have the point p in their plane for their barycentre.
Again, with the equations of 65, E is the barycentre of the system of the four
given points, A, B, c, D, with the weights a, b, c, d and if the expression of
79 for the vector OP be adopted, then xa, yb, zc, ivd are equal (or proportional)
;
D must be loaded, in
weights with which the same four points A
In all these cases,
order that the point p of space may be their barycentre.
the weights are thus proportional (by 69) to certain segments, or areas, or volumes,
of kinds which have been already considered
and what we have called the
to the
The circumstance
(96), is
conditions,
B =
S#A
or
= S0A,
if
2.
We should thus have some of the principal notations of the Sary centric Calculus
mainly with a reference to vectors. Compare the note to page 50.
*
hut used
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
86
It
[I.
m.
5, 6.
the sense above defined, and with the same system of weights), of the ordinates
of the points of that system, with reference to any given plane : and that the
projection of the barycentre,
is
system.
"Without
(3.)
any reference
barycentric notation B
may
7-
or to
to ordinates,
any foreign
be interpreted, by means of
the
origin,
o\xr fundamental
considered as denoting the vector from A to B together with the rules for
multiplying such vectors by scalar* (14, 17), and for taking the sums (6, 7, 8, 9)
of those (generally new) vectors, which are (15) the products of such multipli
:
cations.
S0
in order to perceive that
it
may
(A
B)
0,
of the vectors from the barycentre B, to the system of the given points AI,
when
i,
az
system
becomes (generally) a new system of vectors with a null sum : in
multiplied respectively by
,
A2
Thus
if
we meet
interpret
by transports without
can be
made
(10) the
rotation.
the formula,
B = i
we may indeed
it
(A!
+ A 2 ),
as
OB = i (oA! + OA 2 )
if
diagonal.
But we may
also
which ( by the
vectors, from B
B)
(AJ
B)
to the
AI
A^,
as before.
ARTS. 97-98.]
(5.)
B!
(AI
87
+ A 2 + A 3 ), may be interpreted as an
= \
+ OA 3 + OA 3 ),
(OAj
which expresses that the point B trisects the diagonal oo of the parallelepiped
But the same
(comp. 62), which has OAI, OA 2 OA S for three co-initial edges.
,
formula
may
A 2 , A 3 vanishes
,
sum of
which
is
from B
SECTION
On Anharmonic
6.
liquations,
fp (#,
y, 2,
w)
0,
or briefly
/=
0,
th
supposed to be rational and integral, and homogeneous of the p dimension,
then the point P has for its locus a surface ofthep th order, whereof /=
may
X = txQ +
to indicate (82) that P
algebraic equation in
modern mode
if
we
substitute instead of
is
:
W=
collmear with
is of
of speaking),
(distinct or coincident,
USCi
and
the
tw + UWi
th
degree;
the surface
PI,
the resulting
may
be said to be cut in
real or imaginary*), by
points
* It is to be
observed, that no interpretation is here proposed, for imaginary intersections of this
The language of
kind, such as those of a sphere with a right line, which, is ivholly external thereto.
modern geometry requires that such imaginary intersections should be spoken of, and even that they
should be enumerated :
tly as the language of algebra requires that we should count what are called
the imaginary roots of an
But it would be an error to confound geometrical imaginaries, of
equation.
this sort, with those
square roots of negatives, for which it will soon be seen that the Calculus of
exa<
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
88
And
in like
plane
[I. in.
by an algebraical equation
m,
(/,
n, r)
of the form,
class,
with F =
I
tlQ
has for
its
r - tr Q
...
to
be homogenous
(comp. 56) a
because if we make
envelope
of a rariabfe
or briefly r = 0,
0,
surface of the q
6.
to express (comp. 82) that the variable plane II passes through a given right
line
IIi,
we
(real or
which
We
integral),
then
V,
[Da/,
D/]
D,/,
the anharmonic symbol (80) of the tangent plane to the surf ace
is
point (xyzw)
its
0, at
the
D m F, D n F, D r F)
(DjF,
is
/=
and that
in like manner, a
vation.
(1.)
As an example,
has for
B,
gives,
by
= x% - yw
^;
is
E,
A,,
differentiation,
x
so that
D,
=
which
C2 ,
C,
[s,
- w,
m=
Vyf =
r =
D W /= - y
#,
/]
(x, y, z,
w).
* As
regards the tot interpreted character of such, imaginary contacts in geometry, the preceding
note to the present Article, respecting imaginary intersections, may be consulted.
ANHAEMOMC EQUATIONS OP
ABT. 98.]
In
(2.)
boloid,
also
fact,
is
And
E.
if
Q = (^00),
p = (xyzw),
then QS and RT
we
SURFACES.
is superscribed,
write
R = (0#sO),
annexed figure
89
T =
(OOssw),
namely, the
lines drawn through P to intersect the two pairs, AB,
CD,
and
(see the
31),
two generating
lines,
or generatrices,
If,
Ix
my = my + nz = nz + rw = rw +
Ix
then,
[lmnr~\,
or,
because xz = yw,
I
r = ar 1
y~
- w
z~
- w~
l
:
l
;
y,
as before.
At
(3.)
we
see that
(AC BQ)
(DC 2 cs)
Conversely,
divides
known)
were proposed
for those
two given
its positions.
AB and DC
lines,
and AD,
lines in space,
which thus
we might take
meanings
and then should
have, for the two variable but corresponding (or homologous) points Q, s
selves,
and
for
any
them
of the forms,
Q =
because,
by
(s,
82,
u, 0, 0),
we
(0, 0, u, s),
P =
(st, tu,
uv, vs)
the form
()-<()
if
then
write p =
we
(x, y, z,
HAMILTON
w),
we have
Compare 298
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
+()
the anharmonic equation xz = yw, as
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
90
before
whether of the
line QS,
[I.
or of the point p,
m.
6.
is (as is
As
(4.)
R =
we
known
regards the
to observe that if
we
may
it
suffice
T =
(OfrO),
(P)
(*00*>),
= u
(R)
(T),
shall
p =
(st, tu,
xz - yw,
giving
uv, vs),
so that the same hyperboloid is also the locus of that other line RT,
which divides the other pair of opposite sides BC, AD of the same gauche quadri
r
lateral ABCD homographically
BA, CD, and A A 3 being three of its positions
as before
and the
lines
given point
E.
The symbol
(5.)
art. 2)
of the form,
when we suppose
line
of
if
u =
y,
z,
CS
=
=
(y, y, z,
1,
u =
tz,
f
,
RT
uw)
u ).
is
;
And
these
),
^*
?y
= -
iv
which are
Conversely, by the same comparison of symbols, for points on the two lines RT
and c c z we should be conducted to the equation xz = yw, as the condition for
,
their intersection
this other
known theorem,
locus of a right line, which intersects three given right lines in space, is
that the
generally
thus denoted
p"=QS-A
A 2 = (xyyx).
p",
combined with those of sub-art. (2.) for p, Q, R, s, T with the symbols of 83,
86 for c A c 2 A E and with the
=
equation xz yw, give the expressions
;
(P)
2,
(Q)
(s)
(R)
(T)
(P
= y
(c
(c 2 )
(R)
y
+ -
(T)
JO
(E)
(c
(c,)
= (A
(A,)
(P")
= y
(A
+x
(A,)
(Q)
+?
AET.98.]
whence
it
anharmonic
ratios
generating lines
and the
(c
(A
EA 2
= - =
= (AA S
(BA CR)
DT)
EC 2 p
(QP"SP)
p")
= (RP TP) = - =
00
known) the
The
be the following
may
(cc 2 Ds)
which
(BC AQ)
91
by the
= F =
In
- mr
is
the surface of
CD A,
BCD,
Or we may
DAB,
CDC
ABC,
ABC
DAA.",
87),
BCA
2,
interpret the
Q, L,
are
now
replaced
by
2,
and
[E].
as expressing (comp.
T, R, Q),
is
the envelope of a plane QRST, which satisfies either of the two connected conditions
of
homography :
(BC AQ)
(CA BR)
= -- =
n
%=
2 Ds)
(cc
^
= (DA S AT)
a double generation of the hyperboloid thus showing itself in a new way. And
as regards the passage (or return), from the tangential to the local equation
(comp. 56),
we have
x = D/F = n
whence
xz -
(8.)
More
in the present
y = D OT F = r
yw =
0,
= DnF =
to
= Dr F
as before.
generally,
when
the surface
is
F,
and therefore
when presented
N2
ELEMENTS ON QUATERNIONS.
92
m.
[I.
6.
under rational and integral forms, are both homogeneous of the second dimen
w by the formulae,
r from x
sion, then whether we derive I
or
a?
w from
by the
X =
converse formulae,
^ = D OT F,
DjF,
= D n F,
W=
D,-F,
^IQ point P = (xyzw) is, relatively to that surface, what is usually called (comp.
=
52) the pole of the plane II
[//;] ; and conversely, the plane II is the polar
of the point P
may
other,
order
is
And
be situated.
known
thus related
to
each
to
II,
the
is called)
plam
at
infinity; while (comp. 38) the equation and the symbol si this last plane are,
respectively,
ax + by +
cz
if
dio
and
0,
[a, b,
c, d~\,
still
&c., with reference to the system of the five given points ABODE
that we may denote this centre by the
symbol,
K=
where F O denotes,
(D a F
DjF
D CF
DrfF
follows
still
a scalar
for
it
is
constant.
KAccordingly
if
we assume
p =
where
s, t,
u, v are
s
if also
we
= bt +
any four
f
shall then
ac
p//= (*
x"=
and
b).
scalars,
= cu +
p = (sY, -
and P
new
is
u = dv +
ds,
uv
- v
s ),
point, while
at,
f
v = as + bu
yVW)
2est - cw
therefore,
w =
bd,
ast
btu
+ cuv + dvs
(*)+
we
d, a,
(st, tu,
cv,
(c,
be that
^(p)-M--(Oi
00 -*(*),
new
point, of
rr
y = 2e tu + dw
ax"+
z"
by"+
cz"
= 2e uv - aw
dw"=
0.
w"
are,
= 2efvs + bw
ART. 98.]
93
That
is to
P")
point
point
P"
is
With
if
M=
d->)
- bd =
ac
the centre
0,
second order
is
is
its centre is
then at
infinity,
=
(aD a + bn b + CD C + dv d ) FO
or because (comp. 50,
58) the plane [_abcd^\ at infinity
planes, as satisfying its tangential equation, F = 0.
(11.)
It
is
is
then one of
may be represented by a
because it may be regarded as
its
its order,
tangent
system of
the inter
cumscribed at once
(98),
to
may
itself
In
this
view,
is
classes of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
94
faces just
now mentioned
6.
comes
or (what
m.
[I.
to the
these
details
the
known method
ordinates.
99. Instead of
of n variable scalars,
And
then,
scalar,
scalar
vector,
t,
those n scalars x be
if
we may regard
and
may
all
p as being
this vector
if
and
the n scalars x
u,
write,
L..p-f
But
itself
(Q.
accordingly,
II.
In the
p =
(t,
u).
its locus
even become a right line, according to the form of the vector-function $ and p
may be said to be the vector of this line, or curve. In the Ilnd case, p is the
;
manner
in
which
this vector
form of
<p
(t,
u)
or to the
As examples
(1.)
a +
T
L
"
a+ t3 + Uy
IL -P =
i + t + u
p= T7f
signify, 1st, that p is the vector of a variable point P on the right line
that
it
is the vector
Ilnd, that p
locus of
(2.)
is
itself*
AB
manner
or
and
as the
The
equations,
I.
with
of that line
x-
y*
p = xa +
= 1 for the
is
II.
yfi,
1st,
and
the vector of an
x?
ellipse,
p = xa +
if
/j3
sy,
it is
the vector of
ARTS. 98-99.]
an
common
ellipsoid,
centre,
95
OB, or OA,
expresses that p
t*a
+ U zf3 +
(t
y,
tt)
is
which
(or centre),
46),
is
its vertex
the section of
made by
triangle, being the points of contact of those sides with that conic.
(4.)
t~
a + u~
53),
fi
+ v~ l y,
with
u + v =
0,
is the vector of another cone of the second order, with o still for
but with OA, OB, oc for three of its sides (or rays). The section by the
expresses that p
vertex,
plane ABO
is
new
ellipse,
and having
its
tangents at the corners of that triangle respectively parallel to the opposite sides
thereof.
(5.)
54),
= Pa + w 3 |3 +
p
signifies that
is
with
v*y,
+u + v =
0,
is
the origin
its section (comp. fig. 27) by the plane ABC being a cubic
curve, whereof the sides of the triangle ABC are at once the asymptotes, and the
still
three (real) tangents of inflexion; while the mean point (say o ) of that triangle
is a conjugate point of the curve ; and therefore the right line oo
from the
,
vertex o to that
(6.)
mean
may
point,
),
+ uvcy + vsd$
+ tub + uvc + vsd
staa + tubfi
sta
s
in which
- and
- are
v
two variable
a, j3,
scalars,
while
a,
c,
b,
is
d are
still
but p
is
four
still
(7.)
If
we make
where
bt
cv,
= cu +
ifu b
ds,
+ uv
f
u = dv +
at,
d$_
d
v
as
bit,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
96
[I. ni.
6, 7.
follows that K
it
is
it
is
the
The
three vectors,
on a ruled hyperboloid,
~~o~^
K,
if
the
2~~
common
bisector
When
ac
bd, or
or simply,
sta
-H
tuft
+ uvy +
is
still
is infinitely distant,
),
superscribed.
And
with
=u=
%,
In general,
it is
AB and DC
l,
of the
line,
is
which
two
or the other
and AD.
On
The equation
(1.) ),
8).
SECTION
in which p = OP
is
100.
+ u =
which the
p-j(a-i./3 + r +
(10.)
vs$,
sub-art. (10.)
equation,
7.
Differentials of Vectors.
(99, I.),
p =
(0>
P +
Ap =
tf>
(t
Atf)
PQ
same curve, an
DIFFERENTIALS OF VECTORS.
AST. 100.]
PQ -
Suppose now
the n
th
A/o
A0
n th part of
(t
A)
scalar,
(t).
part of a new
A/o, or PQ,
(t)
itself
97
A,
is
is
write,
and wA/o = n
u,
we
if
Then,
variable (the
t 0efor
/o
PQ =
/orm
<r
= PR.
and
u, as constant,
origin o,
differences
mn/
and the
of the vector-function 0,
And
together.
if
this
number
be
n&p, or
<r
w , will
(in general)
made
indefinitely increased, or
to tewd
fo infinity,
<f>
n th multiple, PR or
or n ,
the function
(t); namely,
which vector PT will evidently be
We
shall thus
r = PT =
Km. PR =
that curve at p.
have a
<T
to
or, in
= lim.
wA0
(t),
form
if
W-co
and u being, as above, two given and (generally) finite scalars. And if we
call the second of these two given scalars the differential of the
then agree to
first,
and
to denote it
by the symbol
dt,
we
u =
cU,
and
= dp.
Or, eliminating the two symbols u and r, and wotf necessarily supposing that P
is a j90m
o/ # curve, we may express our Definition^ of the Differential of a
*
HAMILTON
Compare Newton
S
Principia.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
to
page 35.
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
98
[I.
m.
7.
t,
Formula :
= lim. n
in
which
and dp
is,
and dt are two arbitrary and independent scalars, both generally finite;
in general, a new and finite vector, depending on those TWO scalars,
according to a law expressed by the formula, and derived from that given law,
scalar, t.
whereby the old or former vector, p or (tf) depends upon the
sw</fe
(1.)
As an example,
p =
Then, making A^ =
number,
-,
let
= It
<f)(l)
where w
a,
is
where a
<wy
<7M
0w0w
scalar,
+ JT-
and
is
a variable whole
we have
= au
and
is
finally,
writing d and
In general,
for
d/o
t
(
<r
u and
where a
let
()
a/(^),
is still
for dp,
we may
write,
provided that we
dp = d0
now
(t)
= d
af(t]
- ad/(*)
scalars,
and
dt,
is
determined by the
lim.
For example,
if
we write d =
where h
nh,
is
th
namely, the n part of the given and (generally) finite
thus have the equation,
+
d/(0
-- ,./(*
urn.
dc
in
which the
first
member
is
h=o
A)-
differential, dt,
we
shall
-/(Q.
,
DIFFERENTIALS OF VECTORS.
ART. 100.]
:
scalars, df(t)
99
dt,
such,
by
it,
as
In
(4.)
<[>(t),
like
manner we may
the formula :
these two last forms denoting that actual and finite vector, p or $
obtained, or derived,
dp or
by
d(f)(t),
by
h,
we
which
is
dividing (comp. 16) the not less actual (or finite) vector,
And
by
(t),
shall thus
Dtp
= D,0
(t)
th
again we denote the n part of
if
r
= hm.
+
^--
h)
<f>(t
h=o
ft
dp
= Dtp dt = pdt
.
d<
()
D$
(tf)
dt =
<j>
(t)
dt,
exactly as
if
its direction is
ov = p (comp. again
fig.
32)
from
velocities of
a point
<
f
be written as p =
consequently
of the quaternion q alone.
(Compare again the Note to page 35.) [See 327.]
t The subject of the Sodograph will be resumed at a subsequent stage of this work. In fact, it
almost requires the assistance of Quaternions, to connect it, in what appears to be the best mode, with
such as
</>
Newton
(<?),
Law
of Gravitation.
[Compare 419.]
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
100
(6.)
We may
differentiate
we
7.
For example,
[I. in.
if
we
by an obvious extension
ddt or d z t, of the scalar
of notation
t is
d>
where
where
=p"dtf,
zero,
p"=
and
vp=v
t
if we
*p,
= ddp = d
differential
9-
p dt = dp dt =
,
and where
p".
of the vector p
is,
2
;
it is
p"
Acceleration.
We
(7.)
may also say that, in mechanics, the finite differential dp, of the
Vector of Position p, represents, in length and in direction, the right line
(suppose PT in fig. 32) which would have been described, by a freely moving point
of this time
had ceased
to
t,
act*
In geometry,
if p
^(t) be the equation of a curve of double curvature,
as
the
regarded
edge of regression (comp. 98, (12.)) of a developable surface, ihen
the equation of that surface itself, considered as the locus
of the tangents to the
(8.)
curve,
may
P=
if it
utf(t)
<t>(t)+
or simply, p =
(j>(t)
+
d<j>(t),
be remembered that
what may be
partial derivatives,
And
tj
d yp =
T>
yp
by the
dy.
relations,
* As
is
well illustrated
by Atwood
machine.
DIFFERENTIALS OE VECTORS.
ART. 100.]
is (or is
101
The mechanism
been considered in the present Book, is that of a sum of products (comp. 99)
of the form xa, where a is a constant vector, and x is a variable scalar : so that
we have only
.,
of the
calculus, the vectors a. .being treated as constant factors (comp. sub-art. 2).
But when we
shall
come
those new functions of vectors which can only be expressed (in our system)
Quaternions, then
function
As an example
word
(the
variables, let
"
by
rules
section.
vector
"
adjective)
of
two scalar
in which p (comp. 99, (3.)) is the vector of a certain cone of the second order ; or,
more precisely, the vector of one sheet of such a cone, if x and y be supposed
to
be real
and
scalars.
therefore,
2p
so that the three vectors, p,
v xp, v y p,
if
drawn
(18)
origin, are
contained (22) in one common plane ; which implies that the tangent plane to
the surface, at any point p, passes through the origin o and thereby verifies
the conical character of the locus of th&t point P, in which the variable vector p,
:
or OP, terminates.
(12.) If, in the
whence
it
= l, y = -
o?
sub-art. 9)
1,
we have
the values,
one of
sub-art. 3 to Art.
parallel to
two of
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
102
[I.
m.
7.
and B
and CA
OA and OB
and
variables,
Series,
it
(f>t
d2
and d,
may
= ad
2
,
d3
<^
0, &o.
<}>(t
rigorously,
0,
d3 ^ =
where a
&c.
0,
is
(comp. sub-art.
a constant
vector,
6).
we have
Thus,
if
d0= atdt,
and
+ dO - a(t +
dt)*
+ atdt + J adt z
When we
(14.)
= $(t +
two scalar
2
=
being supposed that d ^
sum of
(13.)
dt)
is
vector-functions, as well as for scalar functions) the first differential dtyt of the
function
Many
more
clear,
means)
does not
(or
when we
which we
next proceed.
mode
of obtaining the
diagram
"
th
to take a small interval of time,
say the n part of the unit of time, so that
the middle of this interval
Take the
corresponds to the given instant.
DIFFERENTIALS OF VECTORS.
AKT. 100.]
given
The
instant."
sub-art. (5).
In a
unit of time
letter to
Hamilton says
would suit me almost
n.
It
when
Finally,
velocities at the
De Morgan,
value of
is
103
compare
Life,
"
though I think the other form a little clearer. But the important thing is
that I avoid
2nd, development in series
1st, commutation of factors
;
3rd, smallness of
differentials."]
BOOK
II.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
CHAPTER
I.
SECTION
Introductory
Remarks
1.
from Algebra.
II.
in Art. 14
= x in the
QUOTIENTS
- = - =
OA
ct
q,
with
we
|3
not
\\
a (conrp. 15)
each of which the Divisor (or denominator), a or OA, and the Dividend
(or
numerator), |3 or OB, shall not only both be Vectors, but shall also be inclined
for
to each other at
an ANGLE,
right
angles.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
108
[II.
i.l.
Indeed
amount
found
it is
of geometrical, algebraical,
sufficient to
by
And
definition.
(whatever
we here
its full
it
1st,
is
geometrical import
may
dividend-line
j3,
to
what we have
a,
may
(or rather
/3.
/3
even
if
We
= q
a,
or simply,
j3,
And
or
]3
qa,
although we
shall,
the following
for
a = q
\/3
a =
pa=/3;
J a
=q;
from writing
also
such
f ormulaef
as
j3a
-
where
|3
|3
-
when
a, |3 still
denote two
vectors,
/3,
and
-q a
q,
* Such as
homology, homography, involution, and generally whatever depends on anharmonic ratio
although all that is needful to be known respecting such ratio, for the applications subsequently made,
may be learned, without reference to any other treatise, from the definitions incidentally given, in
Art. 25,
c.
theories, in
any part
of students, to see how they could be combined with that fundamental conception of the
the First Book was designed to develop.
VECTOK, which
ARTS. 102-107.]
because
we have not
yet
109
vector
it
down, that
= 2,
^
a
a
or in words,
by
algebra,
we
if
and under a
and
o =o,
then
/3
]3
The importance
and
we
trical quotients,
to the
same third*
shall next
to
each other
or in symbols, that
f
if q
106. In the
IVth
q,
and
<?"
q,
then
=
q"
that, for
vectors, a,
|3,
y,
and
aa
aiming
still
at
107. Finally, as a
geometrical quotients,
we
on
q
\<3
4
>
It is scarcely
necessary to add,
identity q
q,
that
if
q,
then q
what
is
;
or in words,
geometrical quotients, q and q are equal to each other in one order, without at the same time admitting
that they are equal, in the opposite order also.
,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
110
and
[II.
i.
1, 2.
fraction, whereof the numerator is the numerator j of the multiplier, and the
denominator is the denominator a of the multiplicand: all such denominators,
or divisor-lines, being
still
SECTION
First Motive for
null] vectors.
2.
we may
In the
articles.
called (17) a
For
kind.
SCALAR
let
(actual) vector
(actual)
vector,
first
see
or in other words,
reals of algebra,
it
what we have
whether of the
say
|3
which
is
is positive or negative ; in
such
as j3, which is inclined to a,
any vector,
at any actual angle, whether acute, or right, or obtuse
or in other words
=
=
the
under
the conditions
or
is
oca
equation /3
(comp. 2),
impossible,
j3,
]3,
here supposed.
But we have agreed (16, 103) to write, as in algebra,
Qftt
= x
we must,
from writing
also
3=
a
x,
still
denoting a scalar. Whatever else a quotient of two inclined vectors
be found to be, it is thus, at least, a NON-SCALAR.
109.
Now,
we took
In passing from a
as the quotient of
itself,
may
to xa,
we
similarity or
line,
even
ARTS. 107-111.]
the line
a,
in the ratio of
+ x
to 1
Ill
clined vectors,
have
still
to take account
both of the
be supposed (18) to be
may
relative length,
and of the
co-initial,
we
relative direction,
two
lines
an algebraical
sign,
+ or
-.
110. Again, in estimating this angle, for the purpose of distinguishing one
quotient of vectors from another, we must consider not only its magnitude (or
we ought
to
know
formed
111. Or,
and
if
we agree
to select
* This
number, which,
we
is directed.
when they
rightf hand),
shall
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
112
hand, but
when they
rotations negative
all
[II.
2, 3.
i.
then, for any given angle AOB, supposed for simplicity to be less than two right
a rotation in a given plane from OA to
angles, and considered as representing
to that plane AOB as
oc
of one perpendicular
being the positive
OB, we
may
speak
and
same plane as
the rotation round the positive axis being
And then the rotation AOB may be considered to
and
itself positive,
be entirely known,
right rotation
vice versa.
if
we know,
it
bears to a
an
indeed
is
aspect,
determination, of
what we have
QUOTIENT of two
co-initial
Vectors, a
expression,
is
determine the
generally required.
relative length of
tween them
two
lines
while the
perpendicular to their
tivo
inclination, or
others serve to
common
axis,
through that
as
the
selected
positive one (or
previously
rotation
to
(in
two
the
four numerical elements are necessary, for our present purpose because
are
altered
two
their
relative length of two lines is not changed, when
lengths
:
they form
is
in
its
own plane.
when
On
* The
actual (or at least the frequent) use of such co-ordinates is foreign to the spirit of the
hut the mention of them here seems likely to assist a student, by suggesting an
rendered him familiar.
appeal to results, with which his previous reading can scarcely fail to have
present System
ADDITIONAL ILLUSTEATIONS.
AHTS. 111-114.]
FOUR
"
113
we have
numerical Elements,
is
generally
Quaternion"
SECTION
3.
Additional Illustrations.
Some
113.
Quaternion,
34.
additional light
by the annexed
In that
be thrown, on this
first
conception of a
figure
the letters
figure,
may
indicate
to
upon a horizontal
angle HCD (supposed
The
table.
to be one of
handed)
rotation,
the
whereby
is
Fig. 34.
line
drawn two
similar
and
AOB and A O B
which are
supposed to
to,
the side O A
114.
the side OB
,
in the other
Under
hand
right
is to
;
in the figure)
while
if lengths
alone be
is
to
we
OB OA and OB
:
,
:
because
OA
OB
,
,
or
O B
and -7-7,
we regard
relative length,
OA
o A
the two
lines,
OA and OB, as
relative direction, as
the
tico
other
t These two
HAMILTON
comet
in astronomy.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
114
lines,
oV
And we
and oV.
as a Quaternion
because
its
[II.
i.
3, 4.
and
requisite to distinguish
which
it
from
are, in this
115.
the
2, expresses that
is
and
30,
40.
1st,
or O B
Of these four
60,
of the divisor-line,
OA or O A
The Ilnd
numerical element, namely 60, expresses here that the angle AOB or A O B is
one of sixty degrees while the corresponding rotation, from OA to OB, or
,
from O A to O B
by
towards a knoicn hand (in this case the right hand, as seen
a person looking at iheface CDEF of the desk), which hand is the same for
,
is
two equal angles. The Illrd element, namely 30, expresses that
the horizontal ledge CD of the desk makes an angle of thirty degrees with a
known horizontal line CH, being removed from it, by that angular quantity,
both of these
in a
known
from above).
that the desk has an
as seen
116.
Now
an
Finally, the
IV th
hand,
which
compared
no such change
left
is
although
is
(in
when
designed to suggest)
is
merely turned
own plane, without being turned oxer (comp. fig. 36) or when
the sides of that
triangle are lengthened or shortened proportionally, so as to
about, in its
preserve the ratio (in the old sense of that word), of any one to any other of
those sides.
"We
may then briefly say, in this mode of illustrating the notion
of a QUATERNION* in
geometry, by reference to an angle on a desk, that the
it
Ratio,
Angle,
Ledge,
and
Slope
to the
"
Quaternio,"
lines,
of
mere word, Quaternion, it signifies primarily (as is well known), like its Latin original,
noun rerpaKrvs, a Set of Four: but it is obviously used here, and else
or the Greek
in a technical sense,
AETS. 114-119.]
SECTION
On Equality of Quaternions
115
4.
is
EQUAL
to each other,
3
-= -,
by us considered and
two triangles, AOB and
is
and
turned,
in one
OD
OB
- =
oc
OA
or
COD, are
common
similar
when
the
and similarly
Under
118.
OD.
lines, oc,
same conditions, we
the
direct similitude,
A AOB
COD
GC
AAOBGC AOB
which we shall
call
or
A OB OCA OB
or
A OB and A OB
although
(comp.
mirror
fig.
36), as if one
were the
Fig. 36.
We
OB
OA
When
119.
.,
,
if
AOB
all
COD.
them may be
origin o,
amount of area, but with opposite algebraic signs (28). The two
OA, although not equal (110), will soon be denned to be conjugate quater
OA, and OB
Under the same conditions, we shall write also the formula,
quotients
nions.
oc
OD
is
OB
A AOB
oc
COD.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
116
the Quotient), OB
(or of
OA
and of course
[II.
i.
4.
Any
reduced to a
said,
by
contrast, to be Diplanar.
them, as follows.
and
be
may
OA
and
oc
they be complanar (119), let OE be any line in their common plane but
they be diplanar (see again 119), then let OE be any assumed part of the
line of intersection of the two
planes so that, in each case, the line OE is
if
if
lines,
We
can then
plane COD.
OF, OG, to be determined so as to satisfy the
and
also in the
A
and therefore
EOF
OC
AOB,
EOG
GC
COD
OF
OB
OG
OD
OE
OA
OE
oc
and thus the required reduction is effected, OE being the common denominator
sought, while OF, OG are the new or reduced numerators. It may be added
that
if
have
be a
new
AOB,
we
shall
also,
OE
and
A HOE a
therefore,
OB
OF
by 106, 107,
OD
OB
OGOF
OD OB
OC
OA
OE
OC OA
OG
OF
OD OB
OC
OA
may
OG
OH
be represented
by OB OA and OD oc.
:
* It
however, convenient to extend the use of this word, complanar, so as to include the case
which have equal
by angles in parallel planes. Indeed, as all vectors
of two such vectors,
lengths, and similar directions, are equal (2), so the quaternion, which is a quotient
in position,
ought not to be considered as undergoing any change, when either vector is merely changed
by a transport without rotation.
t That is to say, the new or transformed quaternions will be respectively equal to the old or
is,
of quaternions represented
given ones.
PLANE OF A QUATERNION.
ARTS. 119-123.]
117
now
the two triangles AOB, COD are not only complanar but directly
so
similar (118), so that A AOB oc COD, we shall evidently have A EOF a EOG
that we may write OF = OG (or F = G, by 20), the two new lines OF, oo (or the
121. If
The general
construction (120),
common
OD
oc, is equal.
But if these two latter symbols (or the fractional forms corresponding)
denote two diplanar* quotients, then the two new numerator-lines, OF and OG,
have different directions, as being situated in two different planes, drawn through
122.
the
itself,
even
line
vectors,
if
from
It
and there
tively
process thus confirming the conclusion, to which we had
arrived by general considerations, and in (what might be called) a popular
way before, and which we had sought to illustrate (comp. fig. 34) by the con
technical
an
essential part
(comp. 110) of
its
constitution,
and
as necessary to the
com
123.
We propose
to use the
mark
thus we shall
y
to express that the three vectors, a,
co-initial (18), are situated in one
And
plane, but
whatever.
by
/3,
plane
ft
y,
supposed to be
(or to
be made)
must be considered
(or constructed)
III
ELEMENTS OF QUATEENIONS.
118
a, /3, 7, S,
and
And
may
by
and
0,0,
HI
common
124.
With
is in (or
in
also
and therefore
we have
manner that we
-=;
if
0,0,
We shall
plane.
HI
from o be
because
4, 5.
in such a
write,
i.
[II.
all the
four
lines
<?,
*ll
we may
write generally,
,/3;
a and
the
line
OA
For a
similar reason,
we have
of complanarity of quotients,
fc
whatever two scalars x and
125. It
is
if
whence
it
evident (comp.
A AOB oc
is
COD,
be
may
//
111
a and
fig.
35) that
then
A BOA a
/3 still
and
DOC,
AOC
BOD
vectors.
algebraic quotients,
if
it
- =
-, then, inversely,
^N
ay
~ = 2 and alternately, - =
pc
73
being permitted now to establish the converse of the last formula of 118, or
to say that
..
OB
if
Under
OD
oc
OA
,,
then
AOB
COD.
alternation,
we have
ARTS. 123-128.]
119
126. If the sides, OA, OB, of a triangle AOB, or those sides either
or
A"B",
way
AB
fig. 37) by any parallel,
to the base AB, we have evidently the rela
prolonged, be cut
(as in
A OB
oc
AOB,
A"OB"
we may
fig.
oc
12)
AOB
follows that
it
__
?;
xa
where x
see,
is
again any
Fig. 37.
scalar,
and
q,
a, ]3
and any
scalar x,
we have
It is easy also to
107),
= ff/3
=
a.
jo
af)
= J3^ =
x~ a
/3
x~^a
SECTION
On
127.
5.
From what
geometric quotient] OB
that quaternion
and
is
or (as
we
directed towards the right-hand* like the motion of the hands of a watch.
128. To render still more definite this
conception of the axis of a qua
we
ternion,
may add, 1st, that the rotation, here spoken of, is supposed (112)
to be the simplest
possible, and therefore to be in the plane of the two lines
(or
of the
quaternion),
plane
This
is,
of course, merely
conventional, and the reader may (if he pleases) substitute the left[The axis is supposed to be drawn outwards from the face of the watch. See
hand throughout.
Note, page 111.]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
120
[IT.
i.
5.
assumed origin o and Illrd, that the length of this line shall be
supposed to be given, or faced, and to be equal to some assumed unit of length
so that the term x, of this axis ox, is situated (by its construction) on a given
from
the
which surface we
may
every given quaternion q which does not reduce itself (or degenerate) to a
positive or negative number, the axis will be an entirely definite vector,
mere
which
may
a, ]3,
the formula
130.
The ANGLE
Ax
by
we may now
J_,
length,
and
Employing
any two
q.
write, for
Ax.2j_/3
Ax.2_La;
a
assumed
its
the symbol
(a
of a quaternion, such as OB
Ax.^JLJ^.
a
orbriefly,
of
lines,
is
the quotient
angle being supposed here to be one of the usual kind (such as are con
sidered by Euclid)
and therefore being acute, or right, or obtuse (but not of
this
any
from
class distinct
We
when
these),
L q
where
TT
131.
is
L q
>
<TT\
When
q,
same time,
in its direction
and the
Denoting then,
as above,
any
Ax
x - an indeterminate unit-vector
0.
if x
L x = TT, if x
L x = 0,
* At a
the
less
suffice.
Ax q, of a quaternion q, by
but for the present, the notation in the text may
arbitrary (or
<
>
13 Vq
[See 291.]
"
"
The
;
angle,
unless
[See 235.]
we happen
n
to
know
A
to -.
a law, according to
AKTS. 128-132.]
132.
angle
Of
is right,
121
annexed figure 38
thus,
OB
OA
and OB
or L q
_L OA,
(1.)
points, but P
is
and OA
(3.)
(or fixed)
2
is
o,
perpendicular
to
it is
for axis,
common
RIGHT QUOTIENT;*
for
More
^,
(2.)
TT
the line OA
is
the point B
because
it
implies
plane.
128, 129),
or
expresses that the locus of the variable point P is the given plane AOB
rather the indefinite half-plane, which contains all the points P that are at
once complanar with the three given points o, A, B, and are also at the same side
;
The system
is
on the
situated, either
* Reasons
which
sets
may
on that
in this
namely to the line which will presently (133) be called the Index of the Eight Quotient.
HAMILTON S ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
[See 290.]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
122
OB or
understood to be a
]3
and we
may
write p =
xft,
5, 6.
i.
[II.
(x
>
being
(5.)
px
or that P
(1)
or that p =
xfi,
(Comp.
fig.
33,
or that
<
= x$
x>0,
if j3
=OB =-/3.
bis.)
Other notations, for representing these and other geometric loci, will
be found to be supplied, in great abundance, by the Calculus of Quaternions
(6.)
but
it
when considered
as Characteristics of Operation
on
and
by 127, 129,
new
line 01 bear to
the length of that axis ox (and therefore also, by 128, to the assumed unit of
the
length) the same ratio, which the length of the dividend- line, OB, bears to
length of the divisor-line,
the
OA
Quotient.
And
01,
it is
thus determined,
evident, from
is
said to be
this definition of
such an Index, combined with our general definition (117, 118) of Equality
between Quaternions, that two right quotients are equal or unequal to each other,
according as their two index- lines (or indices) are equal or unequal vectors.
SECTION
On
134.
as q
=
,
6.
The EECIPROCAL
is
which
is
RECIPROCAL OF A QUATERNION.
ARTS. 132-137.]
123
the angle (as lately defined in 130) remains unchanged, but that the axis (127,
so that we may write generally,
128) is reversed in direction
:
a_=
p
135.
unity
The product
and each
we have, by
of
a_
/3
p~
a*
/3
^7
fo#0
always equal to
reciprocal quaternions is
wm tfy
is
positive
because
106, 107,
a 3
-.
a a
i.i
i
.
a/3a
~
ann
ana
I
77,
I
i.
as in Algebra) be denoted
L - = L q
136.
Without
1
Ax .
q,
or -.
We
have
= -
Ax
q.
yet entering
divisions of quaternions,
if
we have
q"
22-0
.<//!.
-
>
because
137.
(as in
q"
When
fig.
with a common
The symbol
and
AOB
are said to be
oc
AOB holds
CONJUGATE
but
we
q~
11 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
124
QUATERNIONS
which
is
and
if
equal thereto,
still
or of
first,
is
[II.
denoted by
any
Kg
q,
6.
other quaternion
which
i.
is
K may
OB
- =
#;
OB
- =
OA
OA
138.
From
T;r
K?
OB
K OA
-r-r
OA
point A
nions (like
any two
reciprocal quaternions,
we may
so that
Z.
K#
tico
conjugate quater
write, generally,
= -
Ax K#
= Lq;
Ax
zK?
139.
The
= zi;
Ax.K?=Ax.-.
reciprocal of a scalar, x, is
-, or
simply another scalar, &
or 1 ,
having
itself",
x, if
seen
by supposing the
tivo
equal
We may therefore
K#
may be
as
write, generally,
x be any scalar
and conversely,!
q
= a
scalar, if
= q
K^
indefinite right
Hue OA.
reciprocal, of
unequal
tensors.
t Somewhat
that this last
is
[See 157.]
and
be seen that the equation Kq
;
q may also be written as Vq =
another mode of expressing that the quaternion, q, degenerates (131) into a scalar.
later it will
ARTS. 137-142.]
140. In general,
sum (comp.
in the
125
same
OB and OB
figure, the
),
of the two
is,
-cK<?
sum
this
negative
is
if
+ q - q + i7
Kq =
if
OA
is
null (5).
Now,
in general,
it is
necessary (for consistency with former definitions), to admit that a null vector,
NULL QUATERNION
and
as the quotient
In
for Zero.
fact,
we
- a
_ a
_ a
a
a
-
"
JL
JL
\J
the zero in the numerator of the &/fc-hand fraction representing here a null
line (or a null vector, 1,
2); but the zero on the right-hnnd. side of the equation
denoting a null quotient (or quaternion). And thus we are entitled to infer
that the sum,
+ q, or q + Kq, of a right-angled quaternion, or right quotient
K<?
(132),
and
142.
of its conjugate, is
"We
always equal to
zero.
..q +
Kq>0,
to the third
if
^?<^;
II.
III.
..?+K? = 0,
if
..q +
if
Kq<0,
^=|;
Lq>^.
And
divisor-line
vanishes, because
]3
0,
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
126
if
4-
Jq
we may
[II.
becoming
sum
that
is,
6.
i.
without
opposite vectors,
We
T.
IF.
Kq>0,
if
q +
Kq=Q,
then
Lq^-\
A
if
0,
then
Lq
IIF.
.if q +
~Kq<
then
Lq<\
>
/o
When
143.
common
or of
any quotient
j3
may
a,
-j3
/3
/3,
the two
- /3
= n -q =- q
one
thus
any quaternion
by
quotients,
0-j3
- = _
and -
while the quaternion q itself m^j, on the same plan, be denoted (comp. 7) by
+ q, or + q. The sum of any two opposite quaternions is zero,
the symbol
and
their quotient
(comp. again
is
negative unity
we may
so that
write, as in algebra
7),
=-
(-q) :q
q=
(- 1) q
^Vl.a^.o
a
The
-J3
g =1j = _ 1)&,
a
or in symbols
(comp. 126),
1
1
= - -, because
- a
/3
/3
/3
Opposite quaternions have opposite axes, and supplementary angles (comp. fig.
33, fos); so that we may establish (comp. 132,, (5.)) the two following
general formulae,
L (144.
We may
also
q)
now
TT
- L
q
Ax.
(- ?)
=-
Ax
0.
II"...E--
if
OPPOSITE QUATERNIONS.
AHTS. 142-145.]
127
..if
IF".
quaternion (132),
must be a
(1) If
we
shall
is,
is
its
own
conjugate.
right quotient.
then
know
On
right quotient, or
one which
we meet
the equation,
that p J_ a
(2.)
then
= -
and therefore
is
(if
and p =
a = OA,
o,
OP, as before),
perpendicular
to
the line
OA
).
145.
As
any quaternion,
is
or in symbols,
so that,
by
abstracting
from
the subject
we may
of the operation,
write briefly,
&.(-q) = -Kq, or
aud
..K-
II.
= 1:K^,
or
quaternion q vanishes
Sq
:
and
that,
under
K?.K=-
q,
or q
-f
K# =
0,
may be
transformed
is
part of the
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
128
(1.)
-Kq
is
lines OB,
OB
common
scalar
any
by any
by
BB
6.
any
and
i.
is
= xKq, where x
general formula, ~K(xq)
[II.
"Kq
K-
of reciprocals
we may
bis,
Fig. 36,
while
we have
bis.
still
the relation
of inverse similitude,
AOB
OC
new
point c
is
A BOG OCAOB
B OC
oc
AOB
A
For then we
BOG
c,
the formula,
AOB.
shall
=11
K -1 = K OA
OB
q
OB
OB
OA -
OB
OG
oc
-,
^r-.
Kg
The two quotients OB OA, and OB oc, that is to say, the quaternion q
the conjugate of its reciprocal, or* the reciprocal of its conjugate, have
and
itself
the same angle, and the same axis we may therefore write, generally,
:
(3.)
z.
(4.)
Since OA
K - = L q;
OB and OA
^ and
Ax
K - = Ax
g.
a,
are
conjugate
^>,
K- and
q
X.q t
or in words, that it is
;
may be represented by either of the two new symbols, TJV/ Tq, or q
[See
equal to the versor divided by the tensor ; and also to the quaternion itself divided by the norm.
:
N<?
190, (3).]
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 145.]
129
j3
that
common numerator
(comp. 138,
I.)
whereas
it
8
fractions,
(or inverse)
be
and
f
r
being supposed to
a, ]3, j3
Conversely,
we
if
OA
we
shall
the
line
know
OA
OB =
is
(OA
OB),
if
Under
some point A
in
as in
II.).
circle,
it
OB
a mean proportional between the lines OA, oc. Let then OD be such
a geometric mean, and let it be set off from o in the common direction of the
in length,
two
mentioned
last
lines, so that
by the symbols 7,
we
shall then
have ex
=
where a
is
some
positive scalar, a
>
OB
-=
OC
_
K
OA
OB
we
aa,
or
oc
-
OB
a?a,
/3
of B will be connected
a* a
,
or -5-
= T^ ]3
by the formula
a,
Conversely,
if
still
OB should be
(as above)
its centre.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
(in fig.
36, bis),
and
to
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
130
(8.)
in
we meet an equation
If then
is
[II.
6, 7.
i.
of the form,
a scalar, as before,
we
shall
know
that the
locus of the point p is a spheric surface, with its centre at the point o, and with
and also that if we determine a point c by the
the vector aa for a radius
;
APC, exactly as OB
is
to
figure.
In the same
we meet,
know that
then
in
any
length of (p
cfa]
= a x length of (p -
a)
we
shall
while the recent interpretation of the same equation gives this other relation of
the same kind
length of p
= a
x length of a.
At
(10.)
constructing
The product
(11.)
NoRM,t and
is
denoted thus
is
said to be their
it
is
was
con
common
qKq = Ng.
*
may
recognise, in the
common point (as B or p) of the circumference, shall be to each other in the given
(Auo SoOevTW ffrjimeicav, K. r. \.
Page 11 of Halley s Edition of Apollonius, Oxford, MDCCX.)
f This name, NOUM, and the corresponding characteristic, N, are here adopted, as suggestions
from the Theory of Numbers ; but, in the present work, they will not be often wanted, although it
may occasionally be convenient to employ them. For we shall soon introduce [in 187] the conception,
given points to any
ratio.
N^ and
norm
131
It follows that
NKg
positive scalar
namely, the square of the quotient of the lengths of the two lines
that the
have,
by
sub-art. 6,
NT
and by
OB
- =
OA
As
limit,
__ OB
N-OA
is
we
OB
the
OB
oc
oc OB
OB OA
OA
N0
of a quaternion is generally a
oc
/OD
OA
OA
\length of aj
is
zero
or in symbols,
0.
(12.)
With
its
centre,
which
aa
SECTION
On Radial
Quotients
and on
7.
tlie
Square of a Quaternion.
146. It was early seen (comp. Art. 2, and fig. 4) that any two radii, AB,
AC, of any one circle, or sphere, are necessarily unequal vectors ; because their
directions differ.
direction (110),
co-initial (18),
On
we may suppose
when we
so that if their
of
common
length be taken
what we
And
may
39.)
characteristic, of the Tensor, T^, of a quaternion, which is of greater geometrical utility than
it will he proved that this norm is simply the square,
*K*-Nf-(T*).
Compare the Note
to sub-art. 3.
S 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
132
The two
147.
[II.
7.
i.
may
be
when AOB
mediate case,
is
a right angle, or L q = -, as in
<i
The
HADIAL.
consideration of such
found to be of
greai>
and
Flg>
40
practice of Quaternions.
148.
is
the following
Unity
and
it
call this
bis.
Fig. 41,
For
if,
as in
OB for the
41,
fig.
we
with o for
bisecting radius t
ABA
describe a semicircle
and therefore
their
common square
centre,
OA,
is
and with
and OA
OB,
product,
J
where OA and OB
lines.
More
may
OB
Y=~
OA/
OA
OB
represent any
tivo
OA
OA
Negative Scalar
namely,
to
of the
equal
to
number, which
compared or
number which denotes (comp. 133) the length of
Index of that Bight Quotient
as appears from fig. 41, bis, in which OB is
is
Hence, by 145
(11.),
=-
if
L q
-.
ABTS. 147-149.]
133
only an ordinate, and not (as before) a radius, of the semicircle ABA
have thus,
OB V .
/OB\ 8 OA
_
= _ (length of _
if OB J- OA.
OA
\length O/OA/
\OA/
for
we
"L
Thus
149.
Symbol
</-
is,
perfectly clear
Equation,
Geometrical Reals
besides
may
Geometrical Imaginaries.-f
which
satisfies
42,
=-l,
<?
must
it
BOG,
we
/OB\*
oc
OB
oc
\OA/
OB OA
OA
that
and
the equation
we suppose
all
any
called
fig.
1,
(f
AOB
be a right radial
shall
for
if,
as in
have
this square of q
except by oc being
the lins OB being at right angles to the line OA, and being
at the same time equally long, as in fig. 40.
;
(1.)
If then
we meet
the equation,
Fig. 42.
we
as before,
shown
shall
a?,
know
y, z
be any three
scalars,
the squares
and
if
i,
j,
in three
ix
+jy
4-
kz,
denotes another right radial, which satisfies (as such, and by symbolical laws to be assigned) the
1
and is therefore one of the geometrically real values of the symbol V - 1.
equation q~ =
t Such imaginaries will be found to offer themselves, in the treatment by Quaternions (or rather
by what will be called Siquaternions}, of ideal intersections, and of ideal contacts, {^geometry [see214]
but we confine our attention, for the
to geometrical reals alone.
Compare the Notes to pages
;
present,
87 and 88,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
134
is
the circumference of a
with o for
circle,
its centre,
7, 8.
i.
is
perpendicular
circle,
A,
on a sphere
on the same
is
spheric surface,
[II.
number
a denoting the
of q is
still
- - a\
<f
= -
1,
which
which we
it
includes,
many
must be considered
to
have
(in
suppose that
expresses that the locus of the point P is a
(new) circular circumference, with the line OA for its axis* and with a radius of
which the length = a x the length of OA.
150. It may be added that the index (133), and the axis (128), of a right
in
may
a>0,
and
its opposite
and that
same",
its reciprocal
to
its
opposite
q*, is
to negative unity.
But
the conjugate of every radial quotient is equal to the reciprocal of that quotient;
because if, in fig. 36 [p. 115], we conceive that the three lines OA, OB, OB
are equally long, or
if,
in fig. 39,
we prolong
by an equal
arc
AB we
,
And
OA
OA
OB
if
qKq =
conversely, f
if
OB
is
Kq
-,
or
1,
a radial quotient.
It being understood, that the axis of a circle is a right line perpendicular to the plane of that
1,
then q
is
a radial
AKTS. 149-153.]
SECTION
On
135
8.
When
<7
a, in the
152.
is
a VERSOR.
a plane
in general,
an
and an angle
axis,
they are respectively regarded namely, the radial as the quotient, q, in the
formula, q = j3 a and the versor as the (equal) factor, q, in the converse
;
formula,
j3
= q a
.
where
it
is still
j3,
153.
by
its
first case, it
becomes
positive unity
and
two
and
limit-values,
TT.
In the
becomes negative
each of these two unit-scalars (147) being here regarded as a factor (or
coefficient, coinp. 12), which operates on a line, to preserve or to reverse its
unity
direction.
In
this view,
we may say
that -
on which
it operates,
is
)
1 is
an Inversor
a Semi-inversor
or turns
it
:*
and that
because
it
every
half-
* In a
slightly metaphysical
semi-in versor," will not be often used but the introduction of it here, in passing,
t This word,
seems adapted to throw light on the view taken, in the present work, of the symbol^- 1, when
regarded as denoting a certain important class (149) of Reals in Geometry. There are uses of that
symbol, to denote Geometrical Imaginaries (comp. again Art. 149, and the Notes to pages 87 and 88),
1
considered as connected with ideal intersections, and with ideal contacts but with such uses of V
"
we
to do.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
136
(comp.
fig. 41).
that
it
reason,
we
effect
own
= - a
we have
q,
so that, if a be
- a
qa =
line,
and
any
if
towards a given
qa =
/3,
we
shall
- <f
On
value of y/ - 1
illustrate.
1.
the equation,
q
as in 149.
whence
8.
we may
154. In fact
it is
i.
differs
right versor
[II.
For
1,
is
42
may
serve to
an
inversion of direction
and therefore
to
which bears
1,
the length of the line a bears to the assumed unit of length (comp. 128) then
the quotient a a denotes generally (comp. 16) a new vector, which has the
same direction as the proposed vector o, but has its length equal to that assumed
;
unit
by the symbol,
Ua
that
is,
more
fully, if a be, as
some
Ua
if
-,
and
We
shall
a = length of a
selected standard.
a Quaternion will not (generally) be a Versor (or at least not simply such),
We
*
shall soon propose [in 185] a general notation for representing the lengths of vectors, accord
ing to which the symbol Ta will denote what has been above called a but are unwilling to introduce
more than one new characteristic of operation, such as K, or T, or U, &c., at one time.
;
ARTS. 153-157.]
137
according to the definition lately given because its effect, when operating as
a factor (103) on a, will not in general be simply to turn that line (151) but
will (generally) alter the length* as well as the direction.
But if we reduce
;
the two proposed vectors, a and j3, to the two unit-vectors Ua and U/3 (155),
and form the quotient of these, we shall then have taken account of relative
direction alone
defined (151).
and the
We propose
and
shall find
it
On
direction.
- ==
Ua
Formula
which the tiro unit-vectors, Ua and U/3, may be called, by analogy, and for
other reasons which will afterwards appear, the versor s$ of the vectors, a and /3.
157. In thus passing from a given quaternion, q, to its versor, Ug, we have
in
only changed
(in general)
by
reducing each to the assumed unit of length (155, 156), without making any
change in their directions. Hence the plane (119), the axis (127, 128), and
the angle (130), of the quaternion, remain unaltered in this
so that
passage
we may
establish the
U<?
q.
By what we shall soon call an act of tension, which will lead us to the consideration of the tensor
of a quaternion.
t For the moment, this double use of the characteristic U, to assist in denoting both the unitvector Ua derived from a given line o, and also the versor U^ derived from a
quaternion q, may he
but as permitted, because the difference of the
regarded as established here by arbitrary definition
;
symbols, as here a and q, which serve for the present to denote vectors and quaternions, considered as
the subjects of these two operations U, will prevent such double use of that characteristic from
giving
rise to any confusion.
But we shall further find that several important analogies are by anticipation
We
radial (147), which is (in the sense lately defined) the versor of that right quotient.
shall also find
ourselves led to regard every unit-rector as the axis of a quadrantal (or right] rotation, in a plane
which will supply another inducement, to speak of every such vector as a
perpendicular to that axis
;
On
the whole, it appeai-s that there will be no inconvenience, but rather a prospective
advantage, in our already reading the symbol Ua as "versor of a.
just as we may read the analogous
versor.
";
symbol
J
U<?,
as
"versor
of
q."
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
138
More
generally
we may
L q = L
[II.
8.
i.
write,
q,
Ax / = Ax
and
q, if
U/ =
"Uq
the versor of a quaternion depending solely on, but conversely being sufficient to
determine, the relative direction (156) of the two lines, of which (as vectors) the
or the axis and angle of the rotation,
quaternion itself is the quotient (112)
so
in the plane of those two lines, from the divisor to the dividend (128)
;
that
and equal
(or coincident)
also
axes, as is
Conversely, from this dependence of the versor IJq on relative direction* alone,
it follows that any two quaternions, of which the angles and the axes are
equal, have also equal versor s
Uy =
U^,
if
or in symbols, that
L q = L
q,
and
Ax
Ax
q.
example, we saw (in 138) that the conjugate and the reciprocal of any
quaternion have thus their angles and their axes the same it follows, there
JtTor
cal
so that
we
the recipro
it
so that
11-=^;
q
IT?
Hence, by the recent result (157),
-;
or
any quaternion
we may write,
is,
at the
same
U^.ui = l.
q
we have
or,
also, generally,
* The
unit-vector Ua, which we have recently proposed (156) to call the versor of the vector a.
depends in like manner on the direction of that vector alone which exclusive reference, in each of these
two cases, to DIRECTION, may serve as an additional motive for employing, as we have lately done,
one common name, VEKSOK, and one common characteristic, U, to assist in describing or denoting both
all danger of
the Unit- Vector Ua itself, and the Quotient of two such Unit- Vectors, Uq = U/3 Ua
confusion being sufficiently guarded against (comp. the Note to Art. 156), by the difference of the two
,
symbols, a and q, employed to denote the vector and the quaternion, which are respectively the subjects
while those two operations agree in this essential point, that each serves to
;
of the two operations
eliminate the quantitative element, of absolute or relative length.
ARTS. 157-159.]
139
versors, or
what we have
common NORM,
their
is
always
NU?
= TJ? KIT? =
.
1.
For the same reason, the conjugate of the versor of any quaternion is equal to
the reciprocal of that versor, or (by what has just been seen) to the versor of the
reciprocal of that quaternion; and therefore also (by 157), to the versor of the
conjugate
so that
the formula
we may
write generally, as a
of recent results,
summary
each of these four symbols denoting a new versor, which has the same plane,
angle, as the old or given versor ~Uq, but has an opposite axis, or
it
As
159.
U#a
= + Ua,
or
= -
Ua
according as
>
or
<
because (by 15) the scalar coefficient x preserves, in the first case, but reverses,
in the second case, the direction of the vector a whence also,
by the definition
;
(156) of
"Uq,
"Uxq
= +
"Uq,
or
= - Uy,
according as
>
or
0.
<
The
positive or negative
TJ# = +
the plane
and
or in symbols,
1,
or
= -
1,
according as
two unit
>
or
<
seen) indeterminate.
The
versor of a null
we happen
know
to
to Art. 131.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
140
the versor*
The
UO may
all
become determined,
[II.
i.
8.
as limits
and therefore
is,
as such,
one of the square roots of negative unity (149), or one of the values of the symbol
1
^/
in like
while (by 150) the axis and the index of such a versor coincide
manner
and
its opposite
and
other.
160. It
is
evident that
if
produces no change
unit-vector, it
length
that
and
that, if
axis of every
its
versor (156)
divided (155)
is
by
own
its
in this case,
may
manner
in like
quaternion
is
an
unit-vector",
we
U (Ax
.
</)
Ax
q.
have therefore the two following general formulae, differing only in the
symbols of that subject
and symbolically,
UU = U.
IP =
we
--..I
U?
We may also
r
KUq
= TJxq,
if
TJKy
may
>
= - Us?,
if
<
0.
write, generally,
AKTS. 159-161.]
141
more
fully
it
as
denoting the square of the versor, or as the versor of the square, of q. The
present Calculus will be found to abound in General Transformations of this
which
sort;
all (or
nearly
on account
this
of)
elements of a
all), like
new kind
of Symbolical
origin.,
Language in Geometry
and generally, as
however, by no
means necessary that a student of the subject, at the present stage, should
make himself familiar with all the recent transformations of Uq although it
It
is,
may
we may employ
fig.
As
(2.)
Kq
points,
(2.),
we have
fig.
,
OB~
new
by 145,
OA _ OB _ /OB
~
~
OB
_
~
o7
in which,
may
U(<f)
by an
unit-circle (or
fig.
42,
to conceive that
bis)
by a circle
new
for then
if
a, /3, 7,
the three
OA
OB
(3.)
As
we have seen
(135) that it is not necessary to invent any new or peculiar symbol, to represent
the reciprocal of a quaternion, yet if, for the sake of present convenience, and
as a merely temporary notation, we write
B,-i,
employing thus, for a moment, the
letter
as a characteristic of reciprocation,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
142
we
[II.
shall then
i.
8,9.
EK = KB
BU = UK = KU = UK;
we have also (by 160), IP = U whence
easily follows that
U = BUB = BKU = BUK = KUB = KBU = KUK
= UBK = UKB = UKUB = UKBU =
(UK) = &o.
B
but
it
The equation
(4.)
U=Ij
or simply,
132,
which
(4.)),
direction
because
drawn from o
is
it is
On
the other
or
p =
or
-u,
a
>
0.
or
is
it is
0/3,
that
equivalent to
U^ = 1
(5.)
is
in the direction
because
it
may
or
be trans
formed to
U
(6.)
42
If
a, |3,
= - 1
7 denote
or
|j
TT
|j
(as in sub-art. 2)
(by 149)
or
p =
#j3,
<
0.
we have
the equation
=
a
),
fig.
then
aj
expresses generally that the locus of p is the system of the two last loci ; or
that it is the whole indefinite right line, both ways prolonged, through the two
41,
bis),
But
(2.)).
AETS. 161-163.]
then
U -a must be
In
(1.))
of these
o,
perpendicular
to the line
two
7T
^-=H;
&
a
pJ-a.
SECTION
On
supposed to be satisfied
earlier but equivalent forms
itself, if
and
143
9.
origin o, terminates
some point A on the surface of what we have called the unit-sphere (128),
that term A (1) may be considered as a Representative Point, of which the
position on that surface determines, and may be said to represent, the direction
in
of the
And
line
OA in space
and which
vectors,
Versor (151),
is
may
We may
in
fig.
39
[p.
what may be
131]
called
by any
positive scalar.
and
two
such as
is
circle,
AB,
of its
having a
definite
by a curved arrow
own opposite, or with
1)
this
latter arc representing, on the present plan, at once the reciprocal (134), and
the conjugate (137), of the former versor ; because it represents the corre
sponding Reversor (158).
163. This
mode
Compare
149,
(2.)
is
it is
equals
by
vector arcs,
were to be represented by
Note
to the
same Article
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
144
derived from
it,
(.II.
i.
own great
In fact, the two
by simply causing
reversal of direction.
circle, without any change of length, or
and plane triangles AOB, COD, which have the origin o for their
common vector, and rest upon the chords of these two arcs as bases, are thus
complanar, similar, and similarly turned so that (by 117, 118) we may here
isosceles
write,
A AOB
OC
COD,
OB
OD
OA
OC
is,
We
shall
represented by the two arcs, being thus satisfied.
sometimes denote this sort of equality of two vector arcs, AB
and
by the formula,
CD,
n AB = n CD
and then
it is
and the
inversion
Fig. 35,
bit.
equality,
AC
and
BD.
bis.)
by unequal
vector arcs
any two
to regard
such arcs, as being, for the present purpose, unequal (comp. 2), even
when they
agree in quantity, or contain the same number of degrees, provided that they
differ
in direction
which
may happen in
may be opposite
either of
as
follows.
sponding
the
tivo
reversor,
OA
AB and BC
in
fig.
43
Or, Ilnd,
OB, respectively.
may belong
arcs
in
which
quotients
latter case,
(146)
in
they A
different
and oc OB
:
but
it
OA,
AB and
we
BC, themselves, to
be
(as
has
vectors.
ABTS. 163-166.]
we may be
145
circle
we may
see that
if,
in
43,
fig.
n AB = n BA
to write also,
n AB = n BC
because the two co-initial
arcs,
BA and
which terminate
BC,
differently,
must be
existing under
we could not
We
any circumstances.
between
fig.
35, Us,
vector-arcs as
includes generally, as & part of its signification, the assertion (comp. 123) that
the four points A, B, c, D belong to one common great circle of the
unit-sphere;
or that each of the two points, c and D, is co-arcual with the two other
points,
A and
B.
166. There
arcs
may
when they
great semicircle,
or
it
AA considered
,
In
fact,
upon
OA = - a
a = -
1),
an inversor (153)
but we have seen (159) that such a versor has in general an inde
terminate plane.
Accordingly, whereas the initial and final points, or (comp. 1)
of a versor
the origin
B, of
determine the plane of that arc, considered as the shortest or the most direct
path (comp. 112, 128) from the one point to the other on the sphere; in the
particular case when one of the two given points is diametrically opposite to
*
We
say, in general
considered as vector arcs,
HAMILTON
may
be said
to
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
which
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
146
[II,i.9.
the other, as A to A, the direction of this path becomes, on the contrary, inde
terminate.
If then we only attend to the effect produced, in the way of change
of position of a point, by a conceived vection (or motion] upon the sphere, we are
permitted to say that all great semicircles are equal vector arcs each serving
;
and thereby
opposite-,
to reverse (like
is
drawn
unit sphere.
(1.)
The
in which
n AA = n BB
equation,
it
is
is
admits
(as in
nAA = n B
We
(2.)
no
effect
may
so that
and n AB = n A B
B,
generally,
producing
may
write
n AA = n BB = 0,
and
given, according to
given point
167.
A, to
The
law be
again indeterminate (159), unless some
which the arcual vection may be conceived to begin, from a
its
plane
is
in representing,
and
(so to speak)
in constructing,
by means
of a
is
to assist
Spherical
Triangle, the Multiplication and Division of any two Diplanar Versors (comp.
In fact, any two such versors of quaternions (156), considered as
119, 164).
radial quotients (152), can easily be reduced (by the general process of Art.
where
]3
a = OB
A, B, c are corners of
OA,
j3
= oc
OB,
= 7
by
:
a = oc
any two
OA.
AB and BC in
successive arcs, as
and projector
fig.
43,
MULTIPLICATION OF VERSOBS.
ARTS. 166-168.]
which
AC,
is
point of the
initial
first to
147
second, shall be called (on the same plan) the transactor we may now say
that in the multiplication of any one versor (of a quaternion) by any other, if
the multiplicand* q be represented (162) by a vector-arc AB, and if the multiplier
:
q be in like
sentation
q
q,
is
or q
sponding.
168. One of the most remarkable consequences of this construction of the
multiplication of versors is the following: that the value of the product of two
diplanar versors (164) depends upon the order of the factors ; or that q q and qq
are unequal, unless q be complanar (119) with q.
For let AA and cc be any
two arcs of great circles, in different planes , bisecting each other in the point B,
as fig. 43 is
designed to suggest ; so that we have the two arcual equations
(163),
^ AB = n BA
and
BC = n C B
r\
namely
to that of
which B
A and
in this case,
(by 166,
is
(1.)
and
c,
and therefore
the equation
r\
AC =
r>
each other in
AA and
cc
be semicircles, even
if
one of
such; and in this case, the arcs AC, C A will belong to two distinct great
so that they will
bisect
them happen
to
be
circles,
(Compare the 1st and Ilnd cases of Art. 164.) In each case, therefore,
AC and C A are unequal vector arcs but the
former has been seen (167) to
vectors.
and the
product, qq of the same two versors taken in the opposite order, because
the new transvector arc, when C B
(= BC) is treated as the new vector arc,
,
BA
(= AB) as the
new projector
arc,
as is indicated
it is
and
Here, as in 107, and elsewhere, we write the symbol of the multiplier towards the left-hand, and
that of the multiplicand towards the
right.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
148
The
43.
fig.
two products,
[II.
9.
i.
themselves unequal, as
On
169.
and qq
fig.
is
43,
made
round
to turn
its
vanishes
when
are complanar
versors, it is
middle point
B, until
in
transvector-arcs, AC and C A
will evidently
become not only complanar but equal, in the sense of Art. 163, as being still
equally long, and being now similarly directed.
Or, in fig. 35, bis, of the last
cited Article, we may conceive a point E, bisecting the arc BC, and therefore
which is commedial therewith (comp. Art. 2, and the second
3
of
that
and then, if we represent the one versor q by either
figure
Article)
of the two equal arcs, AE, ED, we
may at the same time represent the other
versor q by either of the two other equal arcs, EC, BE ; so that the one product,
q q, will be represented by the arc AC, and the other product, qq , by the equal
also the arc AD,
arc BD.
we may suppose
factors are,
q =
OA, OB, oc being
fig.
35,
bis)
any
j3
a = OB
OA,
three complanar
for thus
we have only
= y a = oc OA,
same length, and in the same plane, which shall satisfy the equation
=
/3:a (117), and therefore also (by 125) the alternate equation,
=
8 /3
y a and it will then immediately follow* (by 107) that
>:y
?-? =
We
may
75-
-=-8 = -S
7
Z=
y a
j3
pa
?Y-
if
the two
I-.-^-W
II.
and
= qq
q q
if
/Ilk (123);
then
q \\\q(l6S)
convertibility of factors
f
170. In the 1st case of Art.
168, the factors q and q are both right versors
and because we have seen that then their two products, q q and qq are
(153)
;
It is evident
that, in this last process of reasoning,
of the four lines
compared; so that we
lengths
q q
q
if
are versors.
jjj
q (123),
ARTS. 168-171.]
versors represented
circle, as in
if
and
and
.
it
and
We may
reversor (158).
Kq
149
and
q,
II.
qtf
-7-,
by a figure such as that lately numbered 43, in which the bisecting arcs AA
and cc are semicircles. The Hud formula may also be thus written (comp.
135, 154):
III.
and under
if
= -
and q z = -
1,
1,
then q q
qq = + 1
but
this
will be
it
found that
it
theory of quaternions,
171. If the two bisecting semicircles cross each other at right angles, the
circle.
planes, be multiplied together in two opposite orders, the two resulting products
ivill
be two opposite right versors, in a third plane, rectangular to the two former
or in symbols, that
if (f
1,
= -
1,
Ax
and
q q J_
Ax
(<?
and
q be
this result is
which
exists,
q,
to be
?)*
= - q\
q _L
Ax
= - ??
q q _L
Ax
q,
q.
in algebra a paradox,
namely
<f,
any two right versors, in tivo rectangular planes but we see that
not more paradoxical, in appearance, than the equation
;
<?
Ax
fa = -
find
Ax
the equation,
if
and
W~ (?--!,
then
In
=-
may
simply this
??
>
to
examine what,
we
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
150
perpendicular
to
[II.
9.
i.
them
and that
directions,
this third or
according to the
order in which the two component rotations are taken, so that one shall be
successive to the other.
multiplication,
radial quotients)
by the
division, of
other.
fig. 43) that the vector arc AB represents a given divisor, say q, or j3
a, and
that the transvector arc AC (167) represents a given dividend, suppose
or
:
<?",
y
same
:
versor
lately called q
we have
since
two
173. It
must
is
namely
identities
however to be observed
we have found
f
identity, qq
= q
q, ceases
..
(q
(168), which
?(/ :?)=/
43,
q),
if q,
or qq
q
is
q"
for
an equation as q
f
.
(q
q)
we
=
<?";
establish
be
if
f HI? (123);
then f\\\q.
still
that
we may
it is
so
write, generally, for any two versors (or indeed for any two
quaternions}* q and
(106), or the
j3
long,
although
fact
qtf :q)=gr,
ff
product q
II. ..if
AC, the
or
In
be true.
to
I.
fig.
q,
on the
Accordingly, in
q":
generally,
because
arc C
q",
the formula,
of vectors (112).
ARTS. 171-175.]
151
may
new
be briefly noticed
here.
1st.
when
conceived to have not only a definite quantity, but also a determined plane (110),
and a given direction therein (as indicated by one of the curved arrows in
39
[p. 131], or
sphere.
the
replace this rectilinear angle AOB at the centre, by
AC
at
what
be
called
the
Positive
S,
may
equal Spherical Angle
Pole of the representative arc AB so that C A and C B are quad
Ilnd. Or
we may
rants
and the
from the
first
of these
two
annexed figure 44
we may
and then
sentative of the
same versor
q,
or OB
OA, as before.
now
tive poles
B"C
B"
so that
B"
B"
what was
c"
be, in like
Ax
= oc
Ax
f
.
= OA
B",
Ax
qq =
OB",
L qq
of the
B",
manner,
Then we
new
base-angles at c
or third triangle
and A
AW,
and the
will therefore
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
152
represent, respectively,
plier^ q
[II.
9.
i.
176.
connect this last construction of multiplication of versors (175) with the general
two
arcs C
B"
and
?-
45,
at the points
bis)
same
to the
there
B"
and A
arcs C
so as to be
normal
and
to fall
and
B"
C A
and A
Let
other,
also
and
last points
B"
so as to
B",
and A
is
the product, q
of the spherical triangle A B"C
,
therefore (by 107) equal to the third quotient, y a ;
;
q,
represented, as before,
which
by the
C"B"A
of these
two
versors,
and consequently it is
of the same triangle,
is
bis,
may
assist to
and
fig.
show.
177. In each of the two last figures, the internal vertical angle at
B"
is
thus
side
B"A
to the side
the point c
is
B"C
or (as
positive] a result
we may
which
briefly express
is
when
the multiplication of
of which the
*
By
tangential
two
is
unit-sphere,
from
the point
to
by the
We may
is
an unit tangent
to the
it)
two
here meant simply an unit line (or unit vector, 129) so drawn as to be
and to have its origin, or its initial point (1), on the surface of that
sphere, and not (as we have usually supposed) at the centre thereof.
and to look towards the arc A C , it would
t If a person he supposed to stand on the sphere at
appear to him to have a right-handed direction, which is the one here adopted as positive (127).
B",
AETS. 175-178.]
153
while the external vertical angle represents the product, then the rotation round
the axis
of that product q
(OB")
axis (oc
of the multiplicand
cand, to the
q, is positive
to the
it
we may say
to the
Ax
178.
on a plane perpendicular
of the multiplier q
whence
Ax
from
of
q,
that
if
former, so as still to
the projection of
,from
have been
Ax
o,
q to the projection
q,
We
Ax
and qq
For
different orders.
Ax
= OP,
when
Ax
= OQ,
q q
= OR
and prolong to some point s the arc PR of a great circle on the unit sphere.
Then, for the spherical triangle PQR, by principles lately established, we shall
have (comp. 175) the following values of the two internal base angles at p
and
Q,
and
RPQ = L
and the rotation
at Q,
PQR = L
SRQ = L q q
fall
manner
as to
have
^ RT = A TR
We
also
and
qq
For the
banded, as
it
rotation at P
ought
QPR = L
so that the
common
to be
from PQ
and we
R QP = L q
to
shall
PR
base PQ
new product,
will be right-
QR
angle,
= Lqq
QR
OR =
HAMILTON
And
f
.
Ax
new
t ersor,
from a different
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
ELEMENTS OF QTJATEENIONS.
154
we may
[II.
9.
i.
formula,
L q q = L qq
>
yet as vector angles (174), and therefore as representatives of versors, they must
be considered to be unequal: because they have different planes, namely, the
or the two planes
tangent planes to the sphere at the two vertices R and R
;
the centre o.
by means of Re
Thus to
(162).
by
q"
q,
representative arcs
Ax
OP =
fig.
to
OR =
q,
we have only
for multiplication,
employed
and then
by
Ax
.
q",
RPQ = L
QRP =
q,
TT
- L
q",
we
shall
have,
Ax.fa":g)=oo;
Instead of conceiving, in
(1.)
fig.
L(q":q)
two
common
base (178),
is
And
then we
the versor
173) from
metrically performed
Ax
q,
q",
by
or q
q, to the
may
unequal versor q
Axis
:
(q"
Ax
q),
q",
or qq
round
is
geo
the axis
=
through an angle 2/_q, without any (quantitative] change of the angle L
so that
we
q"
Or
if
we
prefer to
c"
C"
q",
which
C",
is
is
q"
made
:
(q"
q),
represented by
cV or
by
ABTS. 178-180.]
AB of
155
while
q,
from A to A
its
(3.)
may
of an easy
and
much
simplicity
and
it is
which can
conciseness.
and
The
&c., is positive.
is to
conceive that
we make
it
round
easiest
from B
to c
from
or that round B
c to
way,
on the
any
sphere^
we
are thus the near ones to the corresponding corners of the given triangle,
arrive without
if
by passing
such,
A.
three successive
its
virtually
round the
177)
bis.
45,
fig.
Let then
and
first,
a, ]3, y be any three given unit vectors, such that the rotation
from the second to the third, is positive (in the sense of Art.
let a
/3
vectors, derived
equations,
a =
Ax
(y
j3),
j3
(2.)
being
Ax
(a
j3
to
y),
y =
Ax
(/3
a)
and we
still
shall
manner analogous
/3,
to the
y would
all
ecliptic,
by luni-solar
precession, in
astronomy.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
156
last (or reciprocal)
still
be
formulae
[II.
9, 10.
i.
j3
to
would
positive.
(3.)
it
may
it is
some
times convenient, from motives of analogy (comp. Art. 5), to speak of the
Transvector-Arc (167), which has been seen to represent a product of two
versors, as being the ARCUAL SUM of the two successive vector-arcs, which
represent (on the same plan) the factors Provector being still said to be added
but the Order of such Addition of Diplanar Arcs being not now
to Vector
indifferent (168), as the corresponding order had been early found (in 7) to
be, when the vectors to be added were right lines.
[Thus in fig. 43, n EC
;
</B
is
o equal to xa
is any scalar, x (a
Compare 14, and notice
j3)
#]3.
that the property there proved depends on the possibility of constructing
of the two Base Angles of that triangle, taken in a suitable order of sum
mation (comp. fig. 46) the Angle which represents (174) the Multiplier being
SUM
from OA
to OB,
and thence
to oc
by two
or to be trans
ported immediately, by one sucli motion, from the first to the third position.
as regards the construction indicated by fig. 45, bis, in which
(6.) Finally,
tangents instead of radii were employed,
here, that
it
may
and q
B"
from A
to c is positive (177)
which
factors q
Art. 176 will prove, without necessarily referring, even in thought, to any other
is (in the same sense) the
triangle (such as ABC), that the external angle at
B"
representative of
ARTS. 180-182.]
SECTION
157
10.
and
OK
GJ,
OT,
round the
and
let 01
oj
are
OK be the
= -
01
GJ =
01,
,/,
OK = -
oj,
OK.
Ax
Ax ./ = oj,
01,
Ax
so that
k = OK,
and
i
47
as figure
have
= OK
these
versors
j = 01 OK,
oj,
k = oj
We
serve to illustrate.
may
other expressions
the
for
01,
shall then
same three
= oj
j = OK
k = 01
= oj
OK = OK
oj
01
01
OK = OK
oj = oj
01
= 01
= oj
j = OK
- k =
01
may
OK
01
oj
be thus expressed
OK = OK
oj = oj
OK = OK
01
01
OK = OK
01
oj = oj
01
oj
01
oj
= 01
OK
= oj
01
And from
we deduce (comp.
symbols
(oj
OK)
(OK
oj)
= oj
oj, &c.,
I.
1;
=-l;
new
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
158
as
i.
[II.
10.
by
versors (181).
In the second
place, since
i
,j = (oj
OK
(OK
= oj
01)
01, &c.,
we have
the following values for the products of the same three symbols, or
versors, when taken two by two, and in a certain order of succession (comp.
168, 171)
II.
But
ij
= k
Jk =
ki=j.
j .iwe have
(01
OK)
(OK
oj)
= 01
oj, &c.,
these other
same three right versors, when taken as factors with an opposite order
III.
ji
=- k
kj
= -
ik
- - j.
Hence, while the square of each of the three right versors, denoted by these
three new symbols, ijk, is equal (154) to negative unity, the
product of any
tivo
of
them
is
itself,
j\
To
...
k, i,j,
and
bis,
may
arcs, JK,
KJ
common
pole
i,
The
IK
K K J, in fig.
K IJ, which
,
bis.
their
Fig. 47,
squaring of
i,
opposite to
or the equation
i*
= -
47, or
any one
which
1,
of the
and similarly
i,
is
for
j and
k,
to be conceived as
by the doubling (comp. Arts. 148, 154, and figs. 41, 42) of
an arc, or of an angle. Thus, we may conceive the quadrant KJ to be added
to the equal arc JK, their sum
the great semicircle Jj , which (by 166)
trically constructed
represents
may
being
an inversor (153), or negative unity considered as & factor.
Or we
add the riyht angle KIJ to the equal angle JIK, and so obtain a rotation
ARTS. 182-183.]
J,
I,
K.
159
through two right angles at the pole i, or at the centre o which rotation is
equivalent (comp. 154, 174) to an inversion of direction, or to a passage from
;
u, which
Or
is
a representative of
/,
and
from
J to
K being
positive
same product,
(4.)
The
manner be
i,
as the transactor-
and the
contrasted multiplication of
by
/, or of
into*
new
by
is negative,
may
i,
in like
the addition of
multiplicand,
k, as before.
new
be angularly
may
UK;
angles at
k,
represents
now the
from
J to the
multiplicand,
and the resulting angle at the new pole K represents the new and opposite
- k.
product, ji =
183. Since we have thus ji = - ij (as we had q q = - qq in 171), we see
that the laws of combination of the new symbols,
i,
change of value of the product, does not here hold good: which arises (168)
from the circumstance, that the factors to be combined are here diplanar
It is therefore important to observe, that there is a respect in
which the laws of i, j, k agree with usual and algebraic laws namely, in the
versors (181).
new symbols
whichever of them
may
multiplicand
is said to
K\ =
IK
A,
be substituted for
i,
for
K,
and
for
in virtue of
may
is
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
160
and write
jk =
= -
i*
= -
ijk
We may,
therefore,
1.
=/
# =
= -
ijk
"
shown that
x, y, z
Formula
ix
+ jy +
and therefore
ijk,
:*
shall
to be a
because
it
Form,
kz,
while
scalars,
j,
i,
[See 221.]
= -
definitions of the
and which we
A,"
Calculus of Quaternions
= w+
(A)
where w,
Formula
(1.)
simply
= k.k = k z = - 1;
by 182,
i*
which we
ij
or briefly,
will be
it
10.
to
i.
[II.
In
1,
may
we have only
fact,
to
remember
and
four
= oj
to observe that,
lines
may
OK,
01
be denoted by
?
j = OK
oj
we have always,
a, |3, 7, S,
L?i
7
)3
k = 01
*
= ? z = = l
a
a
j3 a
y
|3
or briefly, as in algebra,
S
~~
7/3_S
~
~~
~~
7*
= o/ oj = :
1,
so that
as before.
* This formula
(A) was accordingly made the basis of that Calculus in the first communication on
by the present writer, to the Royal Irish Academy in 1843 and the letters i, j, k,
continued to be, for some time, the only peculiar symbols of the Calculus in question. But it was
the subject,
and U, &c.),
gradually found to be useful to incorporate witli these a few other notations (such as
It \vas also thought to be instructive to establish the
for representing Operations on Quaternions.
principles of that Calculus, on a more geometrical (or less exclusively symbolical) foundation than at
Lectures on Quaternions
first ; which was accordingly afterwards done, in the volume entitled
:
again attempted in the present work, although with many differences in the
adopted plan of exposition, and in the applications brought forward, or suppressed.
(Dublin, 1853)
and
is
Similarly,
we have
jki = (OK
kij
On
(2.)
(oj
OK
(OK
OK) = OK
01)
oj)
161
OK = -
01
= -
01
1.
and
oj) (oj
(01
oj
01) (01
K.
I, J,
(oj
01) (01
OK) (OK
= oj oj = +
:
in like manner,
ikj
= +
and
1,
=+
jik
1.
(3.) The equations in 182 give also these other ternary products, in which
the law of association offactors is still obeyed
:
-/ =
ij
i.ji = i.-k =
ik
ij
i.jj
ik
=i.-l
ii.j,
=j
= -i = kj =
ki
iij
ij.i,
iji
ij.j,
ijj
cyclical
-J-,
= +j\
= -
i;
permutation of the
letters,
the same law exists for any four (or more) symbols of the same class, and
combinations of the same kind. For example, if each of the four letters i, K,
A,
fj.
(5.)
manner
IcA^t
\JLL
IK
\fJL
IK
i,j,
fj.
- IK\
fJL
lK\fJL.
Hence, any multiple (or complex) product of the symbols ijk, in any
repeated, but taken in one given order, may be interpreted, with one
definite result,
two following
ij
(among
.kk.ji =
ij
other)
-ji =
ways
i.-f
184.
182.
we may
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ii
= -
ijk
kji
= -
= -
1.
observe that
it
(III.)>
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
162
by
ij
= -
ij
kk = -
ijk
symbol
& = +
7i-
jk =
= j jk =j k = -k;
= ij.j = if = ~ *
kj
.
And
then
it is
= -
jki = kij
kji
= Pj =
ki
= - ky = -ji 2 = +/.
we have
1,
=+
ijk
ik
memory
ijk},
ji
10, 11.
i.
be suggested to the
may
(which
[II.
ij
to
-/
geometry,
if
the foregoing
also,
=jik =
ikj
=+
1,
it
by
i9
k>
cannot be subject
to all the
among
[Conversely
if
three symbols
jk + kj
and
if
ki
0,
and k
/,
e,
ik
0,
ij
+ ji =
j=
= -
ij
ji
= -
ij
=j
i*.
are equal,
Again
.jk =
iQ =
and
The product Q
-i.kj =
is
ijk
z
=j =
kij
= -
k z = P.
kji
=jki = -jik =
jk = jki
Also
Q =2
ijk
kji
= -
j,
3
,
suppose,
Qi.
and
so if
k,
and is indistinguish
= - 1, Q =
1.
* It is evident that
1
k are also, on the same principles, values of the symbol V
i,
j,
More generally (comp. a Note to
because they also are right versors (153) or because ( q} 2 = q2
2
2 =
2
1, it will be proved,
page 133), if x, y, z be any three scalars which satisfy the condition # -f 7/ + z
;
TENSOR OF A VECTOR.
AETS. 184-185.]
P=+
ik
but
163
i=jk,j=ki and
= - /, and in
his
k =
ij,
and
property does not hold, or the product of three symbols has no definite mean
ing (see Art. 25 of a paper On the Forces in the Electro -magnetic Field,"
"
Grassmann supposes
tive,
from
0,
and
On the 8-square
ing the associative principle. See Prof. Cay ley s paper
When the associative principle
Imaginaries," Am. Jour, of Math., 1881.
does not hold, a distinct operation of grouping must be combined with multi
"
SECTION
On
11.
185.
Having now
two
last sections,
Ele
the
first
word
"
conception and notation (155) of the Unit-Vector, Ua, which has the same
direction with the line a, and which we have
proposed (156) to call the Versor
that
we now propose to consider and express the Length of the
of
Vector, a
;
same
line a,
ELEMENTS OF QTJATEBNIONS.
164
which
symbol we
latter
define it
[II.
11.
i.
and
shall
Length of that line a, by expressing the Ratio which that length bears
assumed standard, or Unit (128).
some
to
To
connect more closely these two conceptions, of the versor and the
we may remember that when we employed (in 155) the
letter a as a temporary symbol for the number which thus expresses the
186.
tensor of a vector,
Ua
We
also these
construction of
fig.
42,
vector, a,
(comp. 161,
OA
a,
as one
form
of the
Ua,
and
= OB
(2.)),
Ua.
we may
OB
on each other,
of the scalar, a,
bis
a = OA
a = a
Ua,
dependence of the
a = a
to express the
= a
= oc oc
:
be thus the three positive scalars, which denote the lengths of the three
and these three scalars may then be considered as factors,
OA, OB, oc
if a, b, c
lines,
or as
coefficients (12),
oc
an
We
act of version.
name, Tensor, as applied to the positive number which (as above) represents the
And when the notation Ta (instead of a) is employed for
length of a line.
such a
tensor,
we
see that
we may
Ua
For example,
= a
if
Ta
Ta =
the
Ua
a =
Compare the
may
first
Ta Ua = Ua
.
Ta.
a be an unit-vector, so that
a,
Note
Ua
in
page 137.
GEOMETEICAL EXAMPLES.
may
165
be denoted by
<?,
we have always
T (Ax .?)
!.
(1.)
where p =
OP, expresses that the locus of the variable point P is the surface of
the unit sphere (128).
= Ta expresses that the locus of p is the spheric
(2.) The equation Tp
On
(3.)
A,
we have
More
(4.)
o,
which has
its centre at
the equation,
(p
is
a)
(J3
a),
its
centre at A.
The equation
(5.)
(p
(6.)
The
because
[and 200
a)
Tp = aTa
(p + a)
is
expresses that
if
.
(p
^=
a
&
of 132, (1.);
or as the equation,
^ +
K^a =
0,
of 144, (1.);
or as
"^
geometry
a),
equation,
to
(3.), (4.)]).
equation,
it
be written
GO
may
OA
= aT
a*a)
(8.), (9.),
Compare the
1, of
first
161,
Note
to
(7.)
page 130.
ELEMENTS OF QUATEENIOKS.
166
found
by General Rules of
formulae into any other of them
five
possible,
In
(7.)
like
is
line
A and
in fact
it
i.
11.
will be
and therefore
because
And
J_ a (129).
AB
[II.
it
is
B.
(8.)
The
limit) with a,
tensor,
we
have,
T#a =
according as
#Ta,
>
or
<
thus, in particular,
T(-a) = Ta;
(9.)
and
TOa = TO =
0.
That
= T/3 + Ta,
a)
if
Uj3 = Ua,
but not otherwise (a and /3 being any two actual vectors), will be seen, at a
later stage, to be a symbolical consequence from the rules of the present
Calculus but in the mean time it may be geometrically proved, by conceiving
= oc - OA = AC
that while a = OA, as usual, we make
+ a = oc, and therefore
;
j3
/3
(4)
for thus
we
corners of a triangle,
and
AC, or a
and
to the latter
AC, the
is less
when the
implies.
(10.) If
(Ua
a and
]3
if
T
an inequality which
*
(j3
a)
results at once
to
page 127
<
T/3 +
Ta
TENSOR OF A QUATERNION.
ARTS. 186-187.]
triangle
by
OAC
but which
be found)
(as it will
T/3
>
or
<
= - Ua, then
but
U/3
Ta
a)
(T/3
>
(|3
may
167
be symbolically proved,
also
- Ta),
= - Ua.
U/3 not
if
187. The quotient, U/3 Ua, of the versors of the two vectors, a and /3, has
been called (156) the Versor of the Quotient, or quaternion, q = |3 a and has
On the same plan, we propose
been denoted, as such, by the symbol, Ug.
:
now
And then,
symbol, Tq.
istic of
q,
as
or
]3
and
to denote
it
a,
we have
by the corresponding
(in
of
a Vector,
and
may
a,
or of a Quaternion,
(]3
a)
= T/3
We
q.
Ta, as
the quaternion q
(1.)
Hence
is
as the
we had
(]3
Uq depended
a)
U/3
Ua
(156)
whether of
was
Tq depends on
]3,
of
which
the equation
T-
is
1, like
Tp = Ta,
to
which
it is
equivalent,
The
(6.)),
p
expresses that the locus of P
is
- a
o,
perpendicular to the
line OA.
*
It has
ELEMENTS OF QUATEKNTONS.
168
(3.)
[II.
easily be
may
i.
11.
sub-articles to
(4.)
The
(5.)
()3
a)
=, or
>,
according as Tj3
1,
<
>,
=, or
<
Ta.
its
index (133).
The
(6.)
generally,
by
always
positive unity
thus we have,
156,
TUg-1;
and in
particular,
by 181,
T?:
Txq =
(7.)
thus, in particular,
T/=T&
1.
xTg, according as x
or
>
<
(- q)
equal.
T# =
(8.)
according as x
= Ta,
we may
TT
such a tensor
is
<
by abstracting
(159)
or
TT^T?;
so that,
(10.)
>
is
TTa
Hence,
(9.)
x,
positive unity
KTq
T (1
(11.)
or in symbols,
= T?
:
q)
L Tq =
T (a
0)
UT?
= Ta T]3 =
:
1.
T?
is
of the tensor.
(12.)
lines,
OB and OB
in
fig.
36
[p.
conjugate gives
It
have equal
is
tensors,
and equal
=q,
if
lY=Tfc
and
U/=W
or in symbols, that
TENSOK OF A QUATERNION.
ARTS. 187-189.]]
188. Since
we
169
have, generally,
Tj3
Uj3
TJ/3
Tj3
186
*
>
TJ
we may
>
establish the
quaternion into
to the formulae
a =
Ta Ua
.
IF.
for the
(186)
Ua
corresponding
namely,
Ta.
sitely
on the two
of those
lines
two
lines itself,
OA = Ta
U/3
versors
and
OB = T|3 Ua.
.
Then, by the definitions in 156, 187, of the versor and tensor of a quaternion,
U (OB
Uq
Tq
=T
(OB
OA)
= OA
OA = OB
OB
OA)
= OB
OA = OB
OA
= OB OA = (OB OA
II.
= OB OA =
(OA
OA)
= Tq
OA)
= ~Uq
U?
and
:
(OB
OB
(OB
Tq,
as above.
189. In words,
ing,
if
we wish
to pass
from the
line
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
by
stretching,
to the vector
)3,
or
to OB, as fig.
from OA
to
OB
48
may
and end
Z
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
170
by turning, from OB
to OB.
The
[II.
11.
by a quater
length and direction
acts, of
acts
nion
i.
q,
the kinds
may be per
formed, at pleasure, in either of two orders of succession. And although, if we
attended merely to lengths, we might be led to say that the tensor of a quater
;
yet
two resulting expressions (188) for Tq, that there is a propriety in treating
this tensor as & positive scalar, as we have lately done, and propose systemati
cally to do.
190. Since
TKq
= Tq, by 187,
expressions
(12.),
UK?
and
its
I.
= Tq.TJq;
II.
.Kq = Tq:Uq
..q.Kq=
III.
(TqY
IV.
Kq
= (Uq)\
last
TJ(<f).
OA, OB, oc
OA
At
nions,
we
rn
OA
whence
T.OO
T.OA
/T.OB =
T.OA;
OA
(11.)
their
the symbol Nq, represents geometrically the square of the quotient of the lengths
of the two lines, of which (when considered as vectors) the quaternion q is
itself
Y.
*
We may
2
qKq = T? = N?
VI.
T? -
=
y"
N<?
/ (q~Kq).
ABTS. 189-191.]
(1.)
We
have
by
also,
YIL
171
II.,
:
Tq = Kg. U?;
VIII.
Tq = U? K?;
.
(2.)
(3.)
The
may now
We may
Tf
of that reciprocal,
(4.)
reciprocal of a quaternion,
be thus expressed
N?
_ ~
U? Tq
Tq
id
_L
J-
Nq
Tq
E?
Tq
tfy
_i
Kq
Tq
IX.
Kg
= Tq
= Nq:q.
KUq
and
be considered as multi
plicand and multiplier, and let them be reduced (by 120) to the forms j3 a
and j |3 then the tensor and versor of that third quaternion, y a, which is
:
II.
where
Tq>q
UY?
T/^ and
= T(y
=
U( 7
"Uq
q,
a)
a)
may
be thus expressed
Ty Ta = (T7
U7 U
= (U
7
T|3)
U/3)
(T/3
(U/3
Ta) = Tq
Tq
Ua) =
is
andllf^.
q).
tensor
and the versor of the product is the product of the versors the order of
the factors being generally retained for the latter
(comp. 168, &c.), although it
may be varied for the former, on account of the scalar character of a tensor.
;
In
<?,
we
III.
T(q
-.
q)
=Tq
:Tq;
IV.
II (? :,?)=
Uq
is
\Jq
equal to the
Z 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
172
quotient of the tensors
and
[11.
11
i.
And
latter
in
The two
two different
orders,
qq and
products,
of
complanar or diplanar
Tq
(2.)
Lq = Lq =
If
= Tqq
then qq =
|,
L q q = L qq
and
Kq q
(170)
two
right quotients, or right quaternions (132), taken in opposite orders, are always
conjugate quaternions.
(3.)
L q = L q = -,
If
Ax
and
q J_
Ax
then
q,
= - q q,
4i
Ax
L qq = L q q = ^,
4i
so that the product of
tivo
q q _L
Ax
Ax
q,
when
In general,
round Ax q, from
(4.)
(5.)
tensor,
Under
if
and
Ax
q to
is
reversed
angle, as q
Ax
q (171)
is
to its
is
a third
own oppo
changed
= k = -ji
ij
(182).
we had
Ax
,
and
as
q q, is positive (177).
and same
q q _L
but with a
is
different axis
and
this
new
axis,
Ax q(q q), may be derived (179, (1.)) from the old axis, Ax q by a conical
rotation (in the positive direction) round Ax q, through an angle = 2 L q.
.
(6.)
The product
or quotient of
is,
in general,
173
(7.)
...(
Also,
(8.)
<?).?
or in words, the
192. Let q 1
q q
VI. ..(q
<?
we have
I.,
.<f)
= q.
:q
formula
= 1
a)
= a
(a
J3)
(1
q)
y)
(/3
is
(1
q)
or briefly,
Hq q = E? E/,
.
if
equation,
q
KU =
UE,
any quaternion
is
versor of a product
is
KUq q
UE? ?
UE? UE?
.
we
while the
see that
KUq KUq.
.
But
Kq
by 191
we
formula
and general
II.
..Kq
Kq.Kq
(still)
in
is
equal to the
These two
may
q.
E?
?,
and
"Kq
Kq
,
q,
= -
Kq
as in 170.
= - q (by 144)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
174
(3.)
a, j3,
(4.)
may
be thus written
..Z^=K^.K;
III.
where
[Il.i.gll
may
fig.
49,
we have
AOB
BOG,
BOE
DOB
Gc
pa op
75
we
shall have,
by
IF
73
III.,
= K-,
^
a
o
ADOCGC AOE;
or
two.
(5.)
(6.)
any two
and
circles,
if
easy consequence (through equal angles, &c.), from the last inverse similitude.
(6.) The same conclusion (respecting concircularity, &o.) may be otherwise
geometrically drawn, from the equality of the two rectangles, AOC and DOE,
each being equal to the square of the tangent OB which may serve as an
instructive verification of the recent formula III., and as an example of the
and
An
common
sphere.
Multi
and Division,
plication
|3
and 7 be each
-L a
right quotients, q =
planarities, /3
|||
]3,
|3
7,
and
a,
and 7
let /3
and
|||
|3,
lines
/3,
7,
CASE OP
ABTS. 192-194.]
175
In
so that
we have (by
fact,
= T/3
Tj3
we may
T 7 =T 7 :T,
Ta,
and
U (/
is
easily established
L (i
We
by means
:
(IB
/3)
/3),
(1.)
tivo
/3
=
)
T( 7
/3)
by the formula,
U7
or
U7
U/3 =
U(3,
of the equations,
Ax. (/: 7 ) = Ax
0)
U.
that
Quotient of any
i,j,
= L
y)
U (7
J3
T(/
.-.
Right Quaternions
is
equal
to the
Quotient of their
u the
Indices"*
OK
01, QJ,
and we
j
(2.)
In
like
= 01
oj = k = oj
(3.)
- j = oj
01
i,
01,
- k are
-j,
= k = 01
&c.
oj
01
oj
OK
and
&c.
may
easily
serve to illustrate.
As
product 7
a = (7
]3)
(]3
is
|3)
(a
j3);
We
*
have thus a new point of agreement, or of connexion, between right quaternions, and their
index-vectors, tending to justify the ultimate assumption (not yet made), of equality between the former
and the latter [see 290]. In fact, we shall soon prove that the index of the sum (or difference), of any
two
it
"
Index of
?."]
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
176
whence
it is
is
to
equal
[II.
i.
11, 12.
q"
two
and therefore
also
because
we have,
generally,
by principles already
L q = o, then Index of
SECTION
q=Tq Ax
.
q.
12.
On the 8um
The Addition
195.
of
q considered as a geometrical
other
any
given quaternion q, considered also
as a fraction, can always be accomplished by the first general formula of
when
Art. 106,*
common denominator
and
if
they
be not already given as having such, they can always be reduced so as to have
And because the addition of any two lines
one, by the process of Art. 120.
was early seen to be a commutative operation (7, 9), so that we have always
=
7 + j3 |3 + y, it follows (by 106) that the addition of any two quaternions
is likewise a commutative operation, or in symbols, that
I.
SUM
so that the
at least
two"f
+ q = q + q
is
independent of
their Order
is
of any
is
+
(<?
q)
EY
4-
Kg.
is
a definition.]
found [in 207] that this result admits of being extended to the case of three (or more}
but, for the moment, we content ourselves with two.
[As an example of non-commu
It will be
quaternions
last written
ARTS. 194-196.]
177
or let the three lines OB, oc, OD be reflected (in the sense of 138)
DD
which thus
Then each of
,
fig. 36 [p. 115].
joining lines, BB cc ,
the lines OB, oc, OD, and therefore also the whole plane figure OBDC, may be
,
as
it
does BB in
axis, by a conical
and consequently the new figure OB D C like
one OBDC, must be a parallelogram. Thus (comp. 106, 137), we have
that old
OD = oc + OB
Simple
(2.)
$=/+
]3
(/
a)
(|3
a)
II. is justified.
to illustrate
is,
it,
and unnecessary
the reader
as it appears to be to
attention
with which
may be
many
once more
important
present Calculus and are thereby kept ready for future application, and for
easy combination with other results of the same kind.
Compare the remarks
:
already
made
in 132, (6.)
145, (10.)
161
179,
(3.)
192,
(6.)
and some
an
oblique
196.
One
summands, q
of the
and
We
always a
scalar.
symbol,
Bq
I.
or defining the
II.
new symbol
.
Sq = I
(q
S<?
q +
Kq
Kq
+ q = 2Sq
sum by
the
by the formula,
+ Kq)
or briefly, IF.
S = J
(1
+ K).
equal scalars
or in symbols,
III.
S? = Sq,
if
<?
=?;
and
IV.
SK?
= Sq
or briefly,
IV.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
SK
S.
2
ELEMENTS OF QUATEENIONS.
178
i.
[II.
12.
And
We may therefore
V.
Sa?
x be a scalar
x, if
and
VII.
Again, because OA in
plied thereby,
we may
is
|.
multiplied by
when OB
x,
is
multi
S#0 = #S0,
x be any scalar
if
IX.
Also because
Zq =
if
0,
115]
[p.
S 2 = SS = S
write, generally,
VIII.
and therefore
36
fig.
S0 -
..
now
Sq = 8 (Tq
while
= Tq
11 q)
SU0.
KIJ0 =
equation,
XQTT
ou
.
1
dTT
= o
u
tt
-V
QTT ft = QTT
A....OU
ioU^5
or
et
!?
JO
whence, by IX.,
XL .S0-T0.SU-;
and therefore
"VTT
A.11.
C!
.
J$q
Q
o
T~i
JLq
Tq T - =
.
"NT
S^
-&.11
T^.SU
a
C!
.
Jo
AT
IN
I.
Q
o
results of 142,
3;
1,
"VTT
=JN0.b
q
The
(V.), since
by 190,
also,
XI
or
73.
or II., enable us to
XIII.
S0
>,
=, or
<
0,
according as L q
^,
according as S0
<>
=, or
>
and conversely,
XIV.
En fact,
fig.
36,
if
we
z.
we compare
<,
=, or
>
that definition
=, or
<
0.
S (OB
we may
I.
>,
OA)
= OA
OA,
write, generally,
XV.
S0 = T0
cos
z0
or
XVI.
SU0 = cos/0;
SCALAR OF A QUATERNION.
ART. 196.]
179
XVII. ..Ltf=Lq,
the angle L q being
and
?r;
whence
still
taken
S U? = SU0,
if
not to
(as in 130), so as
fall
also,
XVIII. ..LJ=Lq,
T/ =
and
S/=S?,
if
Ty,
the angle of a quaternion being thus given, when the scalar and the tensor of that
quaternion are given, or known. Finally because, in the same figure 36
line,
OA = (OA
OA)
OA = OA
S (OB
OA),
may
XIX.
aS
= S -
= projection of (3 on a
XX.
Projection of
on a =
Ua
Tj3
SU^;
we
have, generally,
XXI.
while, for the
US?
the expressions,
(8.),
XXII.
TS? =
Sg;
XXIII.
KS?
= Sq
or
XXIII
KS
= S
IV.),
and, by 131,
XXIV.
S<?
0,
or
TT,
unless L q = -
tU
in
which
last case
US*? becoming at
TS<?
186, 187.
* Compare
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
180
(1.)
The
S^=
equation,
[II.i.12.
0,
is
(6.)
by the equation,
or
T 1?
p-a
The
(2.)
1, of
187,
(2.).
equation,
or
expresses that BP _L OA
on OA
The
(3.)
(4.)
and OA
The
B,
perpendicular
projection
to the line
OA.
equation,
is
for axis,
is
on one
is
with o
the point B.
and
by the equation,
\
(5.)
The
8^
because
OA
it
itself ,
(6.)
expresses (comp.
is
or
1,
SU^
a
= T-,
p
XIX.)
On
equation,
is
to the line
or that
S-
is
OA;
the line
0.
=
,
or
a diameter,
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 196.]
(7.)
Hence
tico
S? =
a
represents the
the plane
(8.)
(5.), witli
And
equations,
S^-l,
l,
circle,
new
(fj.),
therefore this
181
is
cut
by
let fall
equation,
obtained by multiplying the two last, represents the Cyclic* Cone (or cone of
the second order, but not generally of revolution], which rests on this last circle
(7.)
(8.) is
be a point of
the locus,
any scalar
the locus
(8.) is,
But the
(8.).
when p
is
changed
latter
equa
to xp, x being
the origin, o
(9.)
The system
s.s-i,
p
(in writing the
first
section
that
namely
s-i,
y
of
let
fall
upon
it,
vectors o.
every plane ellipse (or other come section] in space, of
(10.) Conversely,
which the plane does not pass through the origin, may be represented by a
because the cone which rests on
system of two equations, of this last /0m (9.)
;
any such
be a
and has
its vertex
known
to
cyclic cone.
(11.)
cone (8.)
*
The
is
cut
curve (or rather the pair of curves), in which an oblique but cyclic
by a
may
deserve to be
on a circular
named
the Apollonian
from Apollonius of Perga, in whose great work on Conies (KUVIK&V), already referred to in a Note
to page 130, the properties of such a cone
although
appear to have been first treated systematically
the cone of revolution had been studied
by Euclid. But the designation cyclic cone" is shorter; and
it seerus more
natural, in geometry, to speak of the above-mentioned oblique cone thus, for the purpose
Cone,
"
of marking its connexion with the circle, than to call it, as is now usually -done, a cone of the second
order, or of the secottd degree
although these phrases also have their advantages.
:
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
182
[II.
12.
i.
modern
its
the length of the radius of the sphere being here, for simplicity, supposed to
be the unit of length. But, by writing Tp = a, where a may denote any
constant and positive scalar, we can at once remove this last restriction, if it be
The equation
(12.)
do
to
may
(8.)
be written, by XII. or
XII
.,
8
J
or
so.
r Nr
briefly,
p
if
and
so that a
which
is
= Ta.U/3,
the cone
(8.)
on the sphere
(6.),
j3
and OB
aT^
Tj3
of Art. 188,
is cut,
Ua
and
(5.)
fig.
48.
in the circle
which
and
]3
Hence
(13.)
(7.),
=/3T|
this
is
new plane
1,
equations,
(14.)
scalar,
may
(5.)
cone
(8.)
may
j3
and the
(15.)
||
be
real,
a*a,
sphere
we may
a>\,
In the same
is,
case,
(6.),
circle (7.)
and the
write
(j8
with the
the cone
a)
= a2
a =
a,
/3
j3
circle (7.).
is
one of revolution
every point P of
its
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 196.]
the vertex o,
from
equations
(7.) give,
(12.),
Conversely,
and 186,
if
:s2
(16.)
by XII.,
=a
N a = S^:S-=l:Sa
(Compare 145,
= aTa.
at a distance
namely
183
To =
Or
aTa.
(5.).)
a*
=s
N^a = S^:Sa
S^^
or (comp. (2.)),
S-,
p
=
;
by our having ]3 = a, as
2
since otherwise we should have, by XIV., p J_ j3 - a a, and all the
in (14.)
points of the base would be situated in one plane passing through the vertex o,
which (for any actual cone) would be absurd.
which can only be by the line
]3
a* a
vanishing, or
(17.)
j3
]3,
is
\\
a, /3
||
|3,
we
]3
||
a,
a,
but that
it is,
on the
And we see
contrary, an oblique (or scalene) cone, although still a cyclic one.
that such a cone is cut in tico distinct series* of circular sections, by planes
mutually non-parallel) planes, (5.) and (13.)
or to two new planes, drawn through the vertex o, which have been called f the
parallel to the
two
distinct (and
lines
planes respectively,
(18.)
Of these two
of the sphere
when
is
may
lines,
which
(6.),
that cone
to these
may
(8.),
the second
plane (17.) is therefore the tangent plane at the vertex of the cone, to that
circumscribed sphere (6.).
cyclic
first
(19.)
The sphere
(13.)
in like
may
manner be
said to be circumscribed to
By M.
Chasles.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
184
the cone,
if
terminated by
or
is the line OB
new base
first cyclic
)3
normal
which
(17.)
lias
by
new
(18.)
the first
12.
i.
circle (13.), or as
so that (comp.
[II,
cyclic
plane
of the
the
is
its
by
V&
or
plane
circle,
of
fl
where
is
the equation,
a
S j3 =
|1
P
therefore cuts the cone in a
S--=l,
it
which
plane,
some
Any
77;
which (by
(12.)
is
S-y
so that the perpendicular
from
or
the vertex is b a
||
and cone
(comp.
|3
is
(5.)
parallel
to the
and conse
second cyclic
plane (17.).
In
(21.)
like
manner any
sphere, such as
1,
where
b is
any
scalar,
which touches
circle,
and
is
the second cyclic plane at the vertex, intersects the cone (8.) in a
of
therefore parallel
(22.)
written
The equation
plane.
XVI.) may
also be thus
STj.STj
a
T^;
p
cos L
or,
P
a
cos
z-g
T;
p
the two
cyclic
normals
inclinations, of the
namely
(17.), is constant
same variable
ARTS. 196-197.]
(23.)
The
two great
circles,
185
Tp
= 1
cut by
is
is
by the
cut
cone.
that the product of the sines of the (arcual) perpendiculars, let fall from any point
p of a given spherical conic, on its tivo cyclic arcs, is constant.
These properties of cyclic cones, and of spherical conies, are not put
forward as new but they are of importance enough, and have been here
deduced with sufficient facility, to show that we are already in possession of a
(24.)
own
first
7 +
]3,
proposed.
197. Let
so
]3,
a =
q,
OD = 8
j3
But
let
]3
a = q,
and
D are the
we
line OA,
= aS?,
q"
= q + q
(106),
shall have,
a =
= aSq
by 196, XIX.,
S =
= aS
aSq"
from the
the expressions,
(?
+?).
lines
being equal; hence (comp. 11) the sum of the projections of the lines
must be equal to the projection of the sum, or in symbols,
OD = oc + OB
V= 7
|3
a = (7
a)
(/3
sum
a).
Hence, generally, for any two quaternions, q and q, we have the formula
I... 8
]3,
(/+$)- 8^+80;
is
It is easy
{?"
(q
q)
q"
=
}
S?"
+ S
(q
q)
=
80"
+ (S? + Sq)
where, on account of the scalar character of the summands, the last paren
may be omitted.
may therefore write, generally,
We
theses
II.
where
is
S2q = SS?,
or briefly,
HAMILTON
By M.
Chasles.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
and
SS
may
28
t Comp. 145,
(10.),
&c.
2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
186
is
i.
12.
As
pi.
formula of 106
it,
the Difference* is
always
In symbols,
or briefly,
IY.
when A
SA
SA? = AS0,
AS
is
It has not yet been proved (comp. 195) that the Addition of any
number of Quaternions,
(comp.
by
difference,
But we
9).
q,
is
q",
an
associative
and a commutative
sum
is
operation
of
of grouping them.
(2.)
If the
summauds be
all right
separately vanishes, by 196, VII. wherefore the scalar of their sum vanishes
also, and that sum is consequently itself, by 196, XIV., a right quaternion
;
a result which
it is
easy to verify.
In
fact, if j3 _L
a and 7 JL
a,
then 7 +
]3
because a
is
*-/;
may
be,
we have
always, as iu
VI. ..(q
+q)-q
= q
we may
of the
axis,
we
191).
It
may
the angle,
and
is
XV.,
the
independent
and
and 191,
to
in 196,
ARTS, 197-199.]
187
respecting the quotient, and in 194 respecting the product, of any two right
quaternions (132), in connexion with their indices (133), we may now estab
lish, for
any
III.
IV.
(q
= S (Iq
g)
Iq)
is
I -} = ~
f
:
(q
Tq
(Ax
cos L
Ax
cos L
q)
(Ax
q)
Ax
q)
q,
V.
VI.
STJ
(q
q)
= q
SUq
= + cos L
(Ax
cos L
(Ax
Ax
Ax
q)
q)
that,
In words,
VII.
VIII.
is
(q
q)
Ax
q)
q).
There
the Axes.
Angle of
Art. 193
Ax
the
Angle
Angle of their Axes
= L (Ax q
L q q = TT - L (Ax q
L
by
them by the consideration
nor in illustrating
is
no
difficulty in
employed in
of isosceles quad-
rantal triangles,
133],
(q
we
,
L(q*)
by the adopted
= 2Lq,
case,
also,
and
Ax
Ax.
when
/ q is 0,
IV.
SU
(?)
(q
of
= -
may
= cos L
Ax
and
(?)
SU (f)
(f)
definitions of L q (130),
II...L(f) = Z(v-Lq\
In each
On
= (U?) 3 as in
161, we have
I.
but,
is
if
q,
Ax
Ax.
*-<!<%
q (127, 128),
if
?,
Lq>-
write,
= cos 2 L q
or -, or
= 2 (SU?) 2 -
TT,
and which
gives,
1.
2B
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
188
[II.
(f
12.
i.
V.
(</
= T? 2
it
cos2z
VI.
q;
(?
this last
(S,?)
T<f
the parentheses,
without some
2
without first deciding
made, and to write simply
be
shall
to
scalar of the square,
understood
the
symbol
signify
convention previously
whether
= 2
S<?
The
may
q*
VII.
But the
(S?)
f=
is
any quaternion
(<?
).
so that
VIII.
formula
2
S? =
the
190, II.)
IX.
Kq
(q
= (Kq) z =
iy Ug
:
2
.
(1.)
quaternion, like a positive scalar, may be said to have in general
two opposite square roots because the squares of opposite quaternions are always
;
But of these two roots the principal (or simpler) one, and
equal (comp. (3.)).
that which we shall denote by the symbol
or yq, and shall call by
</q
eminence
the
We
obtuse.
Square Root of
q,
is
its
and not
angle acute,
X.
L \/q = J L q
Ax ^q
.
Ax
common
axis of q
and \/q
Hence,
(2.)
XL..S-/0>0,
if
Lq<Tr\
while this scalar of the square root of a quaternion may, by VI., be thus trans
formed
XII.
IT.
2
2
*
while d (#2 ) is some
As, in the Differential Calculus, it is usual to write d# instead of (da;)
But as d% denotes a second differential, so it seems safest not to denote the
times written as d x*.
2
\vhich properly signifies SSg, or S^, as in 196, VI. ; the second
square of Sq by the symbol S
;
<7,
scalar (like the second tensor, 187, (9.), or the second versor, 160) being equal to t\\& first.
and the employment of the notation S 2
calculator will of course use his own discretion
;
as cos2 #
is
may
Still
for
<?
every
(j)
ARTS. 199-200.]
The
(3.)
189
XIII.
= q\
(- 7)
is
X2
OA
(os
oc
2
<7
OA
A AOB
because
B OC.
oc
200. Another useful connexion between scalars and tensors (or norms) of
in
OA, &c.
therefore
but
we
if
by (T
OA)
I.
II.
(T OB)
.
cos
AOB+ (T
os)
OA, &o., denote (by 185, 186) the lengths of the sides
write q = OB
still
2
OA,
we have
= AB
OA
dividing
T (q-
1)
= 1 -
2T<?
SU? + T?
=
T<f
2S? +
or
But
sign,
and
we may
therefore change
write,
since
T(1 +
it is
2
<?
+ 2S? + T2 2
IV.
N(l + 0)
VI.
we
1.
is
III.
And
.N(?-1) = N?-2S? +
may
be, while
.S^.N^ = S./K^=S
VII.
which gives,
if
x be any
VIII.
*
N (q
q)
N/+
2S qKq + TSq
.
scalar,
.
(q
+ x) =
N? + 2xSq + x\
or
hy plane trigonometry.
its
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
190
[II.
i.
12.
We are
passages
alluded
to,
(1.)
sub-articles.
the formula,
- a
p
or the equivalent formula,
T(P +
a)
of 186, (6.);
TG>-),
same
locus as that
which
is
represented by
S^=0,of
To pass now from
now
cited,
by
II.
(1.),
by
and
q,
by
calculation,
we have
becomes then,
N (q + 1) = N (q-1)
or
Tte+l)=Tfe-l);
or finally,
196,
the equation
and IV.,
&? =
0,
- =
Conversely, from S
0,
we can
return,
for-
cx
T
\a
+
\
or to
N
-
-- 1
a)
=
)
(p
^+
or to
a),
or
by
=
T
p-a
I.
and
1, as
III.
above;
and generally,
S? =
gives
T(?-1)=T(2 +
1),
or
= l;
while the latter equations, in turn, involve, as has been seen, the former.
(3.)
Again,
if
we
T
*
Compare
(p
145, (10)
= aT
(p
(8.), (9.),
namely,
a),
sub-articles.
and employ
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 200.]
where a
is
T(q-a*) = aT(q-l),
or
by VIIL,
N?
of
2a*8q +
a*
(Nq
we may
2Sg +
1)
N (q -
write
1)
it
as
- 2a
Sq, transposing, and dividing by c?
2
2
= fl
= Na
= Ta
or,
or,
N/o
form 186,
Tp
<7
N<7
calculation alone,
N (q - a?)
or as
which
191
and
1,
is
first, by
without any immediate appeal to geometry or the construction
(5.),
any diagram.
(4.)
we take the
if
Conversely
N^
equation,
2
,
of 145, (12.),
which was there seen to represent the same locus, considered as a spheric
= 2
surface, with o for centre, and aa for one of its radii, and write it as
,
N<?
we can then by
N (q -
2
fl
or finally,
GO
N (q 2
a)
TP
(5.)
= aTa, or
It
is
P =
a
1),
or
= aT ( P -
from
form
),
(q
as in 186, (5.)
(q
1),
a.
far
to dis
sion,
But when such a foundation has once been laid, it is, as we see, not necessary
we should continually recur to the examination of it, in building up the
that
superstructure.
That each
and in seeking
The
interesting to inquire
to interpret
it,
(q-
(q
IX.
which q
may
(q
N<?
= a\
identity, as follows
- N?) =
be any quaternion.
1), if
N?
(q
what
may
is
the
in
it is
(6.)
may
but
1)
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
192
(7.)
Or,
by
q (q
we may
write
If
(q
1)
1,
as in algebra,
q,
:
..N(?-N<?)=N
then S - =
(f-q).
because each
may
~Nq=2$q.
196, XII.),
(9.)
1)
12, 13.
Jt
it
= qz -
it
X.
(8.)
pi.
Hence,
if
(p
a)
= Ta, then S
and
1,
reciprocally.
In
fact
(comp. 196, (6.) ), each of these two equations expresses that the locus of P is
or which has
the sphere which passes through o, and has its centre at A
;
OB = 2a for a diameter.
(10.)
By
changing
if
(11.)
Hence
Tq =
if
we
q to q + 1 in (8),
1,
then
Tp = Ta, then S
--
find that
0,
- =
p + a
0,
and
reciprocally.
and
106)
p + a
(12.)
Each
p + a
Ip
-i\
\a
(P
\a
of these
is
SECTION
On
13.
A given
vector
and
of
which
~~ _._,B
OB"
so that OB
a and
it
is
shall be a rectangle.
In other words, if
be
two
and
co-initial vectors,
)3
any
given, actual,
always possible to deduce from them, in one definite way, two other
BB"
co-initial vectors, (3
which
(1)
and
when
ft vanishing,
(what we
may
functions,
it is
and that
is
j3",
193
call)
and
]3"
]3
||
And
]3.
of these
two
j3"
perpendicular to
202.
|3
Hence
a.
it is
is
= OB
OA =
ft
a,
we have
Sq = S (OB
OA)
= OB
OA
or,
And we now
(]3
a)
= ft
a.
EIGHT PART*
same
of the
v?;
same
V? =
V (OB
=
OA)
OB"
figure,
OA
V (/3
or,
a)
a.
ft"
The System of Notations, peculiar to the present Calculus, will thus have been
completed and we shall have the following general Formula of Decomposition
;
kinds
Summands (comp.
and Right
III.
or, briefly
= 80 + V? = V? + S?,
= S +
and symbolically,
IV.
(1.)
V
because, by construction, B B =
(OB
V=Y+
fig.
OA)
50,
= B B
S.
we may
:
write also,
OA,
OB".
* This
Right Part, V#, will come to be also called the Vector Part, or simply the VECTOR, of the
Quaternion; because it will be found possible and useful to identify such part with its own IndexVector (133). Compare the Notes to pages 121, 137, 175 [and Art. 286].
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
194
In
(2.)
manner, for
like
V
Under
(3.)
In general,
V.
More
(5.)
VI.
:a)
Sq =
if
0,
and
0,
OA.
a)
(/3"
and
0,
S/ =
if
<?,
Also
(6.)
equation,
0.
evident that
it is
= AB
OA)
we have the
and
V<?
reciprocally.
generally,
f
(OB
[p. 115],
13.
i.
V(/3
(4.)
36
fig.
[II.
VII.
VIII.
or
V?
and
S<?,
=
Q3
V</
Lq =
if
0,
if
0,
V</
or
0,
|3
||
TT
On
(7.)
K...VJ-J,
a ngr^ quaternion being
203.
We had
L
(196,
XIX.)
a formula which
OB = S (OB
OA)
OB"
V (OB
perpendicular
articles
to
(comp. 186,
this perpendicular
we must
we were
Tj3
the characteristic
the factor,
(6.),
/x
III.
or
OA,
may now
|3
- S
OA,
or
be written thus,
a,
a
j3
on a
and we have
=
j3"
V^.a,
^=
zY
II.
if
|3
and 196,
=
TV
(1.)).
Ta = perpendicular
distance of E
from OA
j3",
is
not a scalar,
although
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ARTS. 202-203.]
multiplication of vectors
and
195
scalars, to
|3
under the
form,
T. ..j3
(1.)
The
(2.)
(196,
XIX.).
equation,
The
=aS^
is
line
OA.
equation,
or
BB",
in fig. 50,
which
The equation
(3.)
S
a
or
0,
S
a
8,ofl96,
a
(2.),
has
"been
mentioned
loci
or that
it
we can
case
^? =
a
0,
whence p
by
last
last of these
or
0,
two
coincides
j3
ct
in the
0,
= a
case
first
by 142
so that
by
inferring,
we have in each
case
/3,
or
(5.)
The equation
is
for it expresses, by
passes through the point B, and has the line OA for its axis
that
the
P
and
of
this
distances
latter line, are equal.
III.,
B,/r0w
perpendicular
;
2 c 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
196
(6.)
The system
[II.
ay
a
expresses that the locus of P
the (generally)
is
elliptic section
of the cylinder
(5.),
= p + p
.
//
oc.
that
"i
ii
JL a,
||
(3.),
may
P "=0;
p"=0";
=p:
13.
two equations,
of the
i.
The equation
/3,
as in (4.).
form
V-T/3";
which
p"
be considered as the base of the right cylinder, in the sub-article last cited.
204. From the mere circumstance that ~Vq is always a right quotient (132),
whence UV<? is a right versor (153), of which the plane (119), and the axis
(127), coincide with those of
Thus we have
by
generally,
I.
III.
q,
V?
=
&
II.
KVq = - V?,
IV. ..SV? =
0,
or
Ax.V? =
KV = - V (144J
or
SV = 0(196,
VII.)
and
therefore,
because,
VI.
(V?)
= - (TV?) 2 = -
NV<?,*
have
VII.
We have
V? = TV? UV?.
.
VIII.
VS? =
*
0,
or
VS =
to
(202, VII.)
page 132.
into factors,
we
ARTS. 203-204.]
..YY? = Y?,
IX.
X.
and
or
YK = -Y,
or
.YK?=-Y<?,
YV = Y(202,IX);
197
because conjugate quaternions have opposite rig Jit parts, by the definitions in
For the same reason,
137, 202, and by the construction of fig. 36 [p. 115].
we have
XL .Kq^Sq-Vq,
K=S-Y;
or
we had
but
=
S<?
or
V<?,
= 8 + Y, by 202,
IV.
III.,
but
also,
by
Kq = 2Sq,
or
K = 28,
as in 196,
I.,
subtraction,
XII.
-K? = 2Y?,
1-K = 2V;
or
whence the
Characteristic,
XIII.
Y = 1 - S (202,
K;
Y = i (1 - K)
that of
K on S and Y expressed by
K by 196, IF. Again, the line
S on
is
if
fig.
BB
evidently multiplied
XY.
it
and
OB, in
and
XIY.
is
IY.)
by the same
Y#g = xVq,
by 188, 191,
XYI.
Y? = T? YD?,
hence, generally,
if
# be any scalar
therefore,
But the
and
XYII.
TY? = T? T VUj.
.
B, in
shows that
XYIII.
because,
and
we
by 202,
II.,
TY? = T?.sin^,
we have
TY? = T
T
.
OA)
(OB":
OB"
=
OB
T
.
OB":
sin
anew
XIX,
AOB
OA,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
198
[II.
13.
i.
we
XX.
which
may
also (by
..
2
2
(SU?) + (TVU?)
=1;
XXL
..
sines
and
cosines,
from the
(T. 000*
XXII.
where
it is
N? = T?
= S? 2
in various other
-V?
ways
for
2
,
that
V? =
2
XXIII.
(V?)
XXIV.
but that
V f=V
And
XXV.
we may
NS? = S?
2
,
XXVI.
but
),
(<?
because,
by
V<?,
NV? = -
V<f,
write also,
XXVII.
a result which
is
N? = N
(Sq +
V?) =
NS? + NV?
we
It
may
if
Lq = 4il\
XXIX... -(/ +
<?)
= -q -q,
..
the opposite of the sum of any two quaternions being thus equal to the
the opposites,
we may
XXX.
-K? =
sum of
V<?-S?;
the opposite of the conjugate of any quaternion q having thus the same right
part as that quaternion, but an opposite scalar part.
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 204.]
From
(1.)
q =
if
it
may
be inferred, that
Y/ = +
then
K<?,
199
but
Y<?,
=S<?
S<?
T/ = Tq,
Ax
and
= A.X
L q =
but
q,
IT
- L
q
last relations
The
(2.)
equation,
\2
V)=(v],
a
the equation of 203,
like
or(byXXVL),
(5.),
cylinder,
NV^-NVS
its
axis,
is
the right
the point B.
(3.)
The system
of the
two equations,
system in 203,
but
section of the
(6.),
if it
represents generally an
happened that 7
[|
elliptic
the section
a,
The system
(4.)
of the
two equations,
<*-!,
with
>-!,
*<1,
distance
being
(5.)
to
xTa from
xa.
1,
While the
decreases from 1 to
- # 2 at
)
\/(l
first
maximum =
from -
(4.) at
and thence
1 to 0,
increases from
to 1,
and then
from zero
tion,
to a
the word
limit-point
"
circle,"
words
if
OA
in these pages,
"
"sphere,"
is
a, to
limit.
and
usually meant a circumference, and not an area
cone," &c., are usually here employed to denote
;
"
cylinder,"
ELEMENTS OP QTJATEENIONS,
200
The
(6.)
such
locus of all
sented
by the equation
T/o
circles is
= Ta of 186,
p+a
but which
now
AA
13.
i.
for a diameter,
and
8^-^ =
by
[II.
0, of
(2.)
or
by
1, of
187,
(1.)
or
200, (11.);
new
form,
thence to the
or
first,
or to the third,
by
In
by the general
tion (6.)
may
N=l;
a
and therefore
also
TP
whence
=
a
1,
fact,
by 190, VI.
0,
by 200,
(11.).
N- = 1
and
therefore,
(6.)
by the equation
;
in
which
tions (4.),
we
if
we
two equa-
which
is (as
perpendicular to
(9.)
its axis.
The same
sphere
have
its
or
a
(10.)
If, in
by any
of
circles,
represented by
this
new system
aa
a,
we
of equations,
new system
GEOMETRICAL EXAMPLES.
ART. 204.]
The
(11.)
tion
locus of these
new
new
201
be a Spheroid of Revolu
and the
axis of the
which
is
sphere
as the constant a
>
or
<
less,
new
circles
or
because the radius of the equator of the spheroid = a Ta, while the radius of
the sphere = Ta.
The equations
(12.)
and spheroid
which
envelope
iY~i;
aa
or
or
The system
(13.)
V]
=a?-l,
PJ
represents (comp. (3.)) a variable
with
Snot
||
a,
the scalar x be
ellipse, if
still
treated as a
variable.
(14.)
or
NS
+
a
NV-l,
by
XXV.,XXVL;
/3
or
N fe
J0
1,
by XXVII.
equal axes]
or finally,
ellipses (13.),
T (V + V
and
will be
and the
by 190, VI.,
found to be an adequate
ELLIPSOID (with
1,
its
three mi-
centre, as the
which enter into the usual algebraic equation (by co-ordinates) of such a central
ellipsoid, being here virtually included in the tivo independent vectors, a and ]3,
which
may
be called
its
two Vector-Constants*
* It will be
found, however, that other pairs of vector-constants, for the central
ellipsoid ,
HAMILTON
ELKMENTS OF QUATKRNIONS.
2D
may
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
202
(15.)
-l,
or
NV^-1,
13.
or
TV^-1,
and touching
to the ellipsoid,
ellipse
i.
(12.)),
[II.
0,
in (13.)
it
by the equation,
the normal to this plane being thus (comp. 196, (17.)) the vector a, or OA;
while the axis of the lately mentioned enveloping cylinder is )3, or OB.
(16.)
of
the two following useful transformations for the squares, of the scalar
of the right part
Y<?,
xxxi.
(17.)
of
2
s? =
In referring
upon occasion,
2
(S)
than S 2 =
ay
2
,
v?
2
;
&c.
and
xxxn.
v^ =
s?
ay.
. (T) 2 + (V) 2
+
briefly to these,
may
it
any quaternion
S<?,
2
2
2 (V) = (S)
(T)
2
,
(T)
(S)
(V)
2
because these last forms of notation, S , &c., have
(18.)
scalar
may
be denoted by the
general symbol,
V- O;
because scalars are the only quaternions of which the right parts vanish.
(19.)
In
like
may
be denoted by the
svmbol,
S- O;
and
may
since this includes (comp. 204, I.) the right part of ant/ quaternion,
establish this general symbolic transformation of a Quaternion
:
we
ART. 204.]
(20.)
With
this
form
we should have
of notation,
203
(Y- 0)
Oj^O;
(S-
>0;
form
(21.)
XXXIII.
tan L q =
give, as a
TVU? SU?
:
TV?
8q.
may
XXXIV.
.tan L q =
when
XXXIV
or
-.q]
... tan L q
= (TV
S) q;
letter, q.
(23.)
The transformation
generally,
by
II., for
XXXV.
so that
we may
any quaternion
IVq = TV? Ax
by
II.,
And
because
we may
Ax
write also,
(1
Art. 149
At a
XXXVI.
IUV?
Ax
"Vq)
iiiv = AX.
= - Ax
.
V<?,
Ax
q,
by XXXV.,
XXXV.
* Compare
the formulae
xxxvr.
(24.)
q,
(1
V?) =
Ax
TV?.
to Art. 199.
generally,
and then (comp. the Note in page 120 to Art. 129) the recent equations, XXXVI.,
take these shorter forms [291]
XXXVI
Ax
= UV^
Ax = UV.
.
.,
will
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
204
[II.
13.
i.
OB"D"C"
a parallelogram
is still
(comp. 11)
so that
or
oD"=oc"+OB"(6),
and
by 106,
therefore,
//
a = (7
ty/
a)
S"=y"+6";
few
+ Q3
/
\
:
a).
<?
formula,
with which
it is
..V
II.
Hence
also, for
and similarly
any
+
-?) =
(<?
three quaternions,
(?
q)
=
j
V (q
for
q,
of
-</.
<?
q, q
+q) =
+ (Vy + V?)
V?"
summands
we may
so that
write
II.),
V2? = 2V?,
III
or briefly
VS = SV
while the formula II. (comp. 197, IY.) may, in like manner, be thus written,
IY.
VA? = AY?,
or
IV.
YA = AY
supposed
soon be removed.
to
and the
characteristic
(137, 195*},
operating on
(1.)
its
We may
Indeed,
summands
it
but
or do not operate
upon a whole
(S
by
202, IV.
(or sum),
(1.)
),
that
K2q = SK?,
ARTS. 205-206.]
In
(2.)
like
VII.
=1-2V+ V =1-V =
-S
(1
terms of
- 28 + S 2 =
from
S, as in 196,
VI.
- S =
V, as in 201, IX.
S and
for
V in
VIII.
S2 =
IX.
J (1 +
= i
(1
2
K) = 1(1 +
2
K)
K
2K + K
2K
i(l
i(l +
K) = S
= J(l - K) = V.
Similarly,
(3.)
and
.,
S 2 = (1-V) 2
S2
VI.
205
X.
XI.
206.
As
SV
VS
= J
J (1
(1
+ K)
K)
(1
(1
K
i
-K
(I
K) =
+ K) =
(1
2
)
0, as in
204, IV.
0, as in
204, VIII.*
regards the addition (or subtraction) of such right parts, V^, ~Vq
any two right quaternions (132), we may connect it with the
,
or generally of
its
Ta =
Let OB D
plane
l,
so that
^0:a)
= ^(
7 :a)=^(8:a) =
|,
8 = j +
(3.
Then
let
/3
a,
a,
round OA as an axis
and
a,
may
so that
right quaternions,
itself
from the
may be
six
cation table.]
symbols S, V,
K and T,
U,
B,.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
206
[II.
13.
i.
But
this third index is (by the second parallelogram) the sum of the two
= 7 + /3 we may therefore write,
former indices, or in symbols,
;
..I
I.
Sum
because
Y<?,
sum
their
V#
no
=!<?
if
I?,
Sum* of any
^=/<?
(205, I.)
=|;
and
Y (q
is
equal
to the
9
IV+
sum of
quaternions is the
is
?)
the formula,
II.
of the
of their Indices.
we have
(?
In
q) is
sum
like
of
always
any two
manner, there
proving that
difficulty in
III.
.!(<?
-<?)
=!<?
if
I?,
L<f=L
^;
We
may
then reduce the addition or subtraction of any two such quotients, or parts,
a right quaternion being always
given, or known.
We
(in
and (llnd) the geometrical operation of multiplying their versors, which latter
was constructed by a certain composition of rotations, and was represented (in
either of two distinct but connected ways, 167, 175) by sides or angles of a
spherical triangle
so the
(by 197, I., and 206, II.) to, 1st, the algebraical addition of their scalar parts,
considered as two positive or negative numbers (16.) ; and, llnd, the geome
trical addition of the indices of their right parts,
Parallelogram
* Compare
t
it
(6.).f
In
like
according to the
(1.)
Rule of
the
being performed
manner, as the general Division of Quaternions
of right lines, considered as analogous to composition of motions (or of forces), had occurred to several
writers before the invention of the quaternions
although the method adopted, in the present and in
A (1.) for the line AB,
a former work, of deducing that rule, by algebraical analogies, from the symbol B
:
may
author
ARTS. 206-208.]
was seen
(in 191) to
207
and a geometrical
division of versors, so
division
we may now
of
and
and of the mode of grouping them, we may now infer that the Sum of
number
any
of given Quaternions has, in like manner, a Value (comp. 197, (I.)),
which is independent of the Order, and of the Groining of the Summands or in
order,
is
a Commutative* and an
Associative Operation.
(1.)
The formula,
VS?
= SV?, of 205,
III.,
now
is
which they
(2.)
We
may
be associated.
can infer
anew
K (q
that
+q)= K/ +
Kq, as in 195,
II.,
S tf+q)(3.)
More
generally,
K2g
it
V (/ + q)
may
(S/
V/) +
(80
Vtf).
= 2K?,
or
briefly,
may
K2
= 2K,
be.
As
XVIII.)
t
and
TV?
themselves, so
= Tq
sin
x = L (IV/
Lq,
:
TV/ = T/
IV?) = L (Ax
*
Compare the Note to page 176.
t Two planes, of course, make with each other,
sin L
/ Ax
:
<?
q).
but
we
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
208
V?
V?
I.
II.
.V/.V?
V.
We
V?
XXXV
.,
Y?)
= -
costf
1ft
Ax.
q)
Ax.
q)
>,
V?) = tt cos x\
z(V/.V?)
IV? = +
S (Vq
VII.
= IV?
XXXV.,
13.
i.
[II.
IV.
VI.
VIII.
= ^;
SU (Vq
SU (Vq
= + cos x
:Vq)
cos^;
.Vq) =
z(V/.Vy) =
7r-a?.
IX.
XI.
and in
TV (Vq
TV (Vq
V?) =
t t~
Vq) = ft
sin
sin x
X.
XII.
TVU (Vq
TVU (V?
V?) =
sin
V?) =
sin
particular,
XIII.
V (Vq
Vq) =
if
XIV.
and
0,
V (Vq
Vq) =
q \\\q (123);
(6.),
0,
of the right
>
thus expressed
XV.
.Vq :Vq = +
XVI.
and
ft-\
Vq Vq =
.
ft,
if
x=
t t,
if
x =
but
XVII.
the
first
V?
= -
Vq
t-\
and XVIII.
diplanarity (119),
their axes,
round
mulae
it
from
I., II.,
XIX.
Ax
q to
Ax
Vq Vq = +
and which
we denote by
if
TT
S the unit-line
is
give easily,
.
Ax
(Vq :Vq)= + $
XX.
Ax
(Vq
- S
Vq) =
and therefore (by IX., XI., and by 204, XXXV.), the indices of the right parts,
of the quotient and product of the right parts of any two diplanar quaternions,
may
be expressed as follows
XXI.
XXII.
IV
(Vq :Vq)= + $.
IV
(Vq
ft-* sin
- 3 ft
Vq) =
.
sin #.
ART. 208.]
209
Let ABC be any triangle upon the unit-sphere (128), of which the
spherical angles and the corners may be denoted by the same letters A, B, c,
(1.)
a, b y c
and
let it
be supposed
that the rotation (comp. 177) round A from c to B, and therefore that round B
from A
to
c,
43
Then
[p. 144].
writing, as
we have
often done,
q
we
)3
and
a,
where
]3,
= OA,
&c.,
whence
In
fact
and
if
= sin
we have
= sin a
x =
- B
TT
8 = -
and
here,
Also
if
#,
]3.
poles of the three successive sides BC, CA, AB, of the given triangle,
AB
if ,
(2.)
new
and therefore
arcs B C
cV,
then
Ax
but x and
= oc
and the
is
Ax
f
.
= OA
two axes, or of
represented (162)
B.
(3.)
XXIII.
XXIV.
svrV-sina
cosecccoss;
A P
XXVII.
XXVIII.
TV V
TV
V-
P
.
\
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
Va
= + sin a
sin c cos B
= + sin a cosec
c sin
/
2
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
210
(4.)
by XIX.
Also,
[II.
13.
i.
if
to c be still positive,
XXIX.
..Ax.v:Y
XXXI.
XXXII.
IV
XXX.
= -
IV (V I V^)
\
/
P
-3
= +
]3
/3
and
be
If,
opposite triangle,
positive,
have
BI
all
= B, as well
BI equal in
as
= c, and
new
)3,
75
Y-
P
(4.)
magnitude
= )
= + 8
and therefore,
sin
j3i
(6.)
in 204,
A! to Ci
for example,
cosec c : sin
would
so that
by
we should
by
BI,
would therefore
still subsist,
in the second
we were
member of each.
XXXIV
.,
to
(TV
S) q,
=a
a^
IV
from
Y~ V
or
B!
to that at B
a,
|3,
XXXIII.
(IV
S)
j3
tan B
7, considered
the upper or the lower sign being taken, according as the rotation round B
from A to c, or that round |3 from a to 7, which might perhaps be denoted by
the symbol afiy, and which in quantity
positive or negative.
When
is
B,
is
the planes of
* Quaternions
Compare the
first
to
any common
line
may
COLLINEAR QUATERNIONS.
ARTS. 208-210.]
211
perpendicular to that line, it follows that the Axes of Collinear Quaternions are
Complanar while conversely, the complanarity of the axes insures the collinearity of the quaternions, because the perpendicular to the plane of the axes is a
:
common
line
(1.)
planar.
(2.) Collinear quaternions, considered as fractions (101), can always be
reduced to a common denominator (120)
and conversely, if three or more
can
be
so
as
to
quaternions
reduced,
appear under the form of fractions with
;
line
Any
(3.)
Hence the
(4.)
scalar
and
S/, Yg,
of
V<?
The
(5.)
210. Let
line
common
other lines
j3,
q,
q"
to their planes.
y, S,
like
(as in algebra),
by 106, 107,
Q/O
^Ct
In
manner, at
least
CtOttO
it
may
be
proved that
Operating by the characteristic
192, II., and 195, II.,
III.
IV.
(5.))
we
.
find that
K0".
Kq".
(Kq +
(Kq -
=
K<?)
Kq) =
Ktf + K0".
Kq". Kq
Kg".
~Kq"
Kq
Kq
Kq
Kq",
is
unnecessary.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
212
may
We
same degree
V.
[II.
i.
13.
of generality as before,
VI.
.
+<?"<?;
<?"(/+<?)=?"<?
q"(q
-q}=q"q
If, then, q, q
-<fq.
may
q",
establish the
Vii.
and similarly
for
(f +
2")
+ q) =
(<?
VIII.
S/ =
S/ 2?
Y+ Y+
<f"i
we may
so that
write briefly,
= 2tfq,
and
+ qz +
+ qm
S/ = q\ + q z + + q
+ tf nfe
q\q m + q tfi +
S/2 = /i?i +
where
qi
Hence, by 209,
IX.
(2.)
Hence
is
we have
13.), the
Multi
Sq +
V? +
.
S<?
of any quaternion,
S<f+2S<?.V?
this general
transforma
=
.<f
n,
In words (comp.
III.,
= S/. Sq + V?
and 202,
(4.),
X..
i"i
V?
</.
V?.
we have
the transforma-
2
.
we
find
XL
whence
dividing by
also,
XIII.
2
.S.? = S? + V?
2
SU (?
2
T<?
= (SU?) +
V.<f
2S<?.V?;
we have
2
XII.
(VU<?)
XIV.
VU (f) = 2SU?
VU<?.
),
we
XV.
Tq* =
N? = qKq =
(8q
-f
V?) (8q
- V?) = S?2 - V^ 2
is
now
obtained
* This distributive
property of multiplication will soon be found (compare the last Note) to extend
more general case, in which the quaternions are not collinear.
to the
t [By means
many different
T may
ART. 210.]
in a
ivithout
Eliminating
(5.)
even of the
the hypotenuse.
V<?
cosines, or
213
T<f,
we
find
that
XYI.
.
<f
= 2S? 2 -
T<f
XVII.
= 2 (SU?) 2 -
SU (f)
agreeing with 199, VI. and IV., but obtained here without any use of the
known formula for the cosine of the double of an angle.
(6.)
Taking the
scalar
XVIII. ..S/0- Sq
XIX.
We
.
S<?
+ S (V/.V?)
obtain
which we
in the latter of
V?, S/.
formula
we
or
(by 126) transpose the two factors V?
also (by 206, 207) write, instead of XIX., this other
may
may
S<7,
XIX
I Vq q =
If
we
q"
= Kq, q
"
(q
q)K (q
q)
+ qKq + q
Kq
Kq
4-
qKq
or briefly,
XX.
(<?
g)
Nq
+ 2S
qStf +
N,
as in 200,
VII.
because
q
Kq = K
(8.)
Kq + x,
q Kq
by 192,
II.,
and
(1
+ K)
qKq = 2S
q Kq,
by 196, IF.
N (q + x) = N? + 2zSq + x\
as in 200,
VIII.
of q
+ x and
whence, in particular,
XXr.
(9.)
for
N (q - 1) = N? - 2Sq +
Changing q
any two
to
/3
vectors, a and
XXII.
(|3
1, as in
200, II.
a,
j3,
the formula,
a)
= T/3 2 2T/3
Ta
SU
2
,
of Ta,
we
get,
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
214
in
[II.
i.
13.
and
To
S- Ta
a
(10.) In any plane triangle, ABC, with sides of which the lengths are as usual
denoted by a, b, c, let the vertex c be taken as the origin o of vectors then
;
a = cA,
we
j3
j3-a =
cB,
Ta =
AB,
T/3
STj
T(/3-o)=c,
a,
Z>
trigono
(11.)
circle
= cosc;
is
more rapidly
distributive property
VIII. of multiplication of
we have founded nothing on the results of that former Article and have
made no use of any properties of oblique-angled triangles, or even of right;
anew
virtually proved
in
nor
(4.)
is it
of the
justifies us in
to
V<?
XXIV.
in each of
vanishes
V?
V#
unless
0,
<
0,
by 202,
0,
(6.),
or
TT,
and therefore
its
square
hence,
XXV.
2
.
S?
<
T?
(SU^)
<
1,
We
T
whatever vector a
may
be.
(a
(Ta)
= Ta 2
APPLICATIONS TO TRIGONOMETRY.
AET. 210.]
215
might therefore have been thus proved, without any use of the
transformation SUg = cos L q (196, XVI.), that (for any real quaternion q) we
It
(13.)
may
XXVI.
SU?
<
1,
and
SU?>-1,
+ Tq,
Sq<
Sq>-Tq,
S q Kq = S
.
XXVII.
if
we adopt
Kq
.
N<?
S (/
(Tq + T?)
2
T (4 + q)
XXIX.
by XXVI.,
gives,
qKq = 2N? (T - S)
(<?
q)
>
0,
case,
>
Tq - Sq = (T -
<?
T (tf + q\
unless
member
each
q,
wo a positive scalar
is
S)
of
/=
this
hence,
and
<rq,
last
>
becomes
inequality
Tq.
Writing q =
(15.)
)3
a, c[
a,
becomes,
XXX.
in
Tq + Tq
which excepted
XXIX.
= 2 (T - S)
-(!+*)
XX.
the formula
q),
XXVIII.
in
which
latter case,
anew
therefore arrive
7 =
a/3,
Uy
Ty
T/3>T(
7 +
unless
/3),
^>0;
Uj3 (155).
We
having
was done in those former sub-
triangle^ as
articles.
On the other
by XXVI.,
(16.)
have,
XXXI.
also,
by XX.,
Tq + S? = (T +
S) q
>
0,
unless
L q =
TT
&c.,
XXXII.
T (q
.T(q +
2N? (T + S) (q: q)
.
hence,
XXXIII.
And
XXXIV.
we
may
q)>
(Tq
T (y
Tq)
unless
j = -xq,
>
be taken.
|3)
>
(Ty
(15.), for
any two
unless
T/3),
vectors
|3,
7,
Ur = - U/3,
ELEMENTS OP QUATEKNIONS.
216
XXXV.
r +
/3)
13.
i.
on the contrary,
but,
[II.
(T 7
U7
*/
T/3),
= -
U/3,
all
or
the upper or the lower sign being taken, according as T 7
Tj3
in
was
from
conside
which agrees with what
inferred,
186, (11.),
geometrical
:
<
>
In fact, if we make
combined with the definition of Ta.
=
oc
then
will
and
OBC
in
be
oc,
7
general a plane triangle, in
rations alone,
/3
= OB,
=
y
which the length of the side EC exceeds the difference of the lengths of the
two other sides but if it happen that the directions of the two lines OB, oc
;
line BC
(18.)
With
we have
Sq = cos
the equation
8q = cos
c,
XVIII.
(19.)
To
interpret,
and
if
IV
(V#
by two
(7
a)
= COS
the
fundamentalformula
+ sin a sin
cos B.
= V<?)
j3
still,
&c.,
IV/ =
is
be
now
let it
B be
Then writing a = OA
sin c
(1.),
XIX
IVq = y
),
as follows
= cos a cos
cos b
that arc.
Sq q = S
by 208, XXIV.,
gives therefore,
XXXVI.
assigned in 208,
the values,
a,
we have
a sin a
IVq
= -
|3
sin b
with the recent values (18), for Sq and S/; thus the formula
by transposition of the two terms last written
),
XIX
becomes,
XXXVII.
/3
B = a sin a cos
13
sin b
+ y sin
cos
a.
Let p = OP be any unit- vector then, dividing each term of the last
equation by /o, and taking the scalar of each of the four quotients, we have,
(20.)
by 196, XVI.,
XXXVIII.
this
.
new equation
+ sin
cos a cos PC
cos
PA +
sin b cos
PB
ART. 210.]
where
are
still,
217
of the sphere.
Also cos PA cos PB , cos PC are
the
sines of the arcual perpendiculars let fall from that point upon
evidently
those sides
being positive when p is, relatively to them, in the same hemi
point,
spheres as the opposite corners of the triangle, but negative in the contrary
case; so that cos
AA
of the triangle.
(21.) If
we
XXXIX.
sin b cos
BB =
and the
last
-.
P
such then
the quaternion expression for the product of the sine of the side
CA, multiplied by the sine of the perpendicular let fall upon that side, from
the opposite vertex B.
(22.)
c,
is
we get
XL.
and we
tion
XIX.,
or
is
XIX
.,
cos
AA =
sin c sin B
sin b sin c
as the formula
XVIII.
triangle),
V=
TT
A,
A =
7T
B,
AB =
7T
C,
while
cos
we
BB =
sin a sin c
sin c sin A,
by XL.,
XLI.
sin B sin c
sin B
- cos c
limit,
A + B +
cos c sin
A-
cos a cos
sin c
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
218
Again, by placing p at A
(24.)
XLII.
sin b cos c
c cos B,
limit,
a = b cos c +
appeared
13.
sin a cos c
i.
[II.
to be
may
when
the last
may next
now
without being
it,
reciprocals (135),
and
L q = L q = L
and
=
q"
by 106,
= 1
qq/
|,
,.
q",
),
therefore,
Lq,=
We
is
211. It
into
that equation
L(q"+ft
Let then
TT
194, 206,
and the
nions
for
good
or that
(2.)
For any
three quaternions,
OY
V?
(3.)
The quaternions
+ Y?
(V?"
q,
we have
V? =
V0".
+ V/) = V?
q"
being
V? + Y/. V?
Y?"
still
V? Y?
.
arbitrary,
we have
thus,
by
210, IX.,
(?"+
(S?"+
SO
S? +
(Vq"+
Y/) Sq + Y?
.
(S?"+
(S/. Sq +Vq
S?
(Y/WY) V?
.
$q +Vq Sq VY?
.
ABTS. 210-212.]
210, V.,
formula
valid generally.
The General*
212.
and therefore
I.,
219
Multiplication of Quaternions
generally, the
set
is
we may
so that
extend, to quaternions
may
be,
be, or be
(1.)
II.
N2?
2N?
2SS0K/
III.
ST?
sum of
binary combinations
q,
any
XXIX., we have
the inequality,
T2?,
>
two members of
the tensors, of
all possible
as an extension of 210,
And,
(2.)
become equal
this inequality
so that the
In general,
(3.)
as
IV.
The
(4.)
(ST?)
formulae, 210,
8
(TS?) =
22 (T -
S) qKtf.
easily of analogous ex
tensions.
(5.)
We have also
in which,
by 210, IX.,
VI.
because,
f
qq + q q = 2 (Sq
S? +
V?
.
S<?
V?
S? + S ( V?
VIII.
or
(Comp. 191,
(2.),
V (V/.V?)
V/g
= -
-V^,
V (V? W)
.
if
Lq =
LJ = ^.
Compare the Notes to pages 211 and 212. [On page (35) of the Preface to the Lectures on
Hamilton refers to an early speculation of his (1831) on the
multiplication of lines for
which the product of sums was not equal to the sum of products. When addition is not
Quaternions,"
commutative,
multiplication even
by a
2F2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
220
213. Besides the advantage which the Calculus of Quaternions gains, from
the general establishment (212) of the Distributive Principle, or Distributive
far, assimilated to
Algebra, in processes
with spheres, or other surfaces of the second order, including contacts (real or
ideal), as limits of
such intersections.
serve to
how
applied to
be
And
sufficient.
first
we
its surface.
From
given line OB
more
or
would
drawn
to
fully,
assign
it
be required to
the
= OP, of the
vector, p
extremity of the chord so
as
a
drawn,
function of the two given vectors,
a = OA, and |3 = OB or rather of a and Uj3,
;
since
it is
]3
which
fig.
51
may
Since AP
(2.)
serve to illustrate.
||
OB, or p
- a
\\
j3,
Fig. 51.
we may
which
line
AP
may
;
(15),
and
To
/
In
short,
we
(2.)).
T
by some
= Ta(186,
scalar x
which shall be
(a
0/3)
= Ta,
different
(in general)
in the expression p = a +
#/3,
from zero
required vector p.
Compare the Notes
and then
to
ART. 213.]
(3.)
For
221
this purpose,
Tj3, to square,
and
to
occurred before, as 200, VIII., but not then as a consequence of the distribu
In this manner we are conducted to a
tive property of multiplication.
quadratic equation, which admits of division
the problem
(I.)
by
a*,
]3
may
by
This
as before.
last
by
(2.)
be
(3.),
procedure gives
and therefore
x = - 2S ^
a
(5.)
N a^ = _ 2S
In general, by 196, II
by
(by 196,
- 2S = -
new
(3.), to treat
(6.)
It is
the vector
now
the expression
-R-
a
.
J3
Kjj./3j
it
is
(5.) for
it
was in
of the multiplicand.
j3 as the multiplier,* instead
(2.) is satisfied
for
T
as
as before.
finally,
P
a
.),
(3.),
and
XII
.,
hence,
=
/0
= Ta,
T~.T]3
was required.
(7.)
To
the chord AP, and let D be the foot of the perpendicular let
then the expression (3.) for p gives, by 196, XIX.,
CA = i (a - p) = /3S
is
= OD
a parallelogram.
*
to
page 159.
fall
from A on OB
ELEMENTS OF QUATEEOTOKS.
222
(8.)
To
j3
a
75,
|3
or
OPOB
i.
13.
which gives
-p
=
[II.
=K
OA
OB
..
,
OP = PO,
if
by
is
bisected internally,
(9.)
(7.)
if
we had not
seen
conditions
how
of
to
the
(10.) It
(5.)
/3
and
a.
(3.) of
p gives
gives
XJ.3.
And
\\
0,
p =
a,
P = A,
if
(a
]3)
0,
or
if
]3 JL a.
And
the first.
(12.)
Hence we may
by the equation,
or
a
is
point A.
(13.)
Since
substitute for
it
j3
may
-
a, if
IMAGINARY INTERSECTIONS.
by
(3.)
and
fig.
223
we may
therefore write,
(5.),
- a
214. In the examples of the foregoing Article, there was no room for the
occurrence of imaginary roots of an equation, or for ideal intersections of line
and surface. To give now a case in which such imaginary intersections may
occur,
we
drawing a
secant to a sphere,
the recent figure 51 still
(1.)
which
it
required to
is
given line
j3
We
as before.
is
draw a chord
have now,
if
pQ
= OP O
Ta = T
s
#0
and
by transformations* which
articles
with attention.
similarly, if p l
DPI,
And
the points P O
be together
will
real,
or
or negative
inequalities,
(2.)
J3-
(5.) ),
or
J3
represents a cylinder of revolution, with OB for its axis, and with Ta for the
radius of its base.
If E be a point of this cylindric surface, the quantity
* It does not seem to
be necessary, at the present stage, to supply so
it has hitherto been thought useful to give
Articles, or sub-articles, as
time to time, be given.
many
;
references to former
but such
may
still,
from
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBMONS.
224
case,
i.
13.
vanishes
(1.)
[II.
as is otherwise
but
if
ideal,
or
imaginary.
In
(3.)
and
we make,
and
Q,
for abridgment,
where v/ -
we may
scalars,
write,
1 is the
invested here
thus the fact of calculation, that (with these meanings of the symbols a, ]3,
and t) the formula Ta = T (e + #)3), (1.), wfow treated by the rules of quater
(x
root
s)
0,
to
the sphere,
line
through E
and therefore
is,
in
we may
agree to say, as usual, that the line intersects the sphere in two imaginary
points.
We
in
which
imaginary part
E"
to the sphere,
expression, represents
to
point, or
IMAGINARY INTERSECTIONS.
In
we
fact, if
E E =
write OE =
t
= -
s]3
= |3S
And
imaginary.
-~
shall
have
= projection of OE on OB
whether the points P O
(4.),
PI
be real or
because
"
we
we
sj3,
225
An
assertion
= v/(T
- Ta2 =
)
/2
E",
(4.) is justified.
(4.),
or of the following,
)3
(scalar)
imaginary
In
like
And
if
a bivector
such as
(6.)
- =
be divided by a
+ ^
a
in which q Q
may
and
-l
(real)
/
vector,
the quotient,
-l
is,
as before, imaginary,
215.
The same
and the
maybe employed
in investiga
to page 133.
[This word
is
Clifford.]
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
226
the line OB are to be assigned, which shall permit the same reality
being
drawn
still
N-- N
the quadratic in x
may
Ta =
T(e +
that
is,
by
#|3)
TE,
according as
EOB
sin
(3.)
Pi
+ x
and its
EP
(2.)
13.
i.
[II.
or = or
<
>
OA
<
OE.
Ta, T(a
can never exceed unity (by 204, XIX., or by 210, XV., &c.)
fore, in this case, the first of the three recent alternatives,
>
e)
;
but
we
TVUy
have, there
roots of
the quadratic are necessarily real and unequal, whatever the direction of /3 may
be.
Accordingly it is evident, geometrically, that every indefinite right line,
point,
alternative (2.)
therefore
TVU
(]3
when
(a
in
e)
two
(5.)
e)
But
TYU
exceed
finally, if E
(j3
E)
it; so that
then the
1,
and
except at the limit for which /3 JL
in which case we have the second alternative.
1,
is
is
:
now =
is
]3),
right.
In
of
|3
may
and the
we have
then
distinct
still exists,
>
the only
e)
<
1,
any one
may come
to exist,
or
sin
EOF =
OA
OE,
CIECTJMSCEIBED CONES.
ART. 215.]
227
is
or on
it,
or outside
the
it,
or the second
first
to be
line
adopted
through
drawn
E,
(2.)
the
or in other words,
the annexed
it
at all.
it,
(Compare
52.)
fig.
still
its
vertex at E,
may
one form of
to p
by simply changing p
therefore, or at
it is,
it is,
TVU P
(8.)
Fig. 52.
of
with
In general,
if
~
rn
(7.)
-:-
or
OEP =
sin
OA
q be
YTJ
the recent equation
T-;
(q
x)
Y?
(q
+ x)
rn
YQ
-:e).
rp
JL
OE.
scalar,
may
a
,
p-e
or
if
P P
EP =
first
quotient
(9.)
is
=
evidently
We may
OA
let fall
OE,
from p on OE
and in
fact the
sin OEP.
also write,
-;
or
=s- N
I_N= N -N=I
or
as another
(10.) If
then
we make
also
"
"a
on the enveloping
2G
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
228
[II.
is
i.
13.
called
S-N-Y=0;
/
while the fact that
it is
the exponent 2, or by
(11.)
The
its
se-N
or
a plane of contact*
= 0;
is
its square.
vector,
N a = OE
= S C =
that of the point E in which the polar plane (10.) of E cuts perpendicularly
the right line OE ; and we see that
is
Tf Te = Ta2
.
as
was
to
or
OE
OE = (T OA) 2
.
geometry.
(12.)
formed
The equation
(10.), of
be thus trans
Sl-N^ = 0;
or
we
may easily
Bl-(s.Ni-^N-,
\
P
/
P
it
E,
If then
continues therefore to hold good, when and p are interchanged.
take, as the vertex of a new enveloping cone, any point c external to the
and
FF
of the former external point E,
the new plane of contact, or the polar plane DD
of the new point c, will pass
the
E
a
former
vertex
of reciprocity, or of con
relation
through
geometrical
sphere,
which
it
(13.)
two points
and
which
by quaternions t anew.
may
8^ = N^,
P
^i.Nfi-V^K^
a p
a J
a
a
* In
is
S^ = N,
which
E,
fact a
say, that
we have
= s.
K,
aa
section,
ART. 215.]
220
may
because
it
two
points, as p
be given by
its
vector p
while the
and vector p are variable, the equation then represents & plane
namely, what is still called the polar plane of the given point, whether
other point P
locus
Let
P,
= a =
xp + yp
os
x + y =
1,
and attending
by
To-
= Ta,
we
:
have,
by 210, XX.,
or
x,
which gives
(16.)
real,
Hence
it is
evident that,
p,
if
must be
(by 26) that the right line PP is harmonically divided (as indeed it is well
known to be), at the two points s,.s at which it meets the sphere or that in
a notation already several times employed (25, 31, &c.), we have the harmonic
:
formula,
(pspV) =
(17.)
From
1.
we can
an imaginary
circle
by quaternions,
as
of contact-, of
still
speak of a cone of
we must say
on
is,
that those
as terminating
them
to
page 88,
arid others
formerly referred
to.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
230
Some
216.
readers
may
find
[II.
i.
13.
it
Equation were lately assigned (in 204, (14.) ) especially as those forms have
been found to conduct* to a Geometrical Construction, previously unknown,
;
In what follows,
tions.
it
himself already sufficiently familiar with the chief formulae of the preceding
and therefore comparatively few referencesf will be given, at least
Articles
;
To
subject.
prove,
first,
*2
which locus
is
II...
the two constant vectors
each other at
204, (13.)
-1>
(se)-(v
a, j3
204, (14.)
!,
being supposed to be
and
real,
by an arbitrary
cut
it is
to be inclined to
is
a surface of the
rectilinear transversal
and
in no
JJL
number
or rather the
of such intersections,
which
will
Making then
p =
-^
(25),
we
have, for y
*,
ratic equation,
III. ..
/a*
yB-
a /A
*SM
we
TT
T7^\
yV 3 +sV
- f
see already,
Academy
by
its
(y
mere
degree, that
j3
which the
o,
the system
I.
real or ideal, in
represents (not an ellipse but) a pair of riyht lines,
the second equation of that system, is cut by a plane
denoted
cylinder of revolution,
by
first
equation.
AET. 216.]
number sought
the
is
two
II.
231
is,
as
above stated,
The equation
(3.)
II.
written
is substituted for p
the origin o of vectors.
;
may
also be thus
IV.
it
is at
.T(S
204, (14.)
V|)=I;
gives therefore, for the reciprocal of the radius vector from the centre, the
expression,
iTfsSe+vI
v..
and
value
may
assigned to p
(5.)
the surface
is
therefore closed,
&&& finite.
vectors, determined
by
VT
VI.
7 = ^-f
p+a
-
a
d
a,
2P
-
- a
a,
"*-jrr.-ft
>-j-.-ft
we have
^ + 7 --2
VII
..
jo
70
(6.)
Under
/o,
we have
in
the
transformations,
* It is to be
remembered that we have excluded in (1.) the case where
can be shown that the
equation II. represents an elliptic cylinder.
j8
which case
it
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
232
may
(]~1;
[II.
i.
13.
X ...T^ + K^ = 1;
orthus,
the geometrical
(7.)
perpendicular to the
tively
new
vectors
y and
represented by the
is
S,
are respec
equation,
or
...
XIII.
- s
II.
ft/;
we get
or,
XIV.
j;
TP
T/3.
These two diametral planes therefore cut the surface in two circular sections,
with T/3 for their common radius and the normals y and S, to the same two
;
planes, may be called (comp. 196, (17.)) the cyclic normals of the surface;
while the planes themselves may be called its cyclic planes.
(8.)
Conversely,
centric sphere
if
XIV.,
we seek the
of
is T/3,
we
equation XII. of the system of the two cyclic planes, and therefore to the
so that every radius vector of the surface, Which is
circular sections (7.)
two
not
drawn
less
By all these marks, it is clear that the locus II., or 204, (14.), is
above
its centre being at the origin (3.), and its
(as
asserted) an Ellipsoid
mean semiaxis being = T/3 while U/3 has, by 204, (15.), the direction of
(9.)
ellipse
of contact.
(10.)
Those who are familiar with modern geometry, and who have
caught the notations of quaternions, will easily see that this ellipsoid, II. or
IY., is a deformation of what may be called the mean sphere XI V., and is
the infinitely distant point in the direction of /3 being a
centre ofhomology, and either of the two planes XI. or XII. being a plane of
homologous thereto
homology corresponding.
217. The recent form, X. or
of the quaternion equation of the ellip
.,
soid admits of being interpreted in such a way as to conduct (comp. 216) to
which
a simple construction of that surface
calculation, and then illustrate by geometry.
;
Carrying on the
(1.)
Eoman
we
233
by
y
the equation
X.
>
1TV
XV...
T |(_
J/
1
1
or
if
we make
7m^ = ^
when
and
which we
K are
Trn =
and
vectors,
and
T;>
t is
new
constant scalar,
may
be chosen
at pleasure.
The comparison
(2.)
interchanged,
although they
to assume that
ellipsoid,
XVIII.
T7
T (]3 + a)
which
latter case
(3.)
We
X. and
of the forms
>
Ty
=
may
not at
first
seem
T (]3 - a),
it is
XVIIF.
and
.-.
(by 186,
(6.)
(1.).
have thus,
XXII.
TLc =
CB =
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
CA = K
/,
AE =
let also
S
do so
to
p.
U;
&c.)
may
equation of
be
the
therefore allowed
Tt
>
T*
HAMILTON
TS,
XIX.. .TL = US
(4.)
)3 J_
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
234
[II.
i.
13.
Then if a sphere, which we shall call the diacentric sphere, be described round
the point c as centre, with a radius = T/c, and
L\T
and
if
D be the point
in
which the
AE
line
(5.), (13.),
KK-
XXIII.
and therefore
xxur.
-i +
XXIV.
K-.p;
XVI. becomes
?=
AE
Fig. 53.
DB.
The
tion (2.)
we make each
equal to unity, and denote by D the second
BD with the sphere, as in fig. 53, we shall have
member
of the formula
that
t,
is
to say, if
XXI.
XXY.
whence follows
f=
"BD,
DB
AE =
7
AE = BD
let
BD
BD
XXVII.
fig.
XXYI.
or in
line AE,
and similarly
for
BD
(6.) The following very simple Rule of Construction (comp. the recent
53) results therefore from our quaternion analysis
From a fixed point A, on the surface of a given sphere, draw any chord AD;
:
* It is
merely to fix the conceptions, that the point B is here supposed to he external (5.) ; the
calculations and the construction would he almost the same, if we assumed B to he an internal point,
or
Ti<T/c,
T7
<T5.
AD
chord
BD
the locus
of the point E
ivith
an
ellipsoid, with
A for
to,
the
its centre,
and
surface.
//,
length
will be
Or thus
(7.)
and
and
235
and
ABED
if their intersection
BD
be always situated
AD of the
quadrilateral
is
BE
is
chord of a given
218.
From
either of the
course,
still
(1.)
is
employed.
B, of
what may be
(6.),
If
surface.
D be conceived
(instead of A),
become equal
to the length of
BG
AE
(or of
BD
tends,
by the
construction,
A,
and with
a radius = BG.
circle
BG
ellipsoid,
made by
The
pendiculars to
(1.).
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
236
(5.)
13.
i.
[II.
BD = BD
BG = BD
BA
we have the
AE = double area
ABE
of triangle
sin BDE,
equation,
XXVIII.
the third
which
lution of a cylinder,
(1 .), is
and
sin
BDE
the same length, BG, as the radius of each of the two diametral and circular
sections.
(6.)
and
of contact of ellipsoid
we have
cylinder,
the
geometrical relation,
XXIX.
the point D
AB
is
XXIX
or
for a diameter,
and
and
A,
an
whereof the
ellipse
of contact
(comp. 204, (15.), and 216, (9.) ), of that cylinder with the ellipsoid.
(7.) Let AC meet the diacentric sphere again in F, and let BF meet
in F
(6.)
it again
the
common
the
of
last-mentioned
circle
and
plane
fig. 53)
ellipse
can then be easily proved to cut perpendicularly the plane of the gene
(as in
of contact
and therefore
is
normal
to this
plane
to
the ellipsoid,
to
which
at B.
(8.)
shown
many
and confirmed
to be consistent with,
by, the quaternion analysis from which that construction itself was derived.
Thus, the two circular sections (2.), (3.) had presented themselves in 216, (7.)
and
their
two
cyclic
normals
(4.),
(by 217, (4.)) the two vectors K, i, have (by 217, (1.) or (3.) ) the directions of
the two former vectors 7, S; which again agrees with 216, (7.).
(9.)
Again,
it
will be
a, )3
7, 8
and
L,
K,
any one
of
which pairs
XXXI.
../3
-7 =
0-7
-8 = fpT--rTJ
~
1
0~7
(l
K)
(<-)-
is sufficient
(of
BO
three
which the
ART. 218.]
237
the letters
B,
an enveloping cylinder
of revolution of
(5.),
and that F B
normal
is
to the
plane of the ellipse of contact (7.), agree with the former conclusions (216,
such a normal.
(9.), or 204, (15. ), that ]3 is such an axis, and that a is
j
(10.)
It
is
gg +
(g-l)(Kg+l) = Ng-1
N(g + l)
(q + l)(Kq + l)
g-1
q +1
Ng-1
q-1
N(g-l)
whence
-
b
whatever two vectors
and
XXXIII.
t*
(9.)
XXXIY.
_TY-TV
~
last
now
thus written
form 204,
TV -TV
But we have
be.
may
= 0V - TV, by 217,
and
for a
a = +
+
(<
]3
K)
(14.), of the
(5.)
here,
;
become, therefore,
^-^
+
The
l
)
- -
|3
(i
K)
may
therefore be
+ K
which the sign of the right part may be changed. And thus we verify by
calculation the recent result (1.) of the construction, namely, that B is a point
in
of the surface
for
we
XXXVI.
/0
= AB =
-ic =
j3
is satisfied,
when we suppose
:S^;
a, it
xxxvu.
1,
tt
or
xxxvir.
s -^- = s
I
of FB, or of F B
by
K,
+ K
ellipsoid at the
;
the normal
or of a, that
to
is,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
238
219.
noted
13.
i.
[II.
and diametral
of spherical
ellipsoid,
of
any
conies,
section
denote the lengths of the greatest, the mean, and the least
semiaxes of the ellipsoid, respectively then if the side BC of the generating
(1.)
Let
<?,
I, c
triangle cut the diacentric sphere in the points H and H the former lying
(as in fig. 53) between the points B and c, we have the values,
,
XXXVTTI
u\.J-\-J\. V -LJLJ..
n - :HM
RT?
Cl
==
h
U
TRT
JuGr
- TVFT
BH
r
C
ABC
may
be thus expressed, in
"\T"
~\TT
"v~
and we may
__
rp
-,_,
rri
rn
If, in
(2.)
rp.
write,
~v T
AL.
AH
T^
1/c
a = T^
It +
b
z>
rp
p - nn
= It
JU.
f
we
with
mean summit
thereof.
(3.) Conceive that the sphere and ellipsoid are both cut by a plane through
on which the points B and c shall be supposed to be the projections oi: B
and c then c will be the centre of the circular section of the sphere and if
A,
new
D I?
D*, of
of
the
ellipsoid
while
the
lengths
semiaxes
those
of
(4.)
If these
t
two semiaxes
XLI.
BDi =
respectively,
denote by
are,
if
2
:
a / = aca~
/
l
;
we have
Bi) 3
= f
and
and
c^
thus,
c.
= ace;
i
1
;
*
if
we
still
ART. 219.]
wo denote by;?
but
if
two
and/> 2
239
ALdl.
A = CA
}-7
VC B
= CB
sin/^ = J (a
p2 = \
sin
(a
sin
p lt
sin
c)
;; 2 ,
c)
we have
BD 2 2 - BDi 2 = B D 2 2 - B
r
XLIII.
D!
= 4B
/
.
C A
2
)
XLIV.
c~z - a
known and
or in words, the
c-
a-
"
section of
an
ellipsoid, varies as
the product of the sines of the inclinations of the cutting plane, to the two planes of
circular section.
As
(5.)
we have
but
if
PI or
the plane be perpendicular to either of the two sides, CA, CB, then either
p =
0,
and
c/
a,.
sphere
XI V.,
by any concentric
mean
so that
XLV.
AE =
T/o
=r
<
b,
where r
is
then
XLYI.
BD = f r
<
acb~ l ,
<
that
is,
BA
which the plane does not pass (as it did in 218, (3.) ) through the centre A of
the ellipsoid.
The point E has therefore here, for one locus, the cyclic cone
which has A
for vertex,
and
rests
on the last-mentioned
and
it is
also
mentioned
intersect.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
240
[II.
13.
i.
The
(7.)
all
intersection
And we
(8.)
see,
by
(6.),
that the
from
ttco cyclic
which
circles.
rest
all this
"With
(9.)
explained.
But
a second minor
summit
what may be
of the ellipsoid,
we may
made by
of
here add,
AN = NA
AGF, intersects
Ilnd, that
the side
AB of
VKV
is
is
1st, that
that
is
NBLEN
by the
AK and BF
are
that
(5.), being in fact one side (or generatrix) of that cylinder; IVth,
the
AB
semidiameters
of
and
therefore
are
the
thus
two
AK,
conjugate
ellipse,
tangent TBT at the point B of that ellipse, is parallel to the line AKF or per
218,
BFF
is
radius b of the cylinder, is equal in length to the line BG, and also to each of
the two semidiameters, AS, AS of the ellipse, which are radii of the two circular
sections of the ellipsoid, in
triangle.
220.
The reader
interpretation.
* In the
plane of what
is called,
ellipsoid.
(1.)
vectors,
we have
K, p,
*,
241
the transformations,
N- + N-+2S-p
p p
K
-N--fN-N- + 28--T TK
p p
Kj
whence follows
\p
XLYIII.
\
.
pi
K.
TT
TT"
JL
p
(2.) If then we introduce
defined by the equations,
T~V
AijlA.
"VT
= - TT
U/c
and /,
TT
K=U.K,
T^
nn
1*,
vectors,
which give
L.
T/ =
we may write
the equation
in
and
XYI.
ditions,
LII.
locus
of the point
AC = - K,
The only
(4.)
If
ic
=
)
T/ - T/2 =
2
K) ,
(*
is,
2
,
(in
"
D"D
C B
triangle,
AB
=+
(instead of
and therefore
BDD
),
and
will be the
same
diacentric
where B
sM0, by
AB =
is
the con
AE in the direction
struction
of
T (t
Tic,
sphere,
which
(3.)
T/c
Tt,
BD W
the
ellipsoid as before.
inference which
we
is
shall here*
draw from
this
new con
room
shall allow, a few additional remarks may be made, on the relations of the constant
&c., to the ellipsoid, and on some other constructions of that surface, when, in the
following Book, its equation shall come to be put under the new form, T(ip+ pa) = 2 - i 2 .
[See
vectors
t,
/c,
404.]
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
2 I
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
242
revolution,
and that
axis
its
is
AL
BAB
new
triangle
is
AB
first,
but that
namely
to the
new
ellipse
of contact being
to that
+ K,
(7.)
13, 14.
i.
[II.
vector,
employed in
SECTION
On
14.
the Reduction
01,
any
k,
we can
express the
(cornp. 62),
I.
TVq = OQ = x
01
+ y OJ +
.
OK
where xyz are some three scalar coefficients, namely, the three rectangular
co-ordinates of the extremity Q of the index, with respect to the three axes
Hence we may write also generally, by 206 and 126,
01, OJ, OK.
II.
V<?
xi
+ yj + zk =
ix +///
+ kz
and
to
"Vq
of the
General Reduction
(183)
of a
Quaternion
we
to
III.
in
q,
which the/owr
Quaternion.
in like
And
w+
ix
wxyz,
may
manner,
IY.
+jy +
kz
scalars,
it is
q = (Sq + ~Vq =)
= ?/ +
ix*
+jy +
kz
Ants. 220-222.]
where
243
denote the same three given right versors (181) as before, then the
ijk
equation
V. ..? =
?,
and /,
VI.
which
is
new
w =
x =
w,
y =
x,
y,
we
have done throughout the present Chapter, the General Quotient of two Vectors
(101) a
QUATERNION.
222.
When
Form
is
(221)
we have
adopted,
Sq =
and
+ jy +
ix
V<?
kz,
by 204, XI.,
II.
Kq
= (Sq - V#
=)
w-
- jy -
ix
kz.
And
Fundamental Formula
=./
=^ = -l,
(A)
we
have,
by 204,
(ix
+ jy +
kz)
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
NV?
X.
XI.
new
= (TV?) 2 = -
Vg
kz)
= Tq = Sq* -
V?
2/
N0
</(&
=
TJq
(w +
SU?
+
ix
x*
(ix
+jy +
XIL..TVU,=
+jy +
v*
),
f+z
z
;
s );
2
v/0* + y* +
= tf +
+ yz +
= w: v/(^2 +
VII? =
y*
..TV?=V(^ +
UV? = (ix +jy +
(x*
expressions
VIII. ..Tq =
IX.
= -
kz)
x*
kz)
\**
2
V to* + x +
f+
z
;
2
;
^(w* +
+y*
:
x*
z*)
-f
^ (w*
x*
y*
g2 )
2
)
x*
y*
2
# +
12
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
244
(1.)
To prove
V#
ix
ix
= -
V?
kz
= -
V<?
V? = V?
2
We
+ jy +
kz,
kz-,
+ kxy - jxz
+ iyz,
jzx
izy
1
- z\
=
tf
V?
y
kyx
y>
= -
x*
V<?
jy
(2.)
we may arrange
z*
-i-
have, therefore,
XIII.
a result to which
(ix
+jy +
kz)
we have already
x*
if
1,
y*
z*
when considered
w +
&c.,
tv"
q"
symbol
/ - 1,
by 191,
1,
14.
i.
[II.
(8)
but
if
= w +
&o.,
&c., then
= w w - (x x + y y + zz)
= (iv x + xw] + (yz - z y),
= (lo y + y w) + (zx - x z],
f
Iw" = (wz + z w] + (x y - y x)
,
x"
y"
z"
summed up
be
XV.
we ought
in,
w +
w"
ix"
+jy"
kz"
= (w +
ix
+ jy + kz )(w +
and may
therefore,
XVI.
ff
x"*
y^
z
z"
(w/
to
+ xz +
ix
+jy +
kz)
y"
) (tv*
+ xz + y z +
which can in
truth
may
w"
z"
Compare the first Note to page 133 and that to page 162.
t From having somewhat otherwise arranged those terms, the author had some
;
little
trouble at
in verifying that the twenty-four double products, in the expansion of w" 2 -f &c., destroy each
other, leaving only the sixteen products of squares, or that XVI. follows from XIV., when he was led
He believes, however, that the algebraic
to anticipate that result through quaternions, in the year 1843.
first,
theorem XVI., as distinguished from the quaternion formula XV., with which
had been discovered by the celebrated EULER.
it is
here connected?
223.
The
we
form (221)
make
shall here
245
In
we
fact, if
is
to
it
q
I.
w +
ix
+jy +
ix
+ jy
+ kz
ix"
+jy"
w"
<f
without
now assuming
/,
g,
q",
kz,
,
kz",
= q
holds good,
whether
we
this last
are replaced, in
by the
see,
J"
? .(?
.
q"
q q,
we have only
to try
when
formula
is
any one
common
valid
q"
with or without repetition, by the three given right versors ijk but this has
We arrive then, thus, at the important
already been proved, in Art. 183.
;
an Associative
is
it
unequal.
member
We may
q.
by the symbol
=
=
=
that
v
so
/,
(1.)
V#,
V?"
V0
and
and
196, 204,
therefore, by 191, (2.),
quaternions,
Let
Kfl
Let
we
t>"
be called
are
v"
t>,
Sv v = ^(v v + vv
shall then
may
denote each
q"q
= vv,
and
Nv
),
and
v,,
let
= \(yv =
S0
,,
vv).
so that v v = sy
+ v,
WX = v\ - v/
4\
sf
whence, by addition,
2 Wt>y =
* At a later
stage [II. in.
Principle of Multiplication,
v"
(V
vv -
v")
which
v v
v"
v-v
(v"v
vv")
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
246
if v, v
^vv =
be
v"
its
With
(2.)
v"$v
The formula
V.
to
W*, =
=
t>St>V
first
member may
still
supposed that
f
v = L v = L
v"Svv
v"
tWt>
t/
IV
?"
Wt>
is
= Iv
S0V
- Iv
(by 208,
planes of q
positive
&v"v
third index
the
Iv"
and
q".
VI.
is
-.
With
Sw
at the
(4.)
v"v
/_
Iv
Sv"v
IV.
(3.)
- v
v"
extensive utility.
V
we have
as above,
still right,
v&v
[ILi.14.
Ivf =
r?Vt>
IV (V/
V?),
while
&
or
it
common
to the
from Iv to Iv
is
length }
Tfy,
or
Tf>,,
or
TV
TV
or
tfy
(V/
V?),
Ae unit of length the same ratio, as that which the parallelogram under
foflrs
the indices, Iv
(5.)
To
and Iv,
VII.
(because St/
s,
0),
208, V.
transformation,
VIII.
where
T#"
StfVo =
Tfl"
TV,
line
cos
Iv",
(TT
x)
and
T^
represents
by
(4.)
while x
is
the
(by
ART. 223.]
247
of TV and TV,
the plane
to
TV"
to Iv be negative, that
round TV from TV
is, if
the rotation
if
It?
TV"
be positive
interpretation
IX.
Sv"v
TV
TV,
TV"
the upper or the lower sign being taken, according as the rotation round TV,
from TV to TV", is positively or negatively directed.
(6.)
scalar values,
and
ijk
kji
have
namely,
= -
ijk
kji
1,
4-
by 183,
(1.),
(2.)
(181).
In general,
(7.)
X.
for
.
v"
vv v
we have the
",
formula,
and when the three indices are complanar, so that the volume mentioned in IX.
so that we may
vanishes, then each of these two last scalars becomes zero
;
write, as a
new Formula
XI.
while,
of Complanarity
Sv"v
this scalar
if
0,
still
TV"
HI
TV
TV (123)
Hence
we may
also
XII.
that
is,
(9.)
Formula
of Collinearity,
(Vq"
V?
V?) =
0,
if
IV?"
Ill
TVq
V? =
ix
+ jy +
XIII.
Sv"v
x"
i,
(z
q"
kz,
IV?
ix
&c.,
/, k give the
- y
z) +
y"
v"
ix"
II.,
namely,
&c.,
transformation,
(Jz
* *)
z"
(y
x -
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
248
and accordingly
known
this is the
be 000, xyz,
</* ,
OP
lines OP,
OP"
l/
14.
i.
[II.
o, P,
P",
z".
permutations of the factors, since we have just seen a case X. in which such
a change of arrangement produces a change of sign in the result, yet cyclical
permutation
is
is
XIV.
In
fact, to
XIV.
and
to
In
(11.)
like
XV.
I.),
K?
=
Y<?
we have only
S
(j
scalar
when
manner, by 192,
.
K (/
Y
of
to write
= S
?)
(q
it
q"q
thus,
),
q q)
~Kq q
changed.
be inferred that
may
II., it
is
Kq"
Kq Kq
.
Kq",
in
two
opposite orders,
xvi.
(12.)
XVIII.
But
if
we may
Kuq
write,
K<?
XYII.
K#
..Kn*=n
XIX...SlIt>
t>;
En?
= -
Sn
v,
f;
n B?.
by 144
XX.
hence,
..
upper or lower signs being taken, according as the number of the right factors
is even or odd
and under the same conditions,
;
XXI.
as
was
Sllt>
= ^(Uv
n 0)
XXII.
* This result
may
may
Vn? = J
(Uv
is tico.
. .
COMPLANAR QUATERNIONS.
For the
case
XXIII.
XXIY.
S0Vt>
= -
is three,
= 1
S?t>V
249
- vv
(v v v
v")
WVt? =
denominator or for its numerator, any arbitrary line in the given plane, furnishes
some peculiar facilities for proving the commutative and associative properties
of Addition (207),
tion (212,
223)
and the
distributive
and
we have
it
planars
we
shall
;
the Third and last Chapter of this Second Book, we propose to resume, for a
short time, the consideration of Diplanar Quaternions
and especially to show
;
how
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
to
page 245.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
250
CHAPTER
[II. n.
1.
II.
OF QUATERNIONS.
SECTION
1.
Fourth Proportional to
Third
to
Proportional
Three,
Two, Mean Proportional,
Square Root; General Reduction of a Quaternion in a
Given Plane, to a Standard Binomial Form.
;
be supposed to be
coincide with that of
all
we may
Under
226.
of the
symbol
line
by
may
also be
we may
ft 7
(j3
a)
O.HK&C.
^Ills
/3,
(]3
any
which
write,
IIK
Ill
!?"
these conditions,
form
either of the
that
Ill
this line
is
a,
* In fact the
symbols j8 . 7, 7 j8, or #7, 7/8, have not as yet received with us any interpretation
and even when they shall come to be interpreted as representing certain quaternions, it will be found
.
significations.
ARTS. 225-227.]
251
Under
as in algebra.
so that
we may
(still
of four lines a,
we may
J3, y, o\
make
also
may
and
S,
of
in ......
!!=
op
or
nr ......
STT--I;
o p
p
and when such a formula holds good, for any one arrangement of the nume
it can
and of the denominator-lines p, |3, 8
rator-lines a, y,
easily be
,
proved to hold
and
For example, whatever four
may be denoted by j3y&, we have the transformations,
good
also for
other
any
arrangement
of the numerators,
Again,
LTL-Z-L-X bvIV
by
S
TV
Sj3~|3S~/3
so that the
227.
means
two denominators
An
also
may change
places.
coincide
fig.
42
[p.
]3,
y, are involved
form,
I.
but not* y =
]3j3
--T=f-j3,
nor a =
a,
|3j3
y.
aj3y
and
]3 is
the
Mean
or
-ft
of
be
Mean Proportional
2K2
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBNIONS.
252
[II.n.l.
y and
]3.
Under
TT
11.
so that this mean,
#s0/*, as first,
)3,
and
/a
between a and
to those
to>
we have
a
77
y, is also the
otffor lines.
mi\/
P
7 a
= TT
whence
it is
fo
=~
\7/
(-=->
"We
P
~
natural to write,
IV.
^
a
and therefore by
ay
V.7.
(103),
=
=
But because we
although we are not here to write ]3
(70)*, nor ]3
(ay)*.
have always, as in algebra (comp. 199, (3.) ), the equation or identity, (- q) z - q z
,
we
7/7
the symbol
<p
\7,
whereof however one, namely that one of which the angle is acute, has been
already selected in 199, (1.), as that which shall be called by us the Square
Hoot of the quaternion q, and denoted by +/q. We may therefore establish
the formula,
if a,
]3,
by the
line OB, or
the opposite
again 199,
line,
(3.)
]3, itself \
or
j3,
:
when
T7
:Tj3
when
that angle
is
bisected
by
j3
VIII.
signs,
tensors,
= Tj3:Ta,
IX.
2
.
T/3
Ta
T7
And when we
Tj3
(Ta
T 7 ),
Mean
AET.227.]
make any
we
253
acute, or right, or
formula VII.
(1.)
At
the limit
common
as each of the
direction
vanishes, so that
= Ua, then
has the same
Uy
]3
agreeing to write,
X.
if
//I = +
and generally,
1,
when AOC =
Uy
or
?r,
</(a?)
=+
a,
mean proportional ]3 is still determined by IX., as the geometric mean (in the
usual sense) between the lengths of the two given extremes (comp. the two
figures 41 [p. 132]
plane in which
all
is
in this
is
vector.
o, to
which
(to
to
shall
con
be
to
to
XI.*
v/ -
= +
and
XI
2
.
>/(-
ia,
if
>
0.
And
thus the mean proportional between two vectors (in the given plane)
becomes, in all cases, determined at least if their order (as first and third) be
:
given.
(3.)
we might
then,
common plane
of the lines,
fix definitely
were removed,
being that
In
this
case,
locus
* It is to be
carefully observed that this square root of negative unity is not, in any sense,
imaginary, nor even ambiguous, in its geometrical interpretation, but denotes a real and given right
versor (181).
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
254
[II. n.
1.
and with a radius equal to the geometric mean between OA, oc, while
plane would be perpendicular to the given right line AOC.
(Comp. again
centre,
its
the figures 41
right radial,
when
as a real in geometry.)
The quotient
228.
seen (191,
(6.)
of
to be a scalar
since then
we here suppose
(225) that q
\\\
i,
we
S? = x
i)
V?
= y
V# =
yi
iy
to a
scalars,
which
may
(5.)
q,
into
III
or
x +
iy
=x +
iy,
namely,
IY.
tf
x,
y =
y,
On comparing
i.
marked
as III., V.,
and
(2.)
As
the
convenient to
and
y,
instead of
x.
word
call the
"
binomial
form
II. a
"
COUPLE
which the values serve to distinguish one such couple from another,
not
may
unnaturally be said to be the Co-ordinates of that Couple, for a reason
which it may be useful to state.
y, of
* It
shorter,
is
permitted,
and perhaps
less liable to
is
(3.)
and that
of
*",
positive rotation
Ax
round
50
255
fig.
i is,
[p.
being
which normal we
to that line at o,
may
OA
call
and
may
suppose
V.
while
OA =
= OB
j3
and
V.
or briefly,
OA,
OB",
j3"
a =
and on a normal
itself,
it
have
to
so that
ia,
as in 201, and q =
|3
a,
202
as in
may
be
situated, a
VI.
= Bq) =
of the point
x and
referred to the
B,
j3
V?
0"
ia)
j3"
/,
two lines OA
and OA
And
kind.
= % +
as
same way
x and
where c
iy
is
c"
same pair of
referred to the
co-ordinates of the
new point
c,
axes.
(4.)
we
express as couples (2.) any two complanar quaternions, q and q
shall have the following general transformations for their sum, difference, and
we thus
product
VII.
VIII.
(5.)
$q =
x,
..tfq=(afx)
.
(y
x - y y) +
(x
g,
y]
(x
y+ y
x}.
V<?
IX.
Kg =
x - iy
X.
rr
N? =
x*
-VTTT
XIII.
y*
XL
-=
to page 111.
Tq
X ~
^ &X
.
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
256
(6.)
quotient of
x +
-f
iy
x"
iy"
The
+ y2
= xx + y y,
x"
(7.)
iy
x"
(3.)
in
which xyx y
(x"~
may
+ y
(x*
be any four
ir.
1,2.
have,
iy"
= y x - x y.
N^ = Nr/
N#,
is
identity,
XV.
or the formula,
(8.) ),
by
y"
we
couples,
x"
XIY.
[II.
if)
x - y
(x
yf +
(x
y + y xf
scalars.
SECTION
2.
On Continued Proportion
The conception
229.
of three to that of
a theory
may
may
easily be extended
ichole
and thus
and
we suppose that
expressed by the formulae,
Thus
in particular of unity.
o
- = y = p
75
if
cs
I.
II.
p=
- = -y
-3
a
TT
u
whence
quaternion
relation
is,
may
we may say
;
that the
latter
which
last
or
(-,
\a/
Iir.
|3
f-V
\dj
z =
Q, in which
important to observe that as the equation q
a sought and Q is a given quaternion, was found to be satisfied by two
230.
But
it is
opposite quaternions
less
if
/ /D
/
III. ..
q is
q,
of the
simple equation q*
Q be actual and real
Q
;
form
</
is satisfied
by
is
and
real quaternions,
ARTS. 228-232.]
positive unity.
and
In
fact, if
fig.
257
54) that
)3
two other but equally long vectors in the given plane, obtained
by two successive and positive rotations,
are
)3"
from
]3
"
jsr
IV.
or
W W
7/
and therefore
r_f
we
shall
*
have
(^
PAP
or
231.
(real
and
actual) quaternion
Q may
(real, actual,
angle
and)
than sixty degrees
less
In every other
of
case, one
Q,
by the symbol
inequality,
VTTT
V 111.
232.
one of
its
At
the limit,
cube-roots
is
L/ sy/
/}
(^
^^
<
f\
(^
.
<
TT.
L,
when Q
HAMILTON
:f
it
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OP QUATEKNTONS.
258
of the third,
we
IX.
and therefore
..y-l
to a positive rotation
X.
and
[II. n.
2.
Ll/ -
using thus the positive sign for the radical A/3, by which i
- 1 with the connected formula,
expression IX. for 2-J/
multiplied in the
is
although
it
scalar value,
which
(1.)
We have, however,
XL yi = 1
.
(2.)
The
symbol, (- l)i
XI
and
y (a
if
>
0.
equations,
XII.
...-i
and
satisfies
the equation
=-
it is
namely,
233. There
may
vectors,
I.
a, di,
a2
when n
is
II...
-)
n
;
III...
-=
a
\A /
a,
;
\_i_
-p
IV...
\a /
oi-(\
a.
This conception differs fundamentally from one which had occurred to several able writers,
- 1 were inter
before the invention of the quaternions and according to which the symbols 1 and V
in
a
a
as
and
right
lines,
given plane. In
mutually rectangular
representing pair of equally long
preted
Quaternions, no line is represented by the number, ONE, except as regards its length ; the reason being,
;
all possible
planes
and that
Q by
ternion
we
if
LQ<K
y- 1)
th
root of a
qua
-,
VI.
259
VII.
^;
V (/-
1)
>
0;
y of
>
or of
0, in
any
quaternion,
be changed to - a, if
th
root of a
as to the general n
we may
write,
And
last formulae.
on the same
Viii.
principles,
Q* =
may
VQ
th
In
(1 .)
We
th
denoting the principal value of the n root of
whence
it
when
H
,
as always
thus writing,
(2.)
f
is satisfied
(3.)
by the two
And
values,
(1
(x
i)
+
:
</%,
*,
we
(x
+ iyY =
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
260
is satisfied
by the
and
three distinct
real couples,
[II. n.
^/3)
(i
2,
and -
i,
we
2.
shall
(4.)
In general, we
shall thus
VTT
XII.
= cos
2n
sm
7T
;
2n
XTT
xV__L X
and
it
w
- m
(Jlo
cj
C-
this root,
which
any quaternion,
the definition contained in the formula 233, II., of the whole power, q n enables
,
and we propose
m
.
q q
m+n
II. .. (q
n
)
m = mn
q
to extend the
III.
<f
and
.. q
m~ n = m
q
1
.
q"
formula
= - =
II.,
reciprocal* (134) of
rn
n
.
q.
by writing,
1
VI.
(q
m = n
q ,
whether
still
1
:
in particular,
V.
We
IV.
when
reduced
to its least
terms
denominator of
among which
is
values of q n
the
m th
Compare the
first
Note
to
we
shall naturally
th
power of the principal n
root (233) of q.
*
fractional exponent,
its
page 123.
cube-root of q
it
q*
261
regard as principal, the square of the principal cube-root (231) of that proposed
quaternion.
(2.)
q* is interpreted,
1, this
g%,
square has
the fractional
among
these the
at the
principal value
is
(3.)
of q
The symbol
q-*
is,
while
(4.)
still
a scalar, but a
little
this surd
many
values,
by the introduction
symbol
i*
through
(4.)),
right angles,
Ax
t,
VII.
i,
whether rational or
establish the formula,
= cos
tir
+
<
XII
.),
VIII.
,t
as denoting a versor,
round
we may already
ois~
tir
sin -^
irrational, is itself
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
262
SECTION
On
[II.n.3.
3.
their Powers.
235.
plane of
and
2,
whereof
the former shall be supposed to be positive, and which are connected with the
two former scalars x and y by the equations,
!...# =
we
cos
y = r sin
s,
which
last expression
.
TJ<?
may
.
0,
iy)
(5.)
-r;
U (x + iy) = cos z +
sin z
IV.
>
II...Tq = T(x +
III.
z,
.,
and
XII
U<7
cis 2
so that
V.
=r
cis z.
And
latter
q,
to denote (130) an angle of the Euclidean kind, or at least one not exceeding,
and
TT
am
q,
to Art. 130.
f The symbol V was spoken of, in 202, as completing the system of notations peculiar to the present
Calculus; and in fact, besides the three letters, i,j, k, of which the laws are expressed by the funda
mental formula (A) of Art. 183, and which were originally (namely in the year 1843, and in the two
following years) the only peculiar symbols of quaternions (see Note to page 160), that Calculus does not
habitually employ, with peculiar significations, any more than the jive characteristics of operation, K,
U, V, for conjugate, scalar, tensor, versor, and vector (or right part] : although perhaps the mark
for norm, which in the present work has been adopted from the Theory of Numbers, will gradually
come more into use than it has yet done, in connexion with quaternions also. As to the marks, /.,
Ax., I, R, and now am. (or am,,), for angle, axis, index, reciprocal, and amplitude, they are to be
S, T,
considered as chiefly available for the present exposition of the system, and as not often wanted, nor
employed, in the subsequent practice thereof; and the same remark applies to the recent abridgment
for cos -f i sin
to some notations in the present section for powers and roots, serving to express
the conception of one n th root, &c., as distinguished from another; and to the characteristic P, of
what we shall call in the next section the ponential of a quaternion, though not requiring that
cis,
notation afterwards.
No
last of
_L,
first
||,
|||,
intro
AMPLITUDE OF A QUATERNION.
ART. 235.]
or simply,
am
and thus
q;
and
between amplitude
263
shall
angle,
VI.
=)
(z
am
= 2mr
Lq_\
Ax
and n
i;
We may then
also (for
any quaternion q
VII.
(1.)
=
TJ#
Writing q =
ivhole
am q
cis
VIII.
the amplitude
its
diminished by any
i)
|||
a,
j3
am
q,
= Tq
or
am
cis
Q3
write
am q.
:
a), is
thus a scalar
Ax
i,
only the directions of the two lines, a and /3, in the given plane of /, are given.
i itself, shall be con
(2.) But the particular quaternion, or right versor,
sidered as having definitely, for its amplitude, one right angle so that we shall
;
IX.
am
.i
/.i=-^
symbols,* which
we here
same rule
arn n .#,
X.
and may say that
or
may
we may
write, as a
more
definite
am w
.q = L n q =
L n q\
of signs as before)
2mr
Lq;
while
may
With
these notations,
(- 1)
write,
XI.
XII.
XIII.
am q = Loq = Lq;
am n a = am n 1 = L n 1 = 2mr,
if
>
and
if
a be
still
am n
(- a)
= am
(- 1)
U (- 1) = (2w +
!)TT,
a positive scalar.
* Compare
= +
TT,
we
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
264
From
236.
[II. n.
3.
it is
and
tensors] multiplication
braical) addition
so that, if the
interpreted in the general (or indefinite) sense of the equation 235, VI.,
may
write
I.
we
am (q
am q
q)
am q
II.
am (q
f
:
q)
am q - am q
implying hereby
is
of
division of quaternions
made
member
among the values of the second member; but not here specifying which
With the same generality of signification, it follows evidently that,
value.
a whole power
for
III.
am
n<?
= S am
IV.
am
cp
-p am
.
may
so that
we
write, generally,
v.
un? = nu?
vi.
..
Tn? =
it
VII.
II cis
am q
(=
HTJq =
IJlI^
cis
am Uq)
cis
2 am
(cis
am
q)
cis
(p
am
#),
at least if the
(3.)
<?,
IX.
z,
&c.
n cis z = cis 2s
we may
X.
and
sines of
am
/, &c.,
therefore write
.
(cis
zf =
repre
thus,
ci
known and
may
them
arcs.
useful theorems,
ABT. 236.]
For example,
(4.)
number
the
if
IX
cis z
cis z
cis (z
form
of factors of the
have thus,
z)
265
2
.
(cis s)
be two, we
cis z
cis
2z
whence
cos
sin
(z
(z
z)
z)
cos 2z
= S (cis z
=r
cis z)
V (cis *
2
(cos s)
= cos z cos z -
cis g)
= cos z
(sin z)
sin z sin z
sin s
sin 2z
+ sin
z cos *
(5.)
of amplitude,
(234), as follows.
i*
(5.),
as
XI.
$ =
cis z,
if
Jfor
may
be any
either the
scalar.
We
same or any
XII.
must hold good,
t*.
or
And
as in algebra.
this interpretation,
XIII.
that
where
if
(**)*
if
be
XIV.
right angles,
from
we may
i*
is
write also,
***,
p
XL,
if
to the equations
symbol
it
may
XV. ..K.^
=
r<;
* It will soon be
seen that there is a sense, although one not
quite so definite, in which this
formula holds good, even when the
exponent p is fractional, or surd namely, that the second member
is then one of the values of the first.
;
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATEENIONS.
266
[II.
3.
XYI.
XVII.
** = i
co8^=S.
z
sin
^= r
Y.
+ r);
(i
= i r
t*
r).
(t*
iG
equation,
XVIII.
2*- l (cos
)*
=J
(*
COS pz
r^ = i
(***
+ r*) + \p
+ p COS (p - 2)
(*&-*)
(HO*)
COS (p
.0
&c
4) 2
4-
&C.,
with the usual rule for halving the coefficient of cos Os, if p be an even
integer and with analogous processes for obtaining the known expansions of
;
2P
"
(sin z)
known
p
,
for
any
results of the
237. If p be
I.
still
positive
may
p
(r cis z)
be thus written
II.
same kind.
a whole number,
r p cispz
in
we have thus
= (Tq)*
cis
the transformation,
(p.&mq)
=
(qY = (Tq)P
Tf
HI.
(?)
= (Uq)P = -UqP
and any value (235) of the amplitude am.g may be taken, since all will
And if, for L, we
conduct to one common value of this whole power qp
.
IV.
p
(q ) n
= TqP
cis
(p.*m*q), with
p = ~, n
),
>
0,
Tqp
is
n>
th
p
by the formula IV., represents the n value of the power q
values, however, recurring periodically, when p is, as above, & fraction.
defined
such
Abridging
V.
lp n
(l
cis
2pmr,
symbol
shall soon
remove
j,
.. liw
(4.)
fraction,
Principal value of IP
VII. ..!* =
VIII.
p be any
=
cis
l*o
Denoting in
we
(- l) n ,
= +
11
cis rnr,
particular,
p =
l*i
we have
-g-,
= -
t
l2 =
1,
--
&c.
,
3
2^~~
2"^
= +
1*2
li
the n th value of (- l) p
manner
like
and in
1.
1,
l*i=
l,
by 235, XII.,
thus, generally,
1P
VI.
TTTTT
if
we
(3.)
we have
to l p n)
}n
267
by the abridged
fractional* value of p,
IX.
X.
= dsp(2n +
p
(- l) n
(- 1)*
and
VT
XI.
iu =
/
.
(- l)*o
cis
= +
TT
(- l)*x
i,
-l +
1)
= -
i\i
(- l)*i
f
cis
~=i
iu =
(~ l)*a
1,
=+
(- l)*a
i,
-1
&c.
i,
\/3
&0.,
-g
gives, generally,
.
(f) n
p
q is
cis
(jP)
(q*>)
power of
and
of the same power of positive unity
<?,
power,
(6.)
p
(a )o, is
simply,
The n
th
by our
value of the
th
power of any
negative scalar,
a, is
in like
th
symbols,
XIII.
- a* n = -
l p
p
(fl
)o
= (^
(7.) The formula IV., with its consequences V. VI. IX. XII. XIII., may
be extended so as to include, as a limit, the case when the exponent p being still
scalar, becomes incommensurable, or surd; and although the number of values
of the
power
As
is
(4.) ),
yet we can
still
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
268
consider one of
them
[II. n.
3, 4.
namely
the value,
XIV.
which answers
nion
p
(q )o
Oy
cis (p
am
q},
q.
We
238.
may
q
in
which the
being
now
to this other
base, q, is
symbol
of the
same kind,
?
in
q,
To
this, in a way which shall be completely consistent with the foregoing con
ventions and conclusions, or rather which shall include and reproduce them, for
do
new
quaternion exponent, q
one main object of the following section: which however will also
contain a theory of logarithms of quaternions, and of the connexion of both
will be
logarithms
shall
call
we
we next
function, which
of a certain
proceed.
SECTION
4.
we
239. If
in
which q
is
P (q,
m) =
is
+ q + q2 +
1
any
qm ,
positive whole
number, while
it is
supposed
TT
then
it is
not
_
Sm ~
/_
1.2.3..m \~ r (m
difficult to
+ I)/
finite
and
given, the
PONENTIAL OF A QUATEKNION.
ARTS. 237-239.]
be, a finite
Tq may
tensor
..T(P(q,m +
III.
number
if
n)-~P(q,m))<a,
0,
>
words,
IY.
a
finite
we
.
number n may
is given.
be,
and
In other
a,
269
= x +
iy,
value of the
number
Xm + iYm
m) =
(q 9
ing inequality,
V.
and
>
series,
(X...
XJ + (Y,IM - Ym
)*
<
<?,
0) the scalar a
may
n,
be.
VI.
..X
X^l + x,
l,
+ * +
Xm ,..
^^,..
4i
VII.
F, =
0,
Xn,
X, and the
and
or simply
y,
finite limit,
latter
F>,
VIII.
we must
series
= y + xy,
or F,
Fw
and
of
may
which each
is
be called
a certain
Writing then
Q = X* + F, =
X+ iY,
(namely the
limit to
of quaternions,
IX.
(q, 0)
1,
P (q,
1)
=14
q,
(q,
2)
manner a
1+
|,
(q,m],
certain function,
which we
P (q, oo ),
or
P(<?),
or simply
P^.
equation,
qi
+ qz +
+ q
series,
or with the
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
270
we
if
[II. n.
4.
and
XL
m + n)-P(<7,m))<P(r, m+w)-P(r,
T(P(?,
we
made
rm+n can be
<
of the n posi
a.
<
m)
sum
number
finite
<
>
>
2r -
>
>p
1,
2r-
<
XII.
ro
P(r,
In general,
(2.)
XIII.
if
AO +
+ n) -
P (r,
m)
<a(2~
2~
A^ + A
2
2
+ &c.,
<?
AO
where
>
0, AI
2~ n )
<a\
0, &c.,
>
a fortiori converge,
scalar, it will
I...
=/+?,
2"
q"\\\g
II.
.
q"
(o*
m=
d}
H~
/o
JL
<?",,
= q m q + g m _ii + q
m-tfr
= q\ = 1.
Hence, writing again r = Tq f rm = Tq m
=
manner / T/, &c., the two differences,
<?
IY.
and
be their
we have
where
III.
q"
\\\g;
such as
coefficients,
P (/,
P (r
m)
+ r
(r,
2m)
m)
P (/,
(r
m)
tf
ogW,
and in
like
+ /, m),
.
P (r,
m),
can be expanded as sums of positive terms of the form r p .rp (one sum con
taining \m (m + 1), and the other containing m (m + 1) such terms)* but, by
;
sum
of these
Y.
*
[For the
On expansion
- %(m + 1)
III.
it is
total
number
(r
of terms in
(r
(r
+ r m)
,
+ /, m)
is 1
<
+2 +3+
(q
m}
P (q,
m}
-f
is
- P (q+g m)
t
<
(r
m)
(r,
if
a,
T (P
than any
since
+ /, 2m) -
less
m}
>
>
0,
(m + 1) = % (m + 1) (m + 2).
2
m, and there are (m + I)
From the expanded form of
-P
(r
).]
EXPONENTIAL PROPERTY.
ARTS. 239-241.]
when
~Pq is
the tensors,
r,
separately tends to 0, as
,
is
(1.)
VII.
where
oo
the
We
Law,
..P/ + ^=P.P=P.P
PI =
is
scalar.
we
If
tends to
VI.
known
(5.)
VIII.
then
271
if
),
P# =
(*)
th
arithmetical) value of the x
of
power
and
e,
equation,
viir.
(2.)
PZ =
*.
IX.
but this formula
which we
generally,
*;
..?<?
is
&
as
namely
what we have
sum
lately
(3.)
For any
X.
241.
we have by VIII.
scalar x,
.
the transformation
in
P? = P
(x
iy)
which we have just seen thai the factor P#is a positive scalar. The other
P/, is easily proved to be a versor, and therefore to be the versor of Pq,
factor,
while
P#
is
II.
since
and
IV.
same ponential
..P?.P(-?) = PO
.
(Kq)
m =
K (qm
=
)
1,
(say)
and
Kq
we have
because
III.
PK?
in general,
= KP?,
V.
Piy =
(- iy)
= KPiy,
or
VI.
NP*y =
1.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
272
We may
[II.ir.4.
VII.
TP? = PS? = P* =
IX.
X.
XI.
VIII.
**;
= e* =
cis
SPwy = 1 i~
if
80- 1TP0;
+ &c. =
VPey = y - 77& o5 +
series,
cos y\
&c. = sin y.
nor to
If
se/0c
(at first)
XIII.
(x
+ ///)=
to assume as
any one
c* cis y.
known the
..?/>=///
+ fyy,
/(-
y}
and
sine,
we should
P? = P
as follows.
= +/y,
(- y)
= -
Writing
^,
XIV.
XV.
/(y -
XVI.
2/ )
*y */;
.
/y .// + 0y
equation,
which
= cos -
x a right angle
results,
0/;
namely,
XVII.
/T/
may
by the condition,
XVIII.
= 1-5708,
or nearly,
XVIII
* In
fact,
may
be obtained to
this
would show.
artifices,
=+
0-070737,
/(1
6)
=-
0-029200
by which
a far
more accurate
ART. 241.]
(2.)
(TT
still
would thus
motive
rical constant, c
nume
XIX.
= 2c =
TT
giving nearly,
for thus
XIX
As
(3.)
fy =
cos y.
XXI.
evident that
to be taken.
(fyY +
fyy
In
XXII.
iy)
l,
= +
$c
P<>/
sin
it
fact,
P (-
(wY
knowledge
- 1
of the equation fy
= 3-14159, as usual
TT
XX.
it is
273
is
</>c
or
1,
positive,
XXIII.
Pic =
whence
XXIY.
and
we
If then
XXVI.
replace c
$y =
The
(4.)
by
cos
series
^,
--
X. XI.
r Pty = SPt
(y
-c}=f(y- c),
= sin y
XXVII.
and
Pit/
cis y, as in
IX.
for cosine
known
XXVIII.
we have
of being assumed as
it
w=S
lim. y~ l sin
y=0
y = lim. y~ r
l
VP*>
1,
y=o
follows that the unit of angle, which thus gives Piy = cis y,
is
to
radius
is (as
or that the
usual) the
number
ir
nearly
but we should
still
XXIX.
though not the same
HAMILTON
Py = cis
fy
(
\c
x a right
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
angle
),
y and sin
y.
2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
274
The usual
242.
I.
if
2imr =
P~V>
and
1,
II.
see,
(q
+ 2imr) = Pq,
it
of
which each
satisfies
4.
or
finitely
and
we
[II. n.
P n-
inde
the equation,
IV.
while the one which corresponds to n = 0, may be called the Principal ImpoIt will be found that when the exponent p is any scalar, the definition
nential.
th
already given (237, IV., XII.) for the n value of the
to establish the formula,
V.
(q")
when the
exponent
VI.
is
(<?
f
:
definition, to
(jT.-
j)
conceived to correspond to n =
still
the more
by a new
a quaternion q
and
=
of q enables us
th
p power
0, or to
the
).
For example,
VII.
the ponential
therefore
now
P<?,
?
(
)o
= PfaPo-
e)
P!?,
because
(2.),
Po^e =
Is
to denote simply
by
eq,
is
With
VIII.
e^ = cisy,
cos y
= |
(c*y
e-*),
sin
y =
- (&
tvi
?*)
these two last only differing from the usual imaginary expressions for cosine
and sine, by the geometrical reality* of the versor i.
*
Compare 232,
(2.),
LOGARITHM OF A QUATERNION.
The
(3.)
defined
by
cosine
and
IX.
sine
the equations
may now
be
= i (& +
cos q
275
4
*)
X.
sin q
- (& -
e -*)
Alii
and we
may
XI.
With
(4.)
cis
& = Py.
XII.
(<?*%
and we
(q lTq)
may
IX.,
write,
f
(iq
am,
q)
= (T0)
cis (q
am,
q)
a formula which evidently includes the corresponding one, 237, IV., for the
n th value of the p th power of q, when p is scalar.
The
(5.)
definitions III.
XIII.
ln
(!
The same
(6.)
XV.
which
last
P 2imf
.
XIV.
(j*
= I,/, (^
)o
definitions give,
.P -H- =
XVI.
&
.^)o = rF;
known
V-i
is
a quaternion, which
XYII.
thus
(*0.
is
we may
q
,
it
243.
plane),
As
it,
after
it
as
though we
view
it is
symbol
would be no
aiid in this
we may regard
not corn-
write,
difficulty in treating
and therefore
i,
..**
=?? =
?;
^,
of
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
276
But the
answers
(as above) to n
pL n
4j 5.
simply
the
so that
we may
0,
i?;
write,
or
still
ITU? =
11
1?
am
1?
and therefore,
0,
III.
We
more simply,
II.
because
= Po ? = IT? +
1
I.
1U? =
amo
fl
q.
IY.
in which IT?
(1.)
is still
SI? = IT?
The
(comp. 235,
VIII.
The
(2.),
VI? = 1U?
n
.
th
or
?,
value
and
(4.)
may be
log
or
?,
and then we
(log q) n
),
VII...l(-l)=tir.
ifir;
general logarithm of ?
log
(3.)
As examples
VI. ..lf =
(2.)
V.
1?
(log ?),
shall have,
+ 2W7T.
formula,
IX.
log
q q
= log ? + log
?,
if
\\\
?,
holds good, in the sense that every value of the first member is one of the
values of the second (comp. 236).
=
and one value of log q q = ? !?.
;
(4.) Principal value ofqi
(5.)
may
The
quaternion base, q
and we
the quaternion, ?
to
the
complanar
its
principal value
may
be defined to be
* As the
corresponding expression in algebra, according to Graves and
1?
Ohm.
1?.
and
ARTS. 243-245.]
SECTION
On
277
5.
We have
244.
is
Degree.
where n
n ih
any given
f - Q = 0,
and
positive integer,
real, actual,
n
complanar with Q namely, the n distinct and real values of the symbol Q
This result is, however,
(223, VIII. ), determined on a plan lately laid down.
;
included in a
Algebraic
z,
l9
and com
n
.
n~ l
q,q
which roots
q.q
n
,
q",
q(
+ qn =
0,
it is
I.
n~ l
F n q ^ qn +
q,q
+ qn
function, r n
qi
qn being as before,
to
is
<7,
II.
can be proved, in
rf - (f
q) (q
q")
although we
(q
may
By
qn
S W),
q(
\ in terms of the
saying finite equations, we merely intend to exclude here equations with infinitely many
P# = 1, which has been seen (242) to have infinitely many roots, represented by the
terms, such as
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
278
Or we may say
246.
nions
cf,
&c.,
HI i,
that there
which
[II. n.
is
satisfies
5.
known
algebraic
form,
/
+.. +
+
in...
-&;
(0YY"
247.
Or because the
<?()=-<Zl
ff
\W +W
=
+
(/+<?
difference
T? n
- Fn q
+ ..- +
to\
&o.
is divisible
by q
it is
as in algebra,
sufficient to
we can
say
it
or
with the foregoing form (245, I.) of the polynomial function F.*
248. Or finally, because the theorem is evidently true for the case n =
J,
assign
IV.
.
?<?
0,
while the case 244, I., has been considered, and the case q n =
is satisfied by
the supposition q = 0, we may, without essential loss of generality, reduce
the enunciation to the following
:
Every
equation of the
I.
which q
plane, whereof
in
q",
formrf
..q(q- /)
(q
.
q")
(q
00-0) = Q,
at least
249.
.
<?
any
that
qo
which
introducing
the condition,
satisfies
m =
q
.
q".
n~ l
-r = F M _itf = q
+ q l tf-2 + q z n 3 + . . + tf n-i, which is of the form 245, I. If
q
is a second root of F,,^.]
then every equation of this form has a root, F,,.^" = 0, and
t The corresponding form, of the algebraical equation of the n th degree, was proposed hy Mourey,
in his very ingenious and original little work, entitled La vraie theorie des Qunntites Negatives, et des
Quantites pretendues Imaginaires (Paris, 1828).
Suggestions also, towards the geometrical proof of. the
[Thus
q-
<?
q"
theorem in the text have been taken from the same work in which, however, the curve here called
the inequality, here numbered as
(in 251) an oval is not perhaps defined with sufficient precision
It is to be observed that Mourey s book contains no hint of the
251, XII., being not employed.
present calculus, being confined, like the Double Algebra of Prof. De Morgan (London, 1849), and like
;
Warren (Cambridge,
we have
ARTS. 246-251.]
we may
279
I.,
^-mj
and may (by 187, 159, 235) decompose
IV.
Tfq =
and
V.
TJfq
two following
into the
it
VI.
or
1,
am/? =
2pjr
is
|||
</>p
known
VII.
? A,
]3
p = ?A,
?"A,
a = ? A,
and
m
~ a
_ f - (P\
YP -jy
VIII
\pj
may
and
s,
may
is
T$p =
1||
f^\
\^
os y
OA
OB
~
|3
in a given plane,
IX.
X.
am $p =
we may assume
2pir.
Up, there always exists at least one value of the tensor Tp, which satisfies the
because the function T$p vanishes with Tp, and becomes
condition IX.
when
infinite
Tp = GO, having varied continuously (although perhaps with
;
T</>p
XI.
.
T<j>
And
in this
way
( i/,i)
= 1
XII.
p = $1,
or
perties
(XI-^L]
1>
<
1, if
>
0,
<
1.
an Oval,
XIV.
Up
i,
Tp =
^i,
be conceived to determine a
XIII.
may
real, finite,
drawn from
the origin o, in
any arbitrary
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
280
[II. n.
direction within the plane, meets the curve once, but once only
n-m
of the
is
5.
<a
252. This being laid down, let us conceive a point p to perform one circuit
of the oval, moving in the positive direction relatively to the given interior
point o; so that, whatever the given direction of the line os may be, the
am
amplitude
(p
or),
if
by
and conse
the oval, so that the line OA must be prolonged to meet that curve, the ray AP
will have likewise made one positive revolution, and the amplitude of the
But if A be an exterior point, so
factor (p - a) a will have increased by Sir.
:
again
prolonged, although the prolongation of the opposite line AO
must meet it once in some point N, then while the point p performs first what
meets
if
it
we may
positive half-circuit
initial
and
from N to
final direction,
from
to N,
namely
AP has only
oscillated
other
about
its
the amplitude
am
(AP
OA), if
supposed to vary continuously, has only fluctuated in its value, and has
(upon the whole) undergone no change at all. And since precisely similar
still
am
(ftp,
increment = 2 (m +
points, A, B,
t) TT,
if
the amplitude,
has (by 236) received a total
* [A curve
traced out by a point moving so that the product of powers of its distances from fixed
equal to a constant parameter, consists of closed curves or ovals surrounding the fixed points
and enclosing all ovals corresponding to smaller parameters. If the parameter is small, each oval
certain
encloses but one fixed point, but as it increases, two ovals will combine into a curve with a
points
is
"
It is not generally true that a ray OP from one of the fixed points meets an
(254 (4.) ).
undulatory oval only once. In this case OP will oscillate in its motion as P traces out the oval. But
= in L POS 4- 2 (v - L PAO) = const., defines a set of curves diverging like half-lines or rays
am
undulation
"
</>/>
from the
from them.
By the pro
cuts at right angles each
oval round
and does not meet it again. Near 0, am
is nearly equal to
L POS plus a con
stant.
From this it appears that IX. and X. can always be satisfied, and that as P traces out an
oval round
without oscillation, am
continually increases or diminishes without oscillation. The
</>
<f>p
ovals are lines of magnetic force, and the orthogonal curves are traces of equipoteutial surfaces for a
system of electric currents normal to the plane.]
t That
is,
so as not to receive
).
or
ARTS. 251-253.]
performs
times,
(as
and therefore
oval
there
=
<t>p
or/<7
is
is
circuit, the
am
amplitude
<}>p
X. has been
at least
satisfied throughout,
form
once satisfied.
by the supposed
281
%pir
and con
But the
construction
other
of the
so that, for this position of that point, the equation 249, III.,
and therefore
The theorem
its
of Art. 248,
transformations
OP
OS
AP
OA
Fig.55.
We
have now to prove fcomp. 250, VIII.) that a (real) point P exists, which
renders the fourth proportional (226) to the three lines OA, OP, AP equal
to a given line os, or AB, if this latter be drawn = os
;
III. ..
which
AAOPOCPAB;
IV.
OP
AP = OA
T^
Fig. 55,
bis.
AB.
bis.)
when
Fig. 56.
we
reject all
but the
of the fourth degree is the -well-known Cassinian ; but when it breaks up, as in
we here retain, as the oval of the proof, only the one round o, rejecting
fig. 56,
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATKUNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
282
point
which
is
here considered.
[II. n.
5.
relatively to o,
AP OA
:
increases
by
In the one
to the oval.
increases
by
by
its initial
upon the
=
am
(j>p
value
oval,
2pir,
but
am
amplitude
by the
have been.
may
0/o
it
of the product
increases
by
2?r
through a value of
Hence, for
at least
we have
and therefore
VII.
throughout,
and
V.
all,
VI.
U^jo
= 1
1,
Tft>
by the equation
construction, or
of the
locus
IV.
the
=l
geometrical condition
<j>p
same generality
VIII.
where
qi
F2
<?
= q2 +
q\q
+ qz =
(comp. 245),
real, actual,
Vlir.
subtracting, therefore,
F2q =
(f*
+ qtf + ? 2 =
and dividing by q -
(comp. 247)
IX.
g+
tf
qi
0,
or
IX
=
?"
we
q,
=-q -
<?i
(comp. 246).
ff
The quadratic VIII. has therefore a second real quaternion root, q related in this
manner to the first and because the quadratic function ~F z q (comp. again 245)
;
is
thus decomposable into two linear factors, or can be put under the form,
cannot vanish for any third real quaternion, q so that (comp. 244) the quad
real roots,
ratic
equation has no more than two such
it
ART. 253.]
The
(1.)
cubic equation
may
+ ?3 =
283
q")
has therefore one real root, say q\ by the general proof (252), which has been
above illustrated by the case of the quadratic equation subtracting therefore
= 0, and dividing by q-q\ we can depress the
(comp. 247) the equation F 3
it
</
new
real roots,
and q*
and thus
may
XI.
F 8 g = (q- q)
(q
(q
q")
q"),
which cannot vanish for any fourth real value of q; the cubic equation X.
and similarly
has therefore no more than three real quaternion roots (comp. 244)
vectors,
The existence of two real roots q of the quadratic I., or of two real
p and //, which satisfy the equation II., might have been geometrically
from the recently proved increase =
anticipated,
must be two
and p
4?r of
fig.
in the
amplitude
<j>p,
which there
is
related to o
is
;
related to
A exactly
on the
first,
there must
and
if
we now
XIII.
write
.
qa,
we may
write
XIV.
#1
=-
1,
q*
=-
<r
a,
comparison with the form VIII. and then the recent relation IX (or
246) between the two roots will take the form of the following relation
for
between
vectors,
= a;
..p + P
XV.
or
XV ..
r
op = /= a
-p = PA;
so that the point p completes (as in the cited figures) the parallelogram
and the
line
PP
this position of p
OPAP
we
XVI.
bisected
is
A AOP
oc
P AB
XVII.
$p
(a
p)
$p
1.
202
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
284
The
(4.)
other relation
[II. n.
5.
XVIII...
The
(5.)
line
<r,
or os,
is
and - p.
p,
actual solution,
complanar quaternions,
XIX...V=-*;
a
gives
<?"=?*>
<?
is
by
performed exactly
XX...J
/(ift-ft),
foi
as in algebra
VIII. in
is
on
down.
254.
and/owr such
The following
is
another
mode
The equation $p =
conception of amplitude.
of
as
follows,
I...<7
xp
-(i- a
or
p and
II.
Tcr
)>
vector
as a
<r
TX/O,
and
III.
known function of
vary together
although
UX
f>,
may
it
TLr =
Now
may
return
the essential
property of the oval (253) may be said to be this that it is the locus of the
points P nearest to o, for which the tensor TX/O has a given value, say b
namely
:
we
when
the point
s,
like o and A,
is given.
If then
conceive the point P to move, as before, along the oval, and the point s also
by the recent formula I., this latter
point must move (by II.) on the circumference of a given circle (comp. again
and the theorem is, that in so
fig. 56), with the given origin o for centre;
moving, s will pass, at least once, through every position on that circle, while P
performs one
And
this
may
(by III.) the angular motion of the radius os is equal to the sum of the angular
motions of the two rays, OP and AP but this latter sum amounts to eight right
;
bis,
and
56
285
the radius os, and the point s, must therefore have revolved twice in the
case, and once in the second case, which proves the theorem in question.
(1.)
In the
first
of these
two
cases,
namely when A
is positive
first
an interior point,
throughout, and the mean angular
is
velocity of the radius os is double of that of each of the two rays OP, AP.
Bat
in
when A
and
is
for if
we
conceive P
move
to describe, like
law
if
I.)
then
by P
and
a circuit of the
dependent on
same circumference
it
it
by the
as before
twice
(if still
of the
This
on that
result
an equal
circle
round A
o,
;
we may
and in the
case at least of
56,
it is
of the rectangles OP
third circle,
may
which
is
described on
serve to exhibit.
To prove
and thus
now CP by
to denote
V.
.
<f
.T(<f-l)=2c,
if
and
= --
= 2S? 2 *
Tf = T?
+ 2 V? 2 = 2NS? -
N? = N? - 2NV?,
ELEMENTS OF
286
may
QTJATERTSIOKS.
(by 210,
(8.)
[II. n.
5.
VII.
(N?
I)
4NV? = 4c
VIII.
(Nq +
I)
4NS<?
= 4c2
first
<
Tp
When
(4.)
2c
>
1,
it is
=
permitted to suppose Sg
<
1,
though
0,
>
=
NV<?
N<?
fig.
55,
but becoming
a,
when
2
S<?
= 2c+
minimum for Sq =
= 1, and
a maximum when
(as before)
namely
1,
at the
T<?
two summits M,
N,
bis
but
p JL
= 2c -
0,
or for
vanishing
axis.
(5.)
(as is
In the intermediate
known)
case,
IX...T(<?
when
-1) = 1;
or
any one
2
X...N<z
may, by V., be
XL
or
2S.<f ;
2
T? = 2SU
z
.
or finally,
XII.
which
last,
when
.T
written as
.
known
C? = 2CA 2
COS 2ACP,
results.
XIII...
<r
~,
and
XIV...
o
j
=
j0
=+
^,
in253,XIL,
that quadratic equation having thus its roots equal; and in general, for all
degrees, cases of equal roots answer to some interesting peculiarities of form of
restriction
we cannot here
delay.
V.
we look back,
we shall see that
255. If
253, III.,
253,
but
IV.,
a moment,
for
it
on the formula of
similarity,
an equality of
also
287
AOP
angles,
and
PAB
so
that
the
angle QAB represents (in the figures 55) a given difference of the base angles
AOP, PAO of the triangle GAP but to construct a triangle, by means of such
:
a given difference, combined with a given base, and a given rectangle of sides,
is a known problem of
elementary geometry. To solve it briefly, as an
AA
with o for
let
BAA
PAA
its
AA P
and
let
AP A
angle of sides,
P.
and equation,
I...AOA POCPAB;
whence
it
follows
II.
by the simplest
Fig. 57.
calculations, that
-a
or that p
mean
is
/3.
Draw,
therefore,
a line OP, which shall be in length a geometric mean between the two given
its extremity will be the
lines, OA, OB, and shall also bisect their angle AOB
;
AA P
IY.
so that
..
p + a
or
IT.
PB
.
OP
OB
OP
OA
OP
OA
being equal)
V.
opposite
first of
them indeed
A OP
oc
AOP
POB OCAP B
as
* In
fact, the two triangles I. are similar, as required, because their angles at o and p are equal,
and the sides about them are proportional.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
288
APBP
circle
AP
B,
are concircular
[II. n.
5, 6.
:*
inscriptive in a circle, of
is
OAB
(see
again
fig.
Quadratic
(3.)
may
also be
employed in the
decompose a
given vector into two others, which shall have a given geometrical mean, &c.
solution of
many
SECTION
On the
for example, to
6.
n2 - n
The polynomial
256.
on which
it
I.
Xn and Yn
may
depends,
or
Fn q
function
q l9
qn
Fn q = Fn (x + iy) = Xn + iYn
q,
Gn
and
n,
On
(a?,
y)
+ iHn (x,
real, finite,
and
y),
scalar functions
Fn q
is
0,
we
see (by
0,
Yn = 0,
or
III.
Gn (x, y}
0,
n (x, y}
0,
what has been stated in 244, and proved in 252) that such a
n th dimension, can always be satisfied by n
and by
IV. ../,y
*
sM.yM;
*",y";..
A AOP cc
and
if \ve
FOB,
whence
A OA P a
OP
B,
the
gives
L BPA
new
similarity,
L AP B = OA
-f
A PO
= AOP
thus the opposite angles BPA, AP B are supplementary, and the quadrilateral APBP is inscriptible. It
will be shown, in a shortly subsequent section [261, (6.)], that these four points, A, P, B, p form a
harmonic group upon their common circle.
,
ABTS.255, 256.]
it
although
may happen
become equal
(or
(1.) If x
that
tioo
289
each other.
to)
and y be treated
as co-ordinates
equations II. or III. represent a system of two curves, in the given plane
and
then the theorem is, that these two curves intersect each other (generally*} in n
real points, and in no more
although two or more of these n points may
:
happen
to coincide
so that
V.
(3.)
the
h9 + 1 =
and
0,
Let q denote
still
VI.
hi
\_q~]
(7.)
just
VIII.
and
let
any
inform
= x+
iy,
IX.
but
[/] +
i
[#"],
h not =
now proposed
of h, let
meaning
VII.
but
ih,
i.
and with
x + hy
\_q~\=
we may
x + hy
here call
so that
-,
it)
BI-COUPLE, of
(123) of complanarity.
(4.)
nq =
X.
same degree,
[Fn q-] =
[q]
-f
n,
and
[grj
|>]-i
+ [0J =
2
which, after the reductions depending on the substitution V. of - 1 for h ,
receives the form,
where
(5.)
vanish together,
by
is
<
>
have/owr
HAMILTON
to
may
but coincident with each other, and with former real roots
intersected in tivo
made
* Cases of
equal roots
real,
I.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
290
[II. n.
6.
roots.
(6.)
z
which equation has
generally to an algebraic equation in #, of the degree n
therefore n z algebraic roots (5.), real or imaginary namely, by what has been
;
y
y
same number
(W]
and
(comp. IV.) of
scalar roots
to correspond
[><)],
0(1*1)
On
257.
quaternions, of the n
th
to
it
by
n*
|>(-)] ;
(7.) ),
of
real root,
l)st
.
0",
or at least
the
form,
(252).
Fn q =
it
in complanar
admits of only
- n
bi-quaternions (214,
(8.) ),
by n(n
1) imaginary quaternion
or bi-couples (256,
(3.) ),
which
be thus denoted,
II.
and
(n
may
.
&<")],
roots,
<?
or
I.
roots,
n real quaternion
is
XIII.
[>()] ;
Fn q = 0,
equation
0(11+1)
since if #(n+1
of corresponding values of y,
XII.
of,
of
III.
which the
first,
foC"*
)],
[q^
the/om,
where / n+1 ),
n* l
x,(
n+1
yp* \ and y / /
l
is
the imaginary
Theorem of Algebra has long been known, and has been proved in other ways
seemed necessary, or at least useful, for the purpose of the present work, to prove it anew, in
or rather to establish the theorem (244, 252), to which in the present
connexion with Quaternions
but
it
Calculus
it
corresponds.
to
page 278.
NEW SYMBOLICAL
BOOTS OF UNITY.
(comp. 256,
1)
291
th
imaginary n roots of unity,
in
i\
(3.) ),
mined
(233, 237)
|||
IV.
for,
by 256,
(2.),
- 1
1,
- hi
hi,
we have
V.
And
hiY =
= (-
=+
1) (- 1)
1.
F q = 0,
z
which generally
Again,
we
if
^T
VI.
1*!
-1 +
plane
if
we
so that
whereof the
1*2
9 =
[ ?]
"
3
.
VIII.
write also,
and 6 Z are
roots of unity
q*
"
VII.
v/ 3
i
-
and
(3.) ),
q, q*
9,
a raz/ scalar
first is
(\\\i)
2
;
Qq, Oq*
imaginary cube-
?,
0y
the two following are imaginary scalar s, or biscalars; and the four that
|||t
remain are imaginary couples, or bi-couples, or biquaternions.
;
(3.)
The
IX.
+ A
(|||
are
*)
(1
A) (1
i)
2P
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
292
Imaginary
(4.)
sometimes
[II. n.
6, 7.
occasion to
employ them.
We may,
(5.)
restriction (225)
on
X.
Fn q =
+ iXn
+jYn
-f
kZn =
0,
breaks up (comp. 221, VI.) into a System of Four Scalar Equations, each
th
(generally) of the n dimension, in w, x,y,z; namely,
it
XI.
and
0,
Yn = 0,
0,
and similarly
nion
if x, y, z
Zn =
is
(generally) a
relatively to the
z,
remaining
imaginary
q.
It
(6.)
may
is
become
number of roots
infinite
as has
been seen to be the case for the equation q = - 1 (149, 154), even when we
confine ourselves to what we have considered as real roots. If imaginary roots
z
we may
be admitted,
h,
write, still
bi-scalar values,
the expression,
XII. ..(-!)* = * + hv
v
and
if
tivo
real
S*>
W=
Svv =
0,
Nt>
- N*/ = 1
in rectangular planes,
provided that the norm of the first exceeds that of the second by unity.
(7.)
And
in like
scalar values,
1,
we
have this general symbolical expression for a square root of positive unity,
with merely the difference of the norms reversed
XIII.
1*
+ hv
*
f
,
Sv = St/ =
Sw
0,
to.
EECIPROCAL OF A VECTOR,
AETS. 257-259.]
SECTION
293
7.
On
circularity.
258.
When
I.
two
and a
vectors, a
a = -
Ta Ta =
Ua
and therefore
Ta,
II.
a = -
Uu
Ta,
or that
III.
we
and
1,
writing
V.
.a = Ba,
VII.
IX.
Ea
= Ba
VI.
and
-Ua
VIII.
Ta;
Ua
0,
is
Or
shall
Ua
two vectors
and
IV.
by
B a = EEa = a
2
and
One
Bit; =
IKt>
(comp. 161,
(3.),
and 204,
XXXV
.).
of the
OAB
Or
if
OA =
OB =
and
OA,
triangles,
OAB, OB A
in symbols,
OB,
then
OAB
OB A
Fig. 58.
(1.)
OA B
is
(2.)
Of
course,
at o to the circle
and
or
AB
and
its
length is easily
proved
to
be the
*
Accordingly, under these conditions, we shall afterwards denote this reciprocal of a vector o hy
the symbol or 1 but we postpone the use of this notation, until we shall he prepared to connect it with
a general theory of products and powers of vectors. Compare 234, V., and the first Note to page 123.
And as regards the temporary use of the characteristic R, compare the second Note to page 262.
;
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
294
same
AB
line
[II. n.
7.
triangles give,
II.
it
(OA
BA)
OB = (OB
AB
OB = 1
AB
we may
OA OA = OB
.
OB = 1
therefore write,
IY.
(OA
BA)
Changing a and
(3.)
OB =
may
]3
j3
AB
R
The
-^-g
|3
B (Bj3 - Bo),
be.
YL..E(/3-a)= Eq
(4.)
V.
or
inverse similarity
I.
VII.
or
B/3;
(OA :B
A ).OB
=B. AB.
K-^.
a
(5.)
Since, then,
IX.
K-^j3
a
by
l
ri3
=T
Ki-
E]3
(2.),
v
X.
we have
Ea
EaEj3
.
E]3
-r
E(j3a)
-^775-
In general, the
or in symbols,
(7.)
More
XL
x be any
(8.)
= - Ea.
Btfa = x~ l
Ea,
scalar.
we
j3,
to 7, dividing,
-B/3
Ba-Bj3
-QA
BY
if
E (- a)
jugates,
formula
generally,
XII.
if
E7
Ba
VB(j3-y)
j3-a
BC
ABCO
a = OA,
(9.)
= OB, and
= oc, as usual.
]3
7
If then we extend, to any four points of space the notation
>
\TTTT
XIY.
interpreting each of these
AB CD
/
(ABCD) =
BC DA
is
(25.),
defining that
AETS. 259-260.]
295
where OA
(10.)
OB
With
XVI.
(11.)
OA,
OD
shall
B C
(OCBA),
DA
(ABCD)
,
(ADCB)
1.
OD the reciprocals of
(OADC)
therefore,
XIX.
if
XVIII.
and
XVII.
o, A, B, c,
we
= 1
(ABCD) + (ACBD)
Let
we agree
K (A B C D
XX.
(12.)
the formula,*
six points,
any
/
N
(ABCDEF) =
AB CD EF
BC DE FA
.
D be complanar
(225),
we
have,
by 226,
and by XIV.,
XXI.
K (A B C D
= (ABCD),
XXI
or
(A B C D
OD are changed
its
=
)
K (ABCD)
conjugate,
when
the
to their reciprocals.
If any
(see
again
58)
OA
OB
common
X
oc
circle,
then
are termino-
* There
(ABCA B C
1,
expresses either 1st, that the three pairs of points, AA BB , cc , form a collinear involution (26.) of a
well-known kind; or Ilnd, that those three pairs, or the three corresponding diagonals of the
,
).
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
296
cottinear (24)
other words,
or, in
And
if
then
line,
7.
be concircular,
o, A, B, c
OA
OB
oc
thus terminate on
one right
one circle
[II.
is
line; while the anharmonic function (259, (9.)), of the inscribed quadrilateral
OABC, reduces itself to a scalar quotient of segments of that line (which there
fore
own
is its
I.
if
by 139)
conjugate,
= B
(OABC)
namely,
B A =
GOA B C
OABC),
(o
the symbol GO be used here to denote the point at infinity on the right line
C
and if, in thus employing the notation (35) for the anharmonic of a
AB
we
plane pencil,
tangent, OD.
(1.)
If p
= OP be the
Ep
may
Ej3 + x (Eo
E/3),
p upon the
be thus written
where
circle
OAB, the
III.
x = (OABP)
the coefficient x being thus a variable scalar (comp. 99, I.), which depends on
the variable position of the point P on the circumference.
(2.)
Or we may
write,
form of the equation of the same circle OAB with which may use
fully be contrasted the earlier form (comp. 25.), of the equation of the line AB,
as another
v
Or, dividing the second
jugates, we have for the circle,
(3.)
^TT
VI.
tp
.
=
+ Up
+ u
ta
member
...
while
u(3
~Tnr
of IY.
by the
VII.
first,
ta
uQ
+ -^ =
u,
Or we may
VIII
this latter
*
Y*
write,
E/
by
II.,
"
Ea -
or
Vlir
E/3
Ka -
- Y-
B/3
scalar.
Compare the remarks in the Note to page 140, respecting the possible determinateness
symhol UO, when the zero denotes a line, which vanishes according to a law.
signification of the
of
AET. 260.]
Or
(5.)
more
still
IX.
briefly,
V (OABP)
while FOi,
their plane,
point in
(OABP)
and
still concircular,
K (OABC)
= (OABC) = Y^
if
0.
p be any
of PO,
fifth
PC, then
1
;
Ci
If,
(7.)
relation,
(O^jfixd)
IX
or
(6.)
297
circle
new
points are (by the present Article) collinear ; being the intersections of
In this case, therefore,
the pencil p OABC with a parallel to the tangent at P.
.
we have
the equation,
XI.
(P
is
(8.)
own
to its
XII.
any
= +
that
is,
equal
we may
BC)
(AB
co),
sides
= + (OA
(OABC)
and
(OABC)
it is
negatively taken
is
an uncrossed or a crossed
one.
(9.)
Hence
it is
o, A, B, c,
we
XIII...TJ^
AB
TJ52;
CB
the upper sign being taken when the succession OABC is a direct one, that is,
when the quadrilateral OABC is uncrossed} and the lower sign, in the contrary
case, namely, when the succession is (what may be called) indirect, or when
is
whenever
crossed
(10.) If A, B, c, D,
it
and
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
298
[II. n.
7.
E are generally
we cannot here
delay.
An interesting case
261.
is
that
when
the generally
is
in which
said to be harmonic.
fill
of calculation.
(1.)
For such a group (comp. again fig. 58), we have thus the equation,
= - 1
A B = B C
I.
and therefore II.
(OABC)
.
or
III.
and under
= J (H
Ej3
R7
this condition,
the Harmonic
TT7
IV.
..
)3
-
/3
*-
= 2;
V.
or
8=
(3.),
2a
-7=
y+a
and 216,
)3
(5.) ),
is
we
2y
y +a
or
VI.
e
|3
= - 7=^
a,
VII.
if
= i
(y
a)
thus denoting here the vector OE (fig. 58) of the middle point of the chord
may then say that the harmonic mean between any two lines is (as
AC.
We
Geometrically,
VIII.
we have thus
A AOB a
EOC
to themselves.
VIII
A AOE oc
BOG
whence, either because the angles OBA and OCA, or because the angles OAC and
OBC are equal, we may infer (comp. 260, (5.) ) that, when the equation I. is
satisfied, the four points o, A, B, c, if not collinear, are concircular.
(4.)
We have
IX.
A OEC a CEB,
and
IX
A OEA a
AEB
or the equations,
X...^- =^,
y
and
X ...^=^;
a c
we
have,
Hence the
(5.)
tt
and the
299
semisum over
the
tinued proportion, and if we take EA = CE, then the four points OABC will
for example, the points APBP of
compose a circular and harmonic group
so as to form such a group.*
fig. 57 are arranged
;
(7.)
OABC of
fig.
58,
the rectangles under opposite sides are each equal to half of the rectangle under
the diagonals
(10.)
= + 2
(OBAC)
XIIF.
to either of the
it
may
(OCAB)
= +
J.
(9.)
or
by
we have
XIV.
AC
is
it is
DB
is
the
intersects
(ABCO)
the harmonic
between BC and BA
(BCOA)
A and
BO
is
such a
mean
CB.
may
= (COAB) = - 1
(10.)
when
in the sense
line
o.
Under
geometry, that
so that
the tangent at
two anhar-
A and
and we
see that
in a given plane, or in space) there always corresponds & fourth point B, which
is in this sense conjugate to that third
point this fourth point being always
:
to 255, (2.).
In
A, c, o,
fig.
OABC
is
three points o, B, B.
2Q
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
300
[II.
7-in.
11.
1.
unless they happen to be collinear with each other in which extreme (or
limiting) case, the fourth point B is still determined, but is now collinear with
;
(11.)
given
treating
,
B",
them
as
with respect
in
A,
o",
o",
B",
a plane through that line, or even generally in space and the two points
c may in all these cases be said to be the two Double Points (or Foci) of this
:
But
Involution.
Quaternions,
(12.)
is
We
easily be
may
to the plane
since
.
<n,
we may define
a n when it
.
that
r\
is
satisfies
the
the
equation,
XV.
fl
= - (Eoi +
Ean
or
XVI.
wRu = 2Ka.
Finally, as regards the notation Ea, and the definition (258) of the
reciprocal of a vector, it may be observed that if we had chosen to define
(13.)
reciprocal vectors as
opposite) directions,
we should
but should
indeed have had the positive sign in the equation 258, VII.
have been obliged to write, instead of 258, IX., the much less simple formula,
;
RL>
= -
IRt>.
* There is a sense in which the geometrical process here spoken of can be applied, even when
the two fixed points, or foci, are imaginary.
Compare the Geometric Superietire of M. Chasles,
page 136.
f Compare the Note to 259,
(11.).
AnTs.261, 262.]
CHAPTER
301
III.
1.
Oil
we have
i)
First Chapter of this Second Book, the subject of General Quotients of Vectors
and
only proved in connexion with the Distributive Principle (212), and with the
Laws of the Symbols, i,j, k (183). And first we shall give a few geometrical
which
and in which
multiplication of versors
it
shall be
independent of the
is
evidently
an
* As in
227, (3.); 242, (7.); 254,
r, s
are
We
some
will be to
throw some
260,
257, (6.) and (7.)
(7.)
259, (8.), (9.), (10.), (11.)
and 261, (11.) and (12.).
t Or, more generally, for any three pairs of magnitudes, each pair separately being homogeneous.
J If the factors q, r, s were complanar, we could always (by 120) put them under the forms,
;
(10.);
(1.)
sr
-- =
= 5/8
fi
8
S 7
= s .rq;
-=--
y a
would be proved without any
difficulty.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
302
by new enunciations in
additional light,
this section,
[II.
m.
1.
Formula (223,
II.),
I.
or thus,
more
II.
and
sr
q=
rq
fully,
.
q q
if
t,
sr,
and
rq,
ss
versors, in three
planes.
we may
263. Already
namely
IV.
IT.
or
q, r, s, s
much depend
while the versor character of the factors (in the only part of
the theorem for which proof is required) suggests a reference to a Sphere,
namely
to
what we have
And
arrangements of the six planes appear to be the most natural and simple that
can be considered namely, 1st, the arrangement in which the planes all pass
:
its
surface
We
solid.
ternary product
rq, or ss
order of association.
nary product,
sr
q,
To
or
taken in one
t,
or q
q,
we may
G,
points,
H,
*i,
first
deter
by arcual
and
had intersected in E
sr or q
may
and then,
L,
M,
303
new
arcs,
ARTS. 262-264.]
these two
shall
have an
arc,
theorem then
is,
sense of Art.
165
KM
is
way we
for in this
And
q q as required.
the
r\
AB = n KL,
n BO = n GH,
EF = n HI,
r\
n DF = n
n AC =
DE,
r>
GI
= A LM,
is satisfied also,
KM
K and M, being both on the same great circle as the two pre
or D and M being on the great circle
determined
viously
points, D and F
DF
and KM, of that great circle, or the
two
F
K
and
the
and
arcs,
through
the two points,
two
dotted
DK,
arcs,
FM
in
the
figure,
being equally
and
long,
similarly
directed (165).
(1.)
middle equations I., we might determine the three other points K, L, M, without
any other arcual equations, as intersections of the three pairs of arcs AB, DF
and then the theorem would be, that (if these three last points
AB, GI DF, GI
;
be suitably distinguished from their own opposites upon the sphere) the two
extreme equations L, and the equation II., are satisfied.
(2.)
first, third,
tively
and fifth
and third
KLGHED
If the
be respec
of
a spherical triangle ABC, then the second, fourth, and sixth sides (LG, HE, DK) of
the
(MI, IF,
FM) of another
be also
It
may
sixth side (DK) of the first is equal to the sixth diagonal (FM) of the second.
(4.)
Or,
if
we adopt
(3.), of
an arcual
sum, and denote such a sum by inserting + between the symbols of the two
summands, that of the added arc being written to the left-hand, we may state
the theorem, in connexion with the recent
III.
where B and F
may
n DF +
BA =
EF + n
fig.
BC,
59,
if
by the formula
n DA = A EC
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
304
We may
(5.)
IV.
(6.)
if
GH
^ ED + ^
a moment,
If, for
KL =
we agree
Y.
we may then
VI.
(7.)
D-E + H-G
still
if
n AB =
HE +
n LG =
may
.
0.
B- A,
r"
little
more
lucidly thus
then
above
+ n
+ n =
n"
(n + n)
an Associative Operation.
any independent demonstration be given, of the truth
Conversely,
DK +
VII..
if
sub-art. (2.))
L-K = O,
more simply,
which are
diplanar arcs,
(8.)
then
0,
..if
Or
and compare
59,
fig.
+ n
l.
also express*
m.
[II.
is
senting the three given versors, and their partial or total products, by arcs, it
natural to represent them (174, II.) by angles on the sphere. Conceive then
that the two versors, q and r, are repre
is
sented, in
s , is represented
the
external
vertical
by
angle at E, of the
Let the second versor r be
triangle ABE.
also represented
third versor
sented
will be repre
binary product, sr or q
new
at F, of the
ternary product, t =
ss
rq,
triangle BCF.
we have only
Again, to
to take the
known
AETS. 264-266.]
external angle at
if
305
AFD
of the triangle
must
q, which (by the associative principle)
be equal to the first. Conceiving then that ED is prolonged to G, and FD to H,
their
the two spherical angles, GDC and AD H, must be equal in all respects
.
vertices
D and D
coinciding,
in
and the
ABE = FBC,
BCF = ECD,
DEC =
7T
by
- BEA,
DAF = EAB,
FDA = CDE,
is this
AFD =
7T
CFB,
versely
of the
theorem
is,
at the
same time,
circles,
last
triliteral
AB
C,
CA
annexed
first
B,
may
fig. 61.
Fig. 61.
successions*
I.
* Such as
we
spherical conies.
HAMILTON
AB
D,
AB CD
B CAD,
A BC
D,
by these symbols
known
properties of the
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
306
I.,
three versors, q, r,
TT
260,
(9.)
is
it
^
U
B D
DC
>
AB
= + TT
AC
-.
= + TT
U DA
IT
BD
TT
r =
1.
allowed to introduce
s,
II.
Then (by
[II. in.
CA
r-
-.
CB
TT BD
^ CD
A B
CA
although (by the cited sub- article) the last members of these three formulae
should receive the negative sign, if the first, third, and fourth of the successions
I.
were to become
We have thus
ones.
- TT DA/ - TT A B
DC
BC
TTT
indirect, or if
if
if
formula,
IV.
since,
by the
ss
rq
formula would
first
were indirect
TTT
and
I.
- TT CD - TT D A
CB
AB
BD
= TT
U
BC
-,
q q
differ in their
Hence,
sr
two
DA
= TT
U
7
AC
be equal,
follows that, under the supposed conditions of construction, the four points,
B, c , A, D , compose a circular and direct succession ; or that the quadrilateral,
it
infer,
number^pf
conversely,
is
circles, AB
C,
CA
B,
always
even-
BC A, concur
and BC AD
(including zero).
of this geometrical
And
theorem
will be a
multiplication
may
Of
otherwise proved
260,
but
it is
(9.).
An
be
and
AETS. 266-268.]
307
C OA , A OB of the
pencil be respectively equal to the angles B OC
another
then
of
three
o
can
be assigned, such
second,
pencil
rays,
that the three other angles BOC, DOE, FOA of the first pencil shall be equal to
the
first
A"B"C",
the angles
B"OC",
C"OA",
A"OB"
of the third
and
similarity of
direction of rotations.
(1.)
(4,)),
any two
lines in space
= %p,
it
7
under
and ?
O
It,
...
for,
we may
we have
]3
(comp. 125),
a y
a
7
Another
enunciation
of
the
associative
(2.)
principle is the following
o
y
O
P =
TTT
P =S
-111.
if then
-,
-;
a 7
o
7 a
if we determine
six
new
(120)
vectors, r\Qi, and /cA^u, so that
</
J.T-
for
$
- = -,
7
(0
)3
- = rj
IV.
r)
8
Z
whence - = -,
and
>
we
shall
V
(3.)
true,
fjL
-^.L
-^.
l^-^L^-!!!-^
""
^ - %
=
VT
---
atleastif
for it conducts
|(>e;
but, even with this last restriction, the three fact or- quotients in
represent any
VII.
three quaternions.
2
may
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
308
SECTION
[II.
2.
2.
269.
We propose,
Demonstra
tions of the Associative Principle, in connexion with the three figures (59-61)
which were employed in the last section for its Enunciation ; and with the
three arrangements of six planes,
first
knowledge
of a
The two
nature and
its
many
different points of
view.
270.
The only
Article assume as
three given points on a given sphere, which are not on a great circle, a conic
can be described (consisting generally of two opposite ovals), which shall have
a given great circle for one of its two cyclic arcs
Ilnd, that if a transversal arc
;
cut both these arcs, and the conic, the intercepts (suitably measured) on this
if
second system parallel to the tangent plane at o to the sphere through the
In the figure the circle OAB is the section of
vertex and the circle APB.
this sphere by the plane through two edges of the cone OA and OB, while
oc (parallel to AB) and oc (tangent to OAB) are the traces of the cyclic
planes.
also proved.]
is
309
have the great circle DAEC for one cyclic arc, the second and third
equations I. of 264 will prove that the arc GLIM is the other cyclic arc for this
and
to
conic
and
the
first
equation
I.
if
FK be drawn and
equations prove that it meets the cyclic arcs in D and M after which, the
equation II. of the same Art. 264 immediately results, at least with the
;
The
(1.)
with the three radii drawn to the three given points upon the
but it may be worth while, as an exercise, to prove here the Ilnd
cyclic arc,
sphere
property by quaternions.
a
(2.) Take then the equation of
196,
cyclic cone,
(8.),
which
may
(by 196,
..S-S-^ = N-S;
a
]3
and
II.
let
j3
75
N 75*
p
p and p being thus two rays (or sides) of the cone, which may also be con
sidered to be the vectors of two points P and P of a spherical conic, by
supposing that their lengths are each unity. Let r and / be the vectors of
the two points T and T on the two cyclic arcs, in which the arcual chord PP
them
III.
so that
.S-=0,
a
if
S^ = 0,
and
IV.
Tr = T/=1.
stated thus
= XT + X T,
that
VI.
then
if
p = X T + XT
the equations
I.
III.
IV. V. be
satisfied.
Now, by
III. V. VI.,
we have
.a
whence
it
first
* Modifications of that
arrangement
members
may be
/3
]3
of I.
and
it
and
it
only
would be easy to
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
310
[II. ni.
2.
= Tp,
T/=Tr.
Accordingly we have, by Y. and VI.,
VIII.
^2
in question
X -X
T
L
= g-iQ, by 200, (11.), and 204,
(19.)
T
r
.
is
proved.
To prove
271.
to
it,
one of which
is,
that
drawn
if
Ilnd, that
to the conic,
and
if,
and one
makes with one tangent the same angle as the other focal arc with the other
tangent and Illrd, that if a spherical quadrilateral be circumscribed to such
;
first
of the equations
I.,
it
touches also
the arcs AB and CD, while the third of those equations proves that it touches
AD, so that ABCD is a circum scribed f quadrilateral: after which the three
equations II., of the same article, are consequences of the same properties of
the curve.J
272. Finally, to prove the same important Principle in a more com
pletely elementary way, by means of the arrangement represented in fig. 61,
or to prove the theorem of spherical geometry enunciated in Art. 267,
* The reader
may
In
we
strictness,
(. .)
AETS, 270-272.]
may assume
the point
311
which the
all
lines,
being in one
stated
common plane.*
J/A
AB
circles,
A BC
and Ilnd, an
B CA
number
even
(if
any) of the
six (linear
or circular) successions,
II.
AB
C,
BC A, CA
and
B,
IF.
AB
D,
A BC
D,
B CA D,
will be direct
an even number therefore also (if any) being indirect. But,
under this/orm,f the theorem can be proved by very elementary considerations,
and still without any employment of the distributive principle (224, 262).
is evident from the
(1.) The first part of the theorem, as thus stated,
;
may
it
be useful to
which
may
have any
and
We may
III.
AB
= mr,
odd or
even,
AB
BC A = M
or indirect
C,
TT,
CA B =
w"zr,
on the
and similarly
for the
two other
on a pro
coefficients, n
and
n" .
[Invert figure 61 from the point D. The sphere becomes a plane, and the circles through D
right lines, the other circles remain circles.]
t The Associative Principle of Multiplication was stated nearly under this/orm, and was illus
trated by the same simple diagram, in paragraph XXII. of a communication by the present author,
which was
already cited Lectures on Quaternions (Dublin, 1853), from which (as already observed) some
of the formulae and figures of this Chapter have been taken.
author
| [AB C being the angle through which B A must be turned in the positive direction so as to coincide
with B c.l
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
312
Again,
(3.)
if
formula,
IV.
V.
and
AB D + DB
2, 3.
establish the
may
[II. in.
we may
write,
BC D + DC A = n
= mr,
if
CA D + DA B =
tr,
n"ir
therefore,
VI.
(AB D + DC A) + (BC D +
DA
+ (CA D + DB
B)
C)
(n
+ n +
TT.
n")
(4.)
cular,
VII.
concir-
the integer p being odd or wen, according as the succession OPQTI is direct or
indirect ; if then we denote by D the second intersection of the first and second
whereof c
circles I.,
VIII.
p and p being
odd,
is
AB D + DC A = prr,
we
when
the two
first
shall
have
BC D + DA B =
successions II
p ir,
(5.)
IX.
CA D + DB C = p"w,
p"
is
odd
QIC
even,
p+p +
p"
= n + n +
is
X.
where
and
it is direct
n"
I.
passes
or indirect, that
is
to
as the
number of
indirect successions,
among
is
second part of
II
.)
XI.
if q, r, s
(7.)
it
sr
= +
rq,
and
never
XII.
sr
=-
rq,
The
by
may
AETS. 272-274.]
SECTION
On some
313
3.
Additional Formulae.
may
although we have reserved for the Third Book the interpretation of such
2
expressions as |3a, or a , yet we have agreed, in 210, (9.), to abridge the
2
2
and we now propose to abridge it
frequently occurring symbol (Ta) to Ta
still further to No, and to call this square of the tensor (or of the
length] of a
;
Norm
the
vector, a,
2
Tg = N#, and
shall therefore
of that
now
We
N^
called
I ... (Ta) 2 =
(1.)
II.
N/>
- 1
III.
V.
186,
.
Ta 2 = Na.
NP = N
IY.
Nfo -
a)
Na
..N(p-a)=N(j3-a),
YI.
N(p +
o,
186,
= N(p -
a)
a)
(6.) (7.)
B,
),
VII.
Nfo -
]3)
= N(p -
),
As
bisects
may
here be added,
which relate partly to the quaternion forms (204, 216, &c.) of the Equation
of the Ellipsoid.
(1.)
XVI.,
Changing
complanar, while 1
HAMILTON
K( K
of the ellipsoid,
:
T/o
p ) to E/o
TEp by
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
when
2
divided
S
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
314
(5.)
for
[II. in.
3.
is
is
I...
of
which the
T (tp
member
first
PK),
as K*
?.
If, in
216, VIII.)
simple form
by 204,
(14.),
III.
= T/3
T<r
is
what we have
p,
which
connects
any two corresponding points, p and s, on the ellipsoid and sphere, is seen to
to the fixed line j3; which is one element of the homology, mentioned
be parallel
in 216, (10.).
(3.)
It
is
IV.
if
p and
and therefore
..Sf-S^SC,
a
6
o
o-
V.
6000
S~: S^ = S^:S^
points,
p and
on
the ellipsoid and sphere ; whence it is easy to infer this other element of the
homology, that any two corresponding chords, PP and ss , of the two surfaces,
intersect each other
216,
(7.))
TTT
VI.
and
on the
cyclic
normal (comp.
its cyclic
..T-
= xp
this point is
+ xp
-j-
X + X
xa + x a
X + X
if
a p
# = S^-,
C
and
a?
is,
op
=-S^;
VII.
.S
0.
to page 241.
ART. 274.]
(4.)
vni.
..<r=-
if
315
we had assumed
P
which would have given again, as in
IX.
Ter
III.,
BS;
ay
X...8-
but with
T/3,
7
the
otfAer cyclic
been taken
plane, with
y instead of 8
The same
(5.)
ellipsoid
).
is,
homologous
to the
same
mean
sphere, with the same two cyclic planes as planes of homology, but with
a new centre of homology, which is the infinitely distant point on the axis of
cited).
(6.)
general transformations
XXXIV.)
XL
may
..
(7.)
XIII.
or the
UV?
UVU?
XIV.
UIV?
Ax
easily,
XV.
TIV? = TV?
..
XIIF.
UVU = UV
XIV.
UIV =
Ax.
XT.
TIV
TV
and the identity 200, IX. becomes more evident, when we observe that
XVI.
(8.)
We have
*=1 =
q
The
which
= q(l-Kq).
(g"
(q
1 )(
Kg + 1
+ l)(Kq +
l)
and 218,
(10.)),
+
= Ng-l 2Vg
N? + 1 + 2Sq
formula,*
XVIII.
in
.q-Nq
XVII
(9.)
U (rq + Kqr)
= U(Sr Sq +
Vr V?)
.
^ (/Y)* q~\
any great
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
316
importance in
[II. HI.
3.
itself,
exercises in transformation.
(10.)
root,
x +
When
it
was
had only
itself for
a square-
the meaning was (comp. 225), that no binomial expression of the form
XIX.
= q2 =
(x
it/)*
(x*
if)
2%,
any real or imaginary values of the two scalar coefficients x and y, different
from zero ;* for if bi-quaternions (214, (8.) ) be admitted, and if h again
denote, as in 256, (2.), the imaginary of algebra, then (comp. 257, (6.) and
= 0, the imaginary
(7.) ) we may write, generally, besides the real value, 0*
for
expression,
..04 =
XX.
v
and
v being thus
V,
So-Sff-Swf-Nff-Nfj-O;
if
(or
with
(2.)
of
ijk,
we have
the
transformations,
XXL
so
the biquaternion
that
symbol
=
..(* + hJY
i
-f +
+ hj
is
(#+/) =
+ AO =
0*.
(12.)
only the square of one, but the product of two such factors may vanish, without
a circumstance which may throw some
either of them separately vanishing
:
(or symbolical}
roots of equations,
XXII.
has no real roots except
1,
2
.
!=(?-!) (?+!)
+ hv
0.
verified
if
we
by the
substitution
q, yet
with the conditions 257, XIII., this equation
XXII.
is
verified.
# Compare
Boyal Irish Academy on November 11, 1844, the scalar of a quaternion is called the
and the vector, the
imaginary part." See p. 3, vol. iii., of the Proc. K.I. A.]
"
"real
part,"
BI-QUATEENIONS.
AET.274.]
(14.)
when
317
two imaginary but non-evanes
Right Part
V<?
Norm
quaternion)
is
each of these
With
(15.)
and
this definition, if q
q be
any two
real quaternions,
we may
and
if
establish the
XXIII.
or (comp. 200, VII.,
As
N (q+hq
XXIY.
(16.)
N (q + hq
N? - Nq
27*8
qKq.
regards the norm of the sum of any two real quaternions, or real
220, (2.)):
XXV,
XXVI.
in each of
which
it is
(|3
for
N.
BOOK
III.
CHAPTER
I.
On a
First
1.
Method
ART. 275. In the First Book of these Elements we interpreted, 1st, the
Ilnd, the sum of two
difference of any two directed right lines in space (4.)
the
of
one
such
or more such lines (5-9)
Illrd,
product
line, multiplied by
;
SCALAR
what we have
line,
called generally a
we have
called a
VECTOR
(1).
QUATERNION
(112, 116).
It is
however
an Oblique Quotient,
an acute or an obtuse angle with each other (130), the three following particular
cases
1st, the limiting case, when the angle becomes null, or when the two
called
right angles, or
when the
when
the angle
and when
is
equal to
tico
in consequence
the quotient again degenerates, but now into a negative scalar ; and Illrd, the
intermediate case, when the angle is right, or when the two lines are perpen
dicular (132), instead of being parallel (15),
* The Fourth
Proportional to any three complanar
being another
HAMILTON
line in the
S
lines
same plane.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS,
zT
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
1, 2.
i.
[III.
ones.
But no
277.
going
other
POWER
which
PRODUCT of
of a Vector
I.
in
Books, for a
<yj3a,
denote
fore
|3o,
a, /3,
two
and
II.
vectors,
but
a3
1
,
And
analogy.
to
As
278.
a vector
a.
is
plied into*
commencement
we
of such Interpretation
j3,
j3a is
is
multi
I...|3a
j3:Ea;
where
II..
And we
SECTION
On some Consequences
279.
The
it
2.
gives therefore,
/3a
=-
and
IL../3a = Kaj3;
or
similarly,
II
a/3
relation,
a/3
= K/3a.
t-
ARTS. 276-281.]
(generally) a
is
Non- Commutative
from
(i.) It follows
two
Vectors, taken in
and the
323
Con
Quaternions
Operation.
III.
Sj3a
-f
Saj3
= i
()3a
a/3).
(2.)
IV.
= i
Y/3a = Ya]3
(]3a
a/3)
we have the
trans
formations,
"
follows, then,
+ a )~
by taking conjugates
also,
Ea"
IL..j3(aW)
whence
JL.
"
"E(a
it
+ K-^- -A
-K^L-K^
Ea
E/3
E/3
Ej3
___
III.
Multiplication of Vectors
is,
(a
(279),
+ a
j3
=|3a +
/3a
we have
=
a/3
aft.
Doubly
Distributive Operation.
of
extend to Vector-Multiplication.
consequences from the
attention
Vectors
among which,
be called to the Scalar character of a Product of two Parallel
and to the Right character of a Product of two Perpendicular Vectors,
;
may
The
definition (278)
may
I.../3a
it
be thus written,
= -Tj3.Ta.TJ(/3:a);
gives, therefore,
II.
T]3a
= T]3 .Ta
III.
Uj3a = U(j3
a)
= Uj3
.Ua
the tensor and versor of the product of two vectors being thus equal (as for
quaternions, 191) to the product of the tensors, and to the product of the versors,
respectively.
2T2
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBMONS.
324
(2.)
we have
(/3
i.
[III.
x = z
a),
(]3
2.
..,
thus,
Y.
VII.
Tj3a
= ba
SUjSa
VI.
= -
SUa/3
..
Sj3a
CQStf
Sa/3
= - ba cos*
VIII.
^ j3a
any two
- x
TT
vectors
is
the supple
IX.
XI.
XII.
so that
TV/3a = TVa/3 = la
IV/3a
= -
sin
yba
IUV/3a = Ax
sin
X.
XF
= -
)3a
XII
TVUjSa
IVa/3
= +
IUVa)3 =
TVUa/3 =
-yah sin
Ax
a/3
sin x
= + 7
Ae rotation round the axis of a product of two vectors, from the multiplier
It follows also,
product, j3a,
is
coinitial sides
so that if
we denote here
by the
symbol
A OAB,
we may
XIII.
and the
gram, of
a, j3,
= 2 A OAB
which
line the length represents its area, in the sense that they bear
XIV.
T (|3a
(6.)
Sj3a
a/3)
vectors, a,
Na
.S(/3
= 2 x parallelogram = 4 A OAB.
/3,
a)
XVI.
Na.V(/3
V/3a =
a)
or briefty,*
XVII.
..j3o
= -No.()3 :o),
* All the
consequences of the interpretation (278), of the product 0a of two vectors, might be
deduced from this formula XVII.
which, however, it would not have been so natural to have
assumed for a definition of that symbol, as it was to assume the formula 278, I.
;
AET. 281.]
(7.)
two
If the
becomes a
(4.)
so that
XVIII.
(8.)
Under
XIX.
(9.)
S/3o
Sa/3
j3a
write,
and
j3 JL a,
if
0,
rectangle,
we may
reciprocally.
z/Ba
On
325
= Za]3 =
XX.
= - yba;
I/3a
XXI.
if
\)Q
Ia/3
which
opposite directions
we may
for
XXII.
if
]3
is
V/3a =
then
a,
||
Va/3
0,
XXIII.
the tipper or the
(10.)
j3
Sj3a
= Sa/3 = +
XXY.
(11.)
If
a, |3,
and
XXIY.
then
if /3 JL a,
if
]3
ba,
/0t0er s/pw
We may
a/3
a,
||
j3a
then
7 be any three
j3a
= -
a/3,
a]3,
and reciprocally
XXVII.
XXVIII.
/3
a,
and
new
yj3
S (Y 7 /3 V)3a) =
IV (V7 j3
(IV
S)
V)3a)
positive scalars,
=-7
XXYI.
TT.
= +
unit-lines,
0, or
(V 7 /3 V)3a) =
.
]3
the sub-
]3
j3,
tan B
upper or lower signs being taken, in the two last formulae, according as the
rotation round ]3 from a to
7 or that round B from A to c, is positive or
,
negative.
(12.)
XXIX. ..T(^ + P K)
I.,
of the Ellipsoid,
IV -IV;
or
may now
XXX.
be written thus
T (tp + /OK)
= Ni
N*.
ELEMENTS OF QUATEKNTONS.
326
Under
282.
[Til.
i.
2.
which case
their product
it
is
When
square of
/3
a,
a,
we may
call the
write, as a particular
norm (273) of
which expresses
that vector
same
II.
(3.)
vector.
2
a = aa = a
Ea = -
(Ta}
= - Na,
as before.
S a2 = .
Na
IV.
2
a =
and
V. ..T.a 2 = T(a 2 )= + Na=(Ta) 2 = Ta 2
the omission of the parentheses, or of the point, in this last symbol of a tensor,*
for the square of a vector, as well as for the square of a quaternion (190), being
thus justified
and in
like
VI.
manner we may
a =
2
U (a
write,
= - 1 = (Ua) 2 =
Ua
2
;
the square of an unit-vector (129) being always equal to negative unity, and
The equation
VII.
it
z
.
= a2
gives
represents therefore,
through the point A.
Vir...N/>
by 186,
(2.),
= Na,
or
VII" .
TP = Ta
to
page 214.
SQUARE OF A YECTOE.
ART. 282.]
(5.)
327
equation,
VIII.
(/3
a)
(comp.* 186,
(4.),
(p
a)
(p
of = a\
for centre,
(p
186,
XL
(p
/3)
(p
The
o.
a)
(3.),
(6.), (7.)),
a)
(comp. 186,
279, III., enable us to establish generally (comp. 210, (9.)) the formula,
XII.
a)
(]3
IX
(9.)
The
2
.
2
.
/o
may
= 2SaP
2
2Sj3a + a
/3
and
Sap =
0.
equations,
XIII.
2
p +
XIY.
2
p +
0,
represent the spheres with o for centre, which have a and 1 for their respec
2
tive radii; so that this very simple formula, p + 1 = 0, is (comp. 186, (1.))
The
equation,
XV.
may
as such, of great
is,
z
.
2Sap +
0,
XVI.
N0>
a)
= -
(p
a)
- a2 =
Na
or
XVF.
it
(p
a)
=
</(<>
*)
=
*/(<>
+ Na)
with this
* Compare
for centre,
and
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
328
This sphere
(11.)
if this
than -
Na
but
The
(12.)
it
is
scalar constant,
i.
[III.
2, 3.
be a positive scalar; or
if c
2
though negative, be (algebraically) greater than a
c,
becomes imaginary,
if
Na
or
0.
<
XVII.
p~
2Sap +
- 2Sa +
p
Q,
0,
it is
be such, even
if
if
c,
(13.) The equation 281, XXIX., or XXX., of the Central Ellipsoid (or of
the ellipsoid with its centre taken for the origin of vectors), may now be still
further simplified,* as follows
:
XIX.
The
(14.)
XX.
whence
it is
+ pK ) =
(ip
i\
afta = a
XX
or
Ea
a =
Ea
Ea =
natural to write, t
XXI.
= 1
Ea
a = a-
if
we
equation,
XXII. ..a.
It follows,
(15.)
XXIII.
If
(16.)
symbol a~
have
as to
so
l
,
identically,
=o-1 .o=
1.
Ua Ta
:
we had adopted
symbol
and
the equation
XXIV.
/3a.
XXIV.
XXIII.
/3a
a".
as a definition + of the
But we proceed
j3
as a formula of
to consider
an entirely
of
different method, of arriving at the same (or an equivalent) Interpretation
to
as
this latter
or of a
Product of Vectors, considered
equal
symbol
Binary
a Quaternion.
*
to
page 241.
J Compare
AETS. 282-284.]
329
3.
On a Second Method
283. It cannot
fail to
Second Book, how close and intimate a connexion* has been found to exist,
between a Eight Quaternion (132), and its Index, or Index- Vector (133).
Thus, if v and / denote (as in 223, (1)., &c., any two right quaternions, and
if Iv,
II.
L/ =
(v
v)
which
may
if
Iv,
= Iv
we have
indices,
alre
and conversely
v,
Iv (206)
:v (193)
EL? =
Iv
Iv = v .v = v
if
we had proposed
to
v,
whereby
IV.
us),
(133)
being equal to the product of those two quaternions themselves. And then, to
interpret the product |3a, of any two given vectors, taken in a given order, we
should only have had to conceive (as we always may) that the two proposed
factors, a and )3, are the indices of two right quaternions, v and v , and to
multiply these latter, in the same order.
led to
or
we should have
|3a
v v,
this slightly
if
a = 10,
and
]3
= Iv
and
/3
and
I^jS,
lines
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATKRNIONS.
to
page 175.
aU
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
330
To
(1.)
now
establish
[HI.
r.
3, 4.
IV...
vv
= Iv
:I(l :v)=Iv :IRv;
equation,
V.
as in 278, I.
.L/.L>
a and
]3 still
VI.
or
L/:EL>;
j3
.a =
vectors.
j3
The
Ea,
two interpretations
therefore coincide, at least in their results, although they have been obtained
by different processes, or suggestions, and are expressed by two different formula.
article,
The
(4.)
j3a,
answer
to the
of the
same sub-
(1.),
is
on
By
(5.)
II.
to,
last definition)
XXIII.
be deduced from,
the formulae,
V., VI.,
VHL, XL,
of 208.
sub-articles to
The
281,
its
tion
by
j3
to a
(3.)
and
(4.),
and the
representa
the same line of the parallelogram under those two factors, regard being
had
to units of length
223,
by means
(4.),
and
of area,)
might
also
ARTS. 284-286.]
SECTION
On
331
4.
285. It has been seen, then, that the recent formula 284, II. or III.,
may replace the formula 278, I., as a second definition of a product of two
a and
which conducts
]3,
to the
and
f
,
or I~ a a
and
which they
I^jS, of
is
equal to
v,
of those
For
it is
evident
if
interpretation
and
In the next
I- jS
TX
place,
or subtraction,
if
II.),
1.),
J3
the equality,
a.
of addition
with these more general results of the same kind (comp. 207 and 99),
III.
In the third
place,
I-
Sa = Sl- a
IV.
.. I-
III.),
we
formula,
while the second definition (284) of multiplication of vectors, which has been
proved to be consistent with the first definition (278), has given us the
analogous equation,
VI.
I- /3
I- a
|3
a =
j3a.
2U2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
332
It
VII.
or
still
more
operation I
..T a
1
VIII.
or
and symbolically,
briefly
is
= a;
4.
i.
[III.
if it
I* =
v,
if^ = ^;
subject of the
IX.
I =
1.
But, before finally adopting this conclusion, there is a case (or rather a class
of cases), which it is necessary to examine, in order to be certain that no
contradiction to former results can ever be thereby caused.
comp. 275),
(99,
I.
if
we change,
a,
= 2#a
in this
of the
new
right
that
II.
But
Book;
in which a,
j3,
7, S,
And
before
IV..
288.
To examine
/o,
the equation,
be at
first
in which case there will always be (by 226) & fourth vector p,
vectors, y ||| a, ]3
in the same plane, which will represent or construct the function (y /3) a ;
;
/3,
7, a.
call
AUTS. 286-290.]
may
be denoted by
v",
..J":v
VI.
or
= (p:a =
..*/"=(/
VTT
so easy to
)*;
~~~
_ P _ 7 _
I"V
.....
it is
:*
y:p=)v":ifi
number
p by the
v"
Y.
And
a, /3, y,
we
1
I"
333
I"
.
>
>.
we may now
We
289.
and
"VII.
and other
(132)
represented by,
vectors.
and equated
In symbols, we
to,
any
of vectors
set
a, |3, y,
q being
right, or
./(a,
some quaternion
j3,
7,
.)
=/(!-
<,,
when
<?-
this quaternion is
when
=
we
= S- 1
= TV,
./(, ft
y,
.)
- I/XI-a,
I-
/3,
r-7,
=
.)
formula,
p,
p being a vector.
290. For example, instead of saying (as in
281) that the Product of any
two Rectangular Vectors is a Right Quaternion, with certain
properties of its
Index, already pointed out (284, (6.) ), we may now say that such & product is
And hence will follow the important consequence, that
equal to that index.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
334
the
in
Line,
is
Space
equal to (or
from
[III.
may
this
4, 5.
i.
be con
Product-
being Positive
and
the Length of the Product being equal to the Product of the Lengths of the
Factors, or representing (with a suitable reference to units) the Area of the
And
SECTION
On some
from
291.
that
5.
An
we may now
is
it
has entered
and
so
may
simplify the
Notation.
Ax
Ax
or
we may now
= ITJY?,
or
Ax. = IUY,
as in 204, (23.),
= UIY?,
or
Ax. = UIY,
as in 274, (7.),
write simply t,
I.
Ax
q =
of
),
may
UY?;
the
or
II.
Ax. =
UY.
whenever we
may
think
fit
to
and Y, which
dispense with it, by this combination of two other characteristics,
are of greater and more general utility, and indeed cannot^ be dispensed with,
in the practice of the
present Calculus.
*
in
fact
they have
all
italic capitals,
AETS. 290-293.]
335
292.
its
own
index-vector
TVq, and so
be led to
may
q,
the First Chapter of the First Book, or the assertion (17) that
Scalar plus Vector equals
"
becomes entirely
For we are in
intelligible,
manner
this
led to conceive a
when
it
Number
definite signification.
(positive or negative)
is
which the
we
Quaternion"
line is
In symbols,
the Index.
= a +
a,
when
because either of
we
are
entitled
these
to
two parts,
say, that
both
II.
may
= a + I-1 a
be denoted by a and
or summands,
Scalars and
may
vanish
or
Vectors,
Quaternion, as
a.
And
separately,
Numbers and
now
enlarged or
modified.
turn a
line,
rotation
effect is
to
and thereby
new
direction, at
And then
right angles to its old direction, but without any change of length.
the remarks (154) on the equatiou q* = - 1, where q was a right versor in the
former sense (which is still a permitted one) of its being a right radial quotient
*
On
to page 193.
account of this possibility of conceiving a quaternion to be the sum of a number and a line,
it was at one time suggested
by the present author, that a Quaternion might also be called a Grammarithm, by a combination of the two Greek words 7/30^^ and apidpo s, which signify respectively a
Line and a Number.
t
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
336
[III.
where p
is still
an
vector p,
we have
lines,
become
+l = 0(282, XIY.);
unit-vector.
Thus (comp.
(1.)
or
p --l,
5, 6.
i.
fig.
41, p. 132), if a be
any
the equations,
L..
2
II...p a = pP = a = -a;
oa = /3;
being another line perpendicular to p, which is, at the same time, at right
third line a,
angles to a, and of the same length with it and from which a
j3
or -
still
equally long,
formed by a
is
repetition of
the characteristic p
call)
or
(2.)
or constructs, or
is
if
a, j3,
y be any three
if
and
equal to,
XXI.),
III...aj3 = 7,
if
lines at right
290),
IV...j3_La, 7 J_a, y
J.
we may
and
]3,
V.
Ta
T/3
= Ty,
In
(3.)
line
more general
this
we may
)3 is
still
]3,
now by an operation
case,
(generally) multiplied
by
/3,
by V., the
tensor
of the product y.
(4.)
And
then to a)
we
if
)3,
fig.
repeat this
(comp. 189), or
plane of
(comp.
if
we
41,
bis,
compound
in
which a was
first
operation, of tension
multiply again by
a,
we
obtain a fourth
generally different
VI.
namely
.y = aa/3 = a j3=/3
*
/3,
in the
and with a
length
the line,
2
=
-<rj3,
if
to page 137.
a = Ta.
line j3
The
(5.)
negative scalar,
operator a
-a
whence the
equation,
,
may
as
now with
we
337
I.),
however,
is,
first
pro
posed (282).
SECTION
On
6.
now no
is
more
Vector*,
some
(comp. 277, I.), or a product of more vectors than three, taken always in
given order
acute or
become
itself
but
three vectors, a,
(1.)
/3,
III.
Y7 |3a is
III.
[On account
an Asso
II.), for
any
V7 j3a
it is
to,
*
;
V( 7 |3a),
or V. 7 j3a;
and
worth while
V 7 0a =
+
HAMILTON
(1
- K) 7 j8a = (? +
()8a +
J
0y) =
= 7 So0 - 0870 + 08/87.]
jSy)
(7)8
oj8)
- J (ya +
ay)
-4-
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
may
7, the Formula,
which
we now
or that
II.
in
neic vector.
ciative
may
aX
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
338
(2.)
(3.)
V.
Sy/3a
6.
i.
..VVa3.
IV.
[III.
of
to write, for
any
=-
Saj3 7
Say|3
=-
SjSya
=-
S/3ay
Sya/3
a, /3, y,
upper or lower signs being taken, according as the rotation round a from
to
positive or negative
is
/3
first
case,
second.
(4.) The condition of complanarity of three vectors,
expressed by the equation (comp. 223, XI.)
a,
|3,
y, is therefore
VI.
(5.)
If a,
/3,
gives
SyjSa
VI
or
y be any
three vectors,
VIII.
SyS =
Sa|3 T
=
;
&o.
IX.
and
0,
Saj3S
8,
which
is
perpen
X.
SJ_ 7
XI...
and
and each
is"
XII.
XIII.
V (Va/3
V (Vaj3
at once
complanar with
a, j3,
any
XIV.
is
VyS)
= aS/3yS - jSSayS
found
to
and with
y, 8
e,
is
which
in the
Comparing them, we
as a linear function of
which
a, /3.
II.
HI
see that
any
pSajSy
= aS/3 7/o +
be one of extensive
may
arbitrary vector p
j3Sya/o
utility.
j3,
y,
ySa/3/o
by
be expressed
the formula
ANALYSIS OF A VECTOR.
AKT. 294.]
(8.)
XY.
same kind,
of the
pSafiy
339
is
the following
+ Va/3 Sjp
.
S/3/>
in the second
to
operation,
XVI... S.
the
common
results
a,
S.y;
S.j3,
XVII. ..Sap.
where again the points
Saj3 7 ,
S/3/o
Syp
Sa/3 7 ,
Saj3 7
be omitted.
may
We
XYIII.
because
it cat t not be
SX = 0,
S|3A
0,
S 7 A = 0;
of this
XIX.. .A =
while, conversely,
vectors, or Saj3 7
(12.)
Hence
if
be
0, as in
also,
0,
an actual
VI
if
XX...Sa/3?^0;
vector, then a,
j3,
7 must be complanar
tions,
gve
xxn...x= M
characteristic,
XXIII.
where
*
a, /3,
S,
Sap
may
Sj3 7 S
S/Bjo
S 7 Sa
4-
vectors.
[Another method of proving XIV. is to assume p = xa + y/3 + zy. Operating by S .VjSy, S&yp
and similar expressions
may be found for y and z. To prove XV. assume p =
z Voj8, and
operate in turn by S a, S j8, and 8.7],
;
2X2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
340
In drawing
(14.)
when
must be
we assume
a, |3,
We
(15.)
y be
ever so
little
which p
may
whether
vector,
and
(9.)
fact
(12.),
if
0,
Plane of
XV.
which in
6.
i.
y are complanar
to be valid, if
in
[III.
in,
Sa/3 7
or out
the common
of,
a, /3, y.
If p be perpendicular
(16.)
change p
first
to that plane,
is
evidently true,
member vanishing
and if we
separately, by 281, (7.)
we
are
to
the
follow
conducted
)3, y,
;
XXV.
sin
BOG cos AOD + sin COA cos BOD + sin AOB cos COD =
and
oc OD.
f
common
XXVI.
sin
BOG sin AOD + sin COA sin BOD + sin AOB sin COD =
XXIV.
(18.)
this
0,
By
(17.)
formula
many
transformations, but
only mentioned
is
new equation
XXVII.
8,
and changing p
to
f,
we have
if
Saj3y
when
a, j3,
y are complanar
XXVIII.
aS/3y/>
as well as
hence
+ pSyap + ySafip =
Compare page 20
0,
if
Sa/3y
M.
0.
Chasles.
at the limit,
COMPLANAR VECTORS.
ABT. 294.]
(20.)
This
formula
last
is
evidently true, by
and
341
(4.), if
we suppose
if
p be in the
common
to be perpendicular to
it
XXIX.
and
by 281,
therefore,
Y7 a
||
since
S|3 7/o
Vaft
||
(Sj3y
= S (Yj3y
p)
0.
= Y/3
7 P &c.,
p)
XXXI.
Y/3 7
||
(9.),
XXX.
we may
+ 7 Ya/3 =
aY/3 7 + /3Y 7
if
0,
Saj3y
0.
XXXII.
whatever three vectors
(22.)
For the
equally long,
may
be denoted by
II.
the proportion,
XXXIII.
Yj3 7
XXXI.
XXXIY.
where OA, OB, oc are
a, |3,
we suppose that
case of complanarity, if
we have
= 3Saj3 7
Y]3 7 + j3Y 7 a + 7 Yj3
by
Y7 a
Yaj3
sin BOG
sin COA
sin
AOB
becomes thus,
OA
OB
sin BOC +
COA + oc
sin
sin
AOB =
is
interpreted
(23.)
instead
(24.)
vector p
may
any
As an example
three given
a, b, c
XXXYI.
it
and diplanar
XXXY.
in which
nor can
vectors
Sap =
and
a,
let
SjS/o
b,
S 7f =
>
expression,
e-
(ffY/3 7
/3,
7 be again
Then
the sought
by XY.,
+ &Y 7 a +
cYa/3),
if
XXXYII.
= Sa)3 7
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
342
(26.)
As another example,
XXXVIII.
same
As an example
equations,
XL.
then,
Sap
(28.)
This
last
6.
Syap =
e~
(a a
+ b
e,
fi
we
Safip
XIV.,
have, by
c y).
vectors, a
XLI.
by XXIII., we have
= a
Sfiyp
i.
let
XXXIX.
(27.)
[III.
a,
Sj3/>
c,
8,
Sj3yS
equation
Syp =
b,
may
SySa +
scalars, a
p does not
- d.
=
SajSy
SSa/3
enter,
0.
common point
for,
although
it
XLII.
in which a = OA,
and p =
s,
SajO
a,
or
Spa
a,
the
XLIII.
(29.) If
os =
o-
= aRa = aa
(282,
(68) as
XXI.).
having an algebraical
(or
scalar) character, so as to
and
so
may
write, generally,
XLIV.
= a
oc
positive or
is
Sa|3y
= 6 OABC,
.
negative or positive.
(30.)
More
generally, changing o to D,
XLV.
in which
it
and OA or a
to a
8,
&c.,
we have
may
is
changed
ELIMINATION OF A VECTOR.
ART. 294.]
or negative, or
or
when any
and
is
multiplied by
1,
c,
the
343
four
vectors, a, )3, 7, S,
inter
change.
(31.)
XLIY., XLY.,
XLYII.
by
we have
E,
first,
by
&c.)
A, B, c, D,
And
(32.)
7, 8
which
|3,
the equation,
XLYI.
in
we?0 cngraVi of a,
six
XLYIII.
OA BCDE -f OB CDEA
.
-f
OC
DEAB + OD EABC
.
-f
OE
ABCD =
0,
in which the additions are performed according to the rules of vectors, the
results.
coefficients, is
In
easily recovered
by XLYII.,
fact,
this last
formula
may
be
written as
XLIX.
ED EABC = EA EBCD + EB
L.
which
is
ECAD + EC EABD
.
student.
(33.)
that,
LI.
if signs (or
Yj37
Y7a
Ya]3
OCA
OAB
LII.
collinear points A, B, c,
ABC,
aQ3- 7
+ ]3(7-a) +
7(-j3)
]3,
7 be
=2
termino-collinear (24) .
and the
may now
=
if
be
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
344
[III.
6.
i.
(35.)
formula
of vectors in general,
we have
the
LIIL
2
c.
/3V
The
295.
j3
2
2
2 (Sya) + 7 (Sa/3)
2S/3ySyaSa/3.f
with
important versors,
i,
j, k, as constructed by,
own
and even
its index,
now
OK
of 181, con
"With
length.
are
still
Laws of
the
Symbols
ijk
,-/ = # = #fc .
-1;
(A)
and
if
ix
+ jy +
kz,
or
a = ia
+jb
+ kc, &c.,
(1.)
P =-
As
1, &c.,
reversal
(2.)
may
which
The
results
from two
representing the
(1.), as
ttvo
ij
= +
k,
ji
= -
(182, II.
k,
and
III.)
may now
be interpreted as
expressing, that although a positive rotation through
a right angle, round the line i as an
axis, brings a revolving line from the position
j to the position
round
k,
the line j, as
* [And
or +
k, yet,
a new
axis,
on the contrary, a
t [Since Kafiy
=-
yfta.]
S/)V (0y
+ ya +
from a new
line
ctj8)
initial
to a
i,
position, +
(3.)
that
we
345
k,
Jc.
lines, A-,/,
in succession
i,
in the directions of
i,
all (as
(184) in the
(1.)
II.
2
.
(ix
|0
+ jt/ +
= -
Icz)
+ if + s 2 )
(x*
I.
for p,
this square of the line p is therefore equal to the negative of the square of its
length
Tp
The
(5.)
or
(1.)
its
norm
Np
(273),
(2.).
and
a,
when they
are represented
cz)
(281,
The
(6.)
f
,
represented by
IV.
is
ix
+ jy +
kz,
ix
+ &c.,
ix"
+ &c.
p"
V.
8p"p
*"
(sty
/*) +
,/
(x z
or OP, OP
294,
p",
pp
gives,
by
(3.),
z x)
OP",
"
(y
x-
*fy)
* Jn the
ceptions,
the west,
Lectures, the three rectangular unit-lines, i, j, Jc, were supposed (in order to fix the con
and with a reference to northern
latitudes) to be directed, respectively, towards the south,
and the zenith and then the contrast of the two
formulae, ij - + &, j i =
k, came to be
;
illustrated
by conceiving, that
round an axis
\ve at one
with
line,
which
is
upward]
t
direction.
Compare
HAMILTON
also 222,
IV.
ELEMENTS OF QUATKKNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
346
[III.
6.
i.
(comp. 223, (9.)) of which they are edges and this volume, thus expressed, is
a positive or a negative scalar, according as the rotation round p from p to p is
that is, according as it has the same direction as
itself positive or negative
;
+ y
to
z (or
round
from j
to k],
or the direction
opposite thereto.
(8.)
It
may
VI.
VII.
),
that
if
y he any
a, )3,
Saj3y
= - SyjSa = J
Va/3y
(aj3y
7 /3a)
VIII.
we may write
Ko
= -
IX.
and therefore
o,
KOa
for
X.
XT.
Sll a = J (Ila
SDa =
Vila = + Vll a = J
(Ila
Il a),
Il a),
XII.
(10.)
The
Il a,
a =
7 /3a,
Ila = a/3y
if
is
even or odd
_L
Ax.
it
relations of rectangularity,
XIII.
Ax.
_L
Ax. /;
Ax. j
_L
Ax. k
Ax. &
may now
be written more
jk;
XIV. ..tJ-y;
and similarly in other
cases,
where the
kLi;
But, with the notations of the Second Book, we might also have
written,
123, 181, such formulae of complanarity as the following, Ax./||| i,
(11.)
by
if
/ was a
we were now
line
and
it
formula to/|||
t.
in the plane of
to abridge that
manner, we interpret, on our present plan, the symbols Ua, Ta, No as equivalent to
TI^o, Nl^a, we are reconducted (compare the Notes to page 137) to the same signification of
those symbols as before (155, 185, 273) and it is evident that on the same plan we have now,
If, in like
UI-X
So =
0,
Vo =
o.
In general,
sign
|||,
it
three
except as connecting either symbols of
complanar
linear (209),
347
lines,
considered
still
as
or else symbols of three right quaternions, considered as being colbecause their indices (or axes] are complanar or finally, any two
:
we now
if
insert
the sign of parallelism, between the symbols of two right quaternions which
for example, we may write, on our
are, in the former sense (123), complanar
;
present plan,
XV.
w\\j,
..**||,
*k\\k,
be worth a student
may
while to remember
(1.)
c,
D be any four
scalar
concircular points,
circles,
or in spheres.
we know, by
denned
the sub-
in 259, (9.),
(2.)
we have
in
(ABCD)
which the
tive or of
= AB
coefficient
BC
260,
e* is
DA 3
>
0.
inscribed quadrilateral,
we
have, by
the formula,
III.
AB BC
.
CD
DA =
If then
(8.),
(3.)
CD DA =
The product
circle is
BC,
by 294,
(3.)
and
(4.);
and
if
side,
circle,
their
IV.
AB BC CD
.
ABCD
is
DA
>
or
<
its
0,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
348
(5.)
[III.
i.
6.
By
by an equation
V.
AT being a
CA = AT;*
ABC of that
circle,
initial direction
given
AB BC
triangle, ABC, is
any plane
form
of the
at
which touches
the point A;
the segment
or represents the
line,
AT,
is
equal
to,
to
while
usual reference to an unit of length, ihe product of the lengths of the three sides,
of the
of the sides of
inscribed triangle be
VI.
if
AC CD
.
theorem
it
be
DA = AU,
concircular with A, B,
c,
while AU
as in the
is,
annexed
if
an
(3.),
and thence
ABCD
for
we
shall thus
have,
Fig. 63
bis.
equation,
VII.
AB
BC
CD
DA
AT
2
N.AC, or Ac
AU
CA
AC
one
(fig.
63,
is
bis).
If P be
VIII.
OA AP PO = X
.
[AT
Or
directly
CA
by Euclid u AB = u CB
or
OT,
AT
CA
=u
AB
"1
CB J
AET. 296.]
in
which x
some
is
scalar coefficient,
Making then OA =
shall have
and OP =
a,
IX.
a(p
349
p, as usual,
P.
we
= -XT,
a}p
or
- a = XT
1
p"
a p
2
,
or
Vrp- =
1
IX".
of these
may
be considered as a form
circle,
determined by the
given conditions.
Geometrically, the last formula
(8.)
IX".
- a
1
,
- Ea, or A P
=
= Ea = E OA, and
(see again fig. 64), if OA
OP = p = E OP, is parallel to the given tangent T at o which agrees with
fig. 58, and with Art. 260.
1
or
a"
E/>
(9.)
or
]3,
as being J_
X.
in
upon the
l
r, so that rfi~ is a vector, is
or
circle,
|3
= -r
scalar,
XL
(11.)
TVUref = OA
1
sin ACT.
we can always
be plane or gauche,
and
OB = T/3 = Ta
circumscribe (as in
(6.),
fig.
65) two
circles,
it
OAB
and
OA AB
.
after
and
BO,
OB
BC
co
XII.
where the
OA AB
divisor,
positive scalar,
os
2
,
BC
co = OT
or BO
ou OB 2
OB, or
quaternion.
OB, is a
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
350
(12.)
The
two tangents
be a plane figure
but
if it
round
it,
(13.)
from OT to ou,
The
6.
i.
[III.
being also in
normal
is
to the
circum
is positive.
angle of the
same quaternion
is
between the two tangents above mentioned it is therefore equal to the angle
U OT, if ou touch the new segment OCB, or proceed in a new and opposite direc
;
from o
tion
(see
again
fig.
65)
it
may therefore
to
go from
o,
These
and
successive sides, of
many
(fig.
(fig.
63)
this angle
but =
may
still
being =
TT,
be determined by
for the inscribed
0,
and
crossed
63, bis).
L (OABC),
L (OA
or
AB BC
.
co).
It
is
and
it is
sign T
and consequently
sign
L.
PENTAGON IN A SPHERE.
ART. 296.]
(17.)
Hence
XIII.
SajSyS
S/3 7 Sa
XY.
and in
XIV.
we have
.
ABCD, we have
351
any plane
or gauche quadrilateral
XYI.
L (AB
BC
CD
DA)
= L
(BC
CD DA
.
= &o.
AB)
XVII.
XVII. j,
(18.) Interpreting now, by (13.) and (15.), these last equations, we derive
from them the following theorem, for the plane, or for space
Let ABCD be any four points, connected
four circles, each passing through
:
"by
is
but also
it is
equal (comp.
fig.
c,
the two other arcs BCD and BAD, and to the angle at D, between
the arcs DAB, DCB.
(19.)
sphere
We
XVIII.
AB BC
.
CA = AT
AC CD DA = AU
.
AB
BC
We
CD DE EA = (AT
AW
= a new
AU AV)
.
2
:
(AC
The product of
inscribed in a sphere,
product
AD 2 )
the
AD DE EA = AV
XIX.
Fi
it
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
352
[III.
i.
o,
6.
and
XX.
= S (OA AB BC CP PO) = 8 Q3 - a) (7 - 0)
= rfSfiyp + fiSyap + y 2 Safto p SajSy.
vectors a,
co-initial
XXI.
A\ B
point P,
equation
if
we
on the
point P,
7)
p)
yfi
9
p =
then
37,
+ yfr + zf.
x<?
into
points
through that
to
the
shall
have the
we
respectively parallel
planes BOG, COA, AOB,
three planes
by
XXII.
(23.)
(p
7,
|3,
common
p = xa +
If then
(22.)
v
(21.)
OP 2 = OA
OA"
+ OB OB + OC OC\
.
That the equation XX. does in fact represent a spheric locus for the
is evident from its mere/orw (comp. 282,
and that this sphere
(10.) )
;
vectors, 0, a,
(24.)
7.
/3,
Introducing an auxiliary
XXIII.
or
by the system
XXIV.
the equation
XX.
282,
is
IX .;
(25.)
/3
Vya + 7
Va/3,
a = SSo,
S&r =
j3
1
2
.
SS/3-
=SSr
SS/3,
= S
becomes simply,
XXV.
or
SSp,
S^
= 1
is
a diameter (comp.
(6.)).
way
XXVI.
XXVI
),
and 196,
or
= a 2 V/3 +
7
SSajSy
of the sphere
XXV.
so that
S,
XXIY.
or
OD or
vector,
this
diameter,
may
be
SSaj3 7
Va
(J3
OABC OD = .
a) (7
V (OA
|3)
AB
7;
BC
co)
AKT. 296.]
XLIY.
353
(26.)
OA AB
BC
is
here
it
the theorem (12.), respecting the product of the successive sides of a gauche
quadrilateral, OABC
including the rule of rotation, which distinguishes that
;
axis
from
(27.)
its opposite.
XXVII.
XX.
S<T
y-
/3-
V (/3-
- a
of the sphere
XXVIII. ..0 = 8
which expresses (by 294,
(/3
Y Q3-
(y-
(y-
1
a"
+ a
1
a"
comp. 260,
(34.),
+ y-
may
a"
- a
may
(p
1
a"
(10.)), that
tbe/owr reciprocal
vectors,
XXIX.
OA = a =
a-
being
parallel to the
let fall
on
this
OB = ft =
tangent plane
to the
=
</
OP = p =
which they
in
sphere at o
y-
all
p-
terminate,
8-1,
xxxi.
(28.)
oc =
is
XXX.
as appears
the plane A B C P
plane from o
J3
In general,
if
Sa s = s3 s = S s =
D be the
i.
from
o,
on the plane
ABC, then
XXXII.
because this expression
satisfies,
Sa/3y
and
V (|3y + ya + a/3)
may
tions,
XXXIII.
As
Sa^ =
or altitude, OD,
is
T,
of this perpendicular,
(Compare 281,
(33.).)
(29.) The equation XX., of the sphere OABC, might have been obtained by
the elimination of the vector S, between the four scalar
equations XXIV. and
XXV., on the plan of 294, (27.).
HAMILTON
zZ
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
354
(30.)
And
[III.
6.
development of
S,
The product
their
successive sides of a
circle, is
point A of the polygon, we find as in (6.) that it differs only by a scalar coefficient,
or divisor, from the product of an even number of tangents, at the first point.
On
(32.)
differs
tangents.
quaternion
normal
even-sided
(12.)
is
polygon.
of
successive
sides
of
a
the
the
heptagon, or other odd(34.)
product
sided polygon in a sphere, is equal (comp. (19.) ) to a vector, which touches the
sphere at the initial or final point ; because it bears a scalar ratio to the
But
vectors ajSySe
XXXV.
or thus
ac? + b$*
+ cy + d& +
ee ,f
*
p
[The inscription of polygons in a sphere is treated very fully in the Lectures." If pi, pi,
= pa ps, &c. denote the vector
are the vectors from the centre to the vertices, and if n = pz
pi, t-z
"
sides,
where
then by 213
q
when n
=
is
n t n _i
p2
(5.)
.
t2 tl
= -npiir
Hence
p\q
pa
n
l
1 =
l
and p + i = pi =
0Pi rS
12 n pi n~ u~
when n is even piVg V# pi or V# pi but
and
affords the conditions
Sg =
piSq + SpiV# =
=-
(-)
qpi
izpz if
(-)"
or
||
SpiV? = 0, or q is a vector at right angles to pi. See Lecture VI., Art. 336.]
t [On change of origin XXI. may be written in the form
(a-e) + i(j3-)
<!(
7-
+ rf(8_
6)
0,
a (a-
3
e)
+ b(B -
2
)
+ c(y-
e)
2
<*(5-
e)
= 0.
from
EQUATION OF HOMOSPHEEICITY.
ART. 296.]
six times the second
member
the second
XXXVI.
or
more
member
a = BODE,
found to be equal to
= CDEA,
355
it, if
= DEAB,
d = EABC,
- ABCD,
fully,
XXXVII.
so that,
6a = S ( y - 0)(8 -
j3)(e
j3)
= S ( 7 8e -
XLVIL, we
8ej3
/3
78), &o.
equation,
XXXYIII.
(36.)
(as
The equation
XL.
..0 = a +
(27.) ),
/cm
of a vector
K,
a - 2S*a + g =
0,
XLI.
g being some scalar constant
fifth point E is situated.
/3
XLII.
(38.)
The
*e,
+ d+e,
which,
XLIY.
its
(3.),
2S/ce
= 0;
0,
by the
vector
Y (- j3) 0-7)
XLIII.
+ 0=0,..
- 2S
=
Kp + g
and on
and of a
2S/c/3
may
XXXY. may
or condition
rfS
an elimination (294,
equations of the
+ cy +
bfi
coefficients,
XXXIX.
which allows
= aa +
g,
as arbitrary,
we
y -8)
and the
(8
recover
c,
or
-a).
V(a-j3)
(/3- 7 )
(y-p)
(p
-a)
= S a
(
-/3) 03- y ) (7-8) (8-p) (p-a)
p being as usual the vector of a variable point p, on the one or the other locus.
(39.) The equations of the tangent to the circle ABC, and of the tangent
plane
to the
XLY...O
and
XLYI.
V(a-j3)(/3- 7 )( 7 -a)(p-a),
= S
(a
0) (/3- 7 ) (7-
8)
(8-
a) (p
a).
2Z2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
356
or
XLVII.
it
6, 7.
i.
Accordingly, whether
(40.)
XLY.,
[III.
(p
a)
four points.
(41.) If
A, B, c,
giving
0,
p = A (20)
or
a,
XLVIIL
a =
2
/3
f = & = - r\
XLIX.
or
o, so
that
To = Tj3 = Ty = TS = r,
the positive scalar r denoting the radius, then after some reductions we obtain
the transformation,
Hence, generally,
if
XXVI
Y (AB BC
we
.),
We may therefore
CD
DA)
= 12KA ABCD.
.
drawn
to the initial
pyramid, which
point of
determine"
LIL
where a
may
aq + qa = 2 (aSq + S?a)
may
LII
z
aqa = a Kq + 2aS?a
be any quaternion.
SECTION
On
7.
297. In general,
quaternions,
q,
q",
",
satisfy the
equation of quotients,
I...q
":q"
=q
or the equivalent
formula,
we
form a Proportion
first,
",
is
to
ARTS. 296-297.]
357
and
taken in this given order. This definition will include (by 288)
q, q
the one which was assigned in 226, for the fourth proportional to three com,
q"
l
=
plane, 8
fia~ y,
planar
vectors, a,
y,
J3,
interpret (comp.
when 7
a
.
j3a~ 7,
new
which
may
these three
not
a, /3,
|||
a Quaternion,
to
a, j3, 7.
ABC on the
unit-sphere,
I
IV..
= cos a =
87/3
= cos b =
=-
=-
Scry"
and
a, b, e;
let
us write,
8)87,
870,
where
it is
understood that
V.
f3
=-
1,
VI.
or
Ta =
Tj3
T7
it
being also at first supposed, for the sake of fixing the conceptions, that
each of these three cosines, /, m, n, is greater than zero, or that each side of
is less
than a quadrant.
vectors,
s,
mfi
we
VIII.
IX.
so that
(3.)
This
common
we
shall
and the
TS = Te = T? = r =
X.
r, is less
.
80)87
common
length, say r,
namely,
NS = Ne = N? =
length,
ny,
+ n 2 - 2lmn = r z
</(P
than unity
1
8j3cT 7
-2
tow).
for if
we
write,
e,
scalar e is different
from
|3,
7 are diplanar.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
358
(4.)
DEF,
and
three
XII.
new
OD =
The
ew
so obtain a
we change them
r,
to
triangle,
US = r-
OE =
=r
Ue = r^e
?.
sides
as in
bisected,
their fewgtfA,
unit-vectors,
OF =
(5.)
by
i.
^Ae unit-sphere, of
<w
mined by the
S,
[TIL
fig.
XIII.
= 2la
+ 8 = 22/3
8 +
2wy
(6.)
EF =
</,
XI Y.
cos a
r cos #
cos b = r cos b
cos c
= r cos
the cosines of the half-sides of the new (or bisected) triangle, DEF, are therefore
to the cosines
proportional
The equations
(7.)
XY.
we have
21 = -
therefore,
()3y
may
and express
2m
+ y/3),
(1.),
= - ( 7 a + ay),
2n = -
(a/3
|3a)
XYI...
which
by 279,
(IY.) give,
j32
T8 = 7
S/3,
in a
new way
(5.).
(8.)
We have therefore
(9.)
Hence
or because a,
or
by Y.,
also,
XYIir...
or
(10.)
tion
7 are
unit-vectors,
In general, whatever
XYII.
|3,
e is
(comp. 138)
it
may
may
be,
the
1
.
Sa-
=a
= Kea-
or
equa
,
form
XIX.
first
XIX
. .
aa
Ka>.
ART. 297.]
(11.)
= ajar
1
,
Another mode
same
of arriving at the
to conceive
is
decomposed
xx.. .?=?
for then
we
shall have,
XXI.
= a? a- +
in such a
and
",
manner that
by 281,
1
a,
vectors,
r-La;
nio,
+?",
two summand
into
359
a"a
= Z aa - g
1
?"
the operation a
or
)
(
by
from
g = a^cr to the form ca = a, that is, to the
return
Or
we
may
(12.)
and then this equation between quaternions will show,
first equation XVF.
as suggested in (7.), that whatever may be the length of a, we must have,
reversed,
XXII.
from a
common
plane.
(13.)
to
XXIII.
(14.)
we
more
XXV.
(15.)
T,
Ax.*
ta
= Ax.
An
L a =L a
aZ,
these
new
XXIV.
is,
=a
a,
&0.
XXIII
to a is
and
similarly directed,
XVII. XVII
?= a
7
.
a,
&o.
S=
jSer fa/3
XXIV
or
7
.
.,
SjSa
ajS
briefly,
.
8-
M-
and
XXV
7
.
^q
if
XXVI.
fia
)<r
and in 191
(5.)
symbol
XVII
equation,
xxvii.
is
6w/
in one
derive this
that
c,
We may
which the
round
the axis
of
q,
* It was remarked in
291, that this characteristic Ax. can be dispensed with, because
UV but there may still be a convenience in employing it occasionally.
being replaced by
it
admits of
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
360
as being
tliis sort,
still
[III.
i.
or (comp. 223,
(10.)
because
XXVIII.
1
l
Sqpq- = $q- q p = 8,0-0.
XXIX.
we can
infer
OP = Ax.
from
of the angle
AOB
And
(17.)
XXIV.
round
conical rotation
1
jSa"
that the
the line
o be
= Ax.
and
q,
line
OP as an
OP = p o = Ax.
OD may
axis,
apt
= Ax.
q~
to the
double
XXI V
.,
admits of being derived from OD, by an equal but opposite conical rotation,
round the line OP as a new positive axis, through an angle equal to twice the
angle BOA.
To
(18.)
illustrate these
annexed figure 68
results, the
drawn
in
R, s, T.
(The
for
the
Ll
,)
at
A and
from
through A and
B,
E, F, D,
is
DEF
circle
if
F be the
round the
(20.)
XXX.
and the
n RB = n BT,
n TA = n AS
same theorem
whence
XXXI.
(17.) is proved.
RS = 2
r\
BA,
CONICAL ROTATION.
ART. 297.]
The
(21.)
point F
may
be said to be the
thus
we may say
and
rotation,
round
of a small
reflexion,
between them
and
from D
which
361
to F,
circle,
angular quantity (DPE) of this rotation is double of that represented by the arc
or is the double of the angle (BPA), which
(BA) connecting the two given points
the
same
at
that given arc subtends,
pole (p).
There
(22.)
of rotation
but
is,
as
it is
we
see,
no
it
namely by
the formula,
XXXII.
/3>j3
= a/^ 1 p
.
1
.
jStf
which
a, |3,
may
reflected into
moved
to
,.-
/
:
A for
VTT
DE
arc
of a third small
circle,
which
is
is
equivalent to a
~f;
-_..-\y
\l/_
/Sv
Fig. 69.
semicircle, with
result, or effect,
motion along an
(still
as before) is
And
we may
which
is
HAMILTON
successive
additional consequences
the
fig. 68, especially as regards the Construction of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QTJATEBNIONS.
362
[III.
i.
7.
co-initial vectors a
connecting four
HUB fifth
bfi
.
it
0,
S,
vector.
= aa +
is
+ cy + d$ =
bf3
- - cy -
d$,
/3,
and
with
also
y, 8
line
And
if
we
- d,
scalars,
a +
and
b,
bfi)
(a
and
b),
(cy
quotients of these
+ d$)
two
(c
+ d),
lines
with planes,
AB OCD,
(27.)
When
the two
lines,
and
AB and
CD,
CD OAB.
happen
two
which
y, S
/3,
may
new
vector,
XXXIII.
which
A =
la
= \
mfi
(e
8),
gives,
XXXIV.
we
..
S7X =
0,
and
XXXV.
..
two arcs BA, DE, prolonged, meet in a point L (comp. fig. 68),
=
for which OL
UX, and which is distant by a quadrant from c: a result which
be
confirmed
may
by elementary considerations, because (by a well-known
see that the
DL =
sin EL.
sides,
ART. 297.]
To prove
(29.)
common
we
value,
XXXVI.
TS\ = TcA =
in which,
363
VSA = V A =
sin c
TVSe =
and
r sin 2c
XXXVI
On
(30.)
in
XXXVIII.
which
we may
similar principles,
XXXVII.
.
TVUeA = Jr
TVUSA
V/3A
sin 2c
interpret the
sin c
r* sin c
two
= cos
vector-equations,
VaA = mV/3a,
= /Vj3,
TA TV/3a = r
sin c
= tan c tan
:
c,
XXXIX.
(31.)
we
if
Accordingly,
bisects RS,
tan CD
cos BC
cos
AC
tan AB
sin
BL
sin
AL"
let fall
and
if
arcual equations,
XL.
ND
MN and
CB are drawn,
<~>
LM =
n AB =
will be quadrants
construction (18.),
pole of
is
QR,
LNM
is
n LN =
r\
CD,
the angle
we have
r\
right
DM
is
at
a quadrant;
is
right
whence D
is
by
the
To prove
auxiliary points M, N, Q, R,
by
we have
quaternions,
the transformations,
because
and
XLIII.
it
= - S/3- 7 X- = - 88X- = 1
-L
V 7A = 7 A = - A7
7,
whence
2
7 A)
2
2
= A2
7 A
S7A
0.
3
A2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
364
At
(33.)
BA,
and
if
negative
is
see that
if
(as before)
wo may
XLIY.
p be
7.
i.
K,
(as
we
[III.
OP = UV]3a
the letters in
fig.
68 have
write,
OK = - 7 UX;
OK = 7 UX;
all
oi/ =
-UX;
OL = + UX, as before.
while
(34.)
Writing
also,
XLV.
XLV.
so that
XL VI.
we have
= - yX,
OK = UK,
1
.
jScr
\ = yx,
or
OM =
and
\K~ =
and
X,
|3a"
TJ/z,
fj.\"
ju
fj.K~
ihis fourth proportional, to the three equally long but diplanar vectors, a,
is
(174)
XLVII.
The
(35.)
jSa-
DPE
= cos L DR + OD
for this
sin L DR.*
the"
sum
y, is
)3,
is
sum
triangles,
EPF
what remains,
when we subtract the vertical angle F, of the triangle DEF, from the sum of the
or when we
supplements of the two base-angles D and B of that triangle
F PD, are also isosceles
(19.),
is
subtract the
We
sum of the
have therefore
Proportional
right angles.
this
XLVIII.
(36.) Or, if
L Pa~ y = L
DR =
we introduce the
7T
(D
+E+
F).
XLIX. ..S
we have
D+E
L.
(BeT
y=
\TT
- iS
LI.
OD = TJS =
because
+ F-7T,
pa^y =
r~ $,
by
sin
|S +
cos
}2
XII.
[Since fior^y
(jSa
OD
1
^)- =
a- ]
or round OP
ART. 297.]
(37.)
we
y,
fi<r
365
new appeal
require no
an
opposite
fl,
which
to the
is
the
scalar,
We may
LIL
round a from y
= -
1
.
to
must
j3
on the contrary,
be,
positive.
.
7<r
/3
KjSeT y
= -
^+r
sin
iS
$ cos
and we have, for the angle of this new fourth proportional, to the same three
vectors a, |3, 7, of which the second and third have merely changed places with
each other, the formula
:
LIIL
(39.)
VII.
Lya
fi
we have
/=
..
+E+
F)
JTT
follows
cos
JS
when
by
(6.)
that
triangle DEF, of
sin
is
by
when
is
the sides 2a
S, are bisected
LV.
cos a
It follows also,
S.
|3
to
is
nega
above supposed.
(40.) It
(41.)
by XI.,
(D
therefore,
LIV.
= RDL =
cos a = cos b
cos b
2b
by the
a, b, c,
= cos
2c
of a spherical
corners A, B, c of
then
MN
in
fig.
is
ini er that
ABC, multiplied into the sine of the perpendicular, let fall upon that side from
the opposite comer of the latter
triangle because we have
;
LVI.
(42.)
sin is = sin
The same
MN = sin LM
conclusion can be
sin L
sin
AB
sin CQ.
LVIL
sin
iS = e = Saf^y = S (Vj3a 7
.
is
= TV/3a
SU (V/3a
is
7)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
366
Under
(43.)
same conditions,
the
LYIII.
we may
a=
(e
[III.
7.
i.
since
Q = jr
a)
&c.,
),
write also,
LIX.
is = SU
sin
and XIII.,
limn - - S
LX.
)(
8) (8
= S8
4/mn
in which, by IY.
Hence
(44.)
JS = r =
cos
(r
tan
Te,
of the edges at
As
(45.)
LXIII.
=-J
(4/m/O
LXI Y.
we ought then
if
(46.)
(e+
J8 +
8e).
- rS
+ 8+
(E?
Se)
1 -
be.
we have
2
(^
(8
g)
+ e) a = 2
= (SS
^)
(r
-r
(S
(;-
Se^) (r
S?8)
(r
SSe)
gives
+ S?8 + S&)
2
)
= - r2
(SSeZ)
;
Under
= r 6 - ra
and in
8
2
(S^) + (S8) +
(S8e)
2Sc2S?8S8,
LIU.
8,
LXYI.
whence other
(47.) If
ciple
- S
r*
8
.
we have
(e
(4/ww)
2)
to find that
LXY.
2
may
a verification,
we have
spherical opening at o, of
e)(e
^ + 28 + 8e)
and under
(S
by LIY.,
also,
LXI.
TirTT
LXIl.
LXII.
-Y
(8 +
e) (a
verifications
may
(^
8)
= 28
(r
- Se -
S8 -
S&) = SlmnS
be derived.
denote the area* of the bisecting triangle ABC, the general prin
enables us to infer that
<r
T VT7TT
LXYII.
tan -
Sa3
1 - 8j3y
Sya 8
sin
cos a
+ cos
+ cos
is
here employed
AET. 297.]
if
p denote
e
(48.)
367
= sin
siup =
(21.)
).
LXVIII.
+l +
-a
4 cos
c\ z
cos-
cos^j;
hence the cosine and sine of the new semi- area are,
^ T^
LXIX.
cos s =
+ cos a +
cos b
+ cos
OS
OS
C S
/C
-TT-cr
LXX.
sm - =
0"
COS
2
(49.)
Returning
LXXI.
if
sin b sin
-7
cos c
- = sin
p
sm c
sec c
but cos
Accordingly, in
FT =
sin
(50.)
its
The
68,
fig.
sin ES
tan
we
= cos LN sin
MN
cosec
LM = tan MN
cot AB.
expressed
LXXIII.
its
68;
= sin LE
arc MN,
fig.
LXXII.
has
sin a
JS = -
sin
formula gives,
is
the
LXXIY.
(51.)
follows
An
LXXVI.
UQ =
so that
LXXVII.
S =
TTQ = cos J2
last versor
may
be obtained as
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
368
[HI.
7.
Im
/(-
(52.)
and
may
sentative arc,
c
The
be deduced from
UQ by
LXXVIII.
and we have
LXXIX.
cos
Q =
NM
which has
simply interchanging
and
]3
7, or
is,
KQ =
JS - OD
sin
supposed to be negative.
the
other
be
point upon
sphere, and let OH = rj also let
any
(53.)
DFH
new
then the same reasoning
the
be the area of
spherical triangle,
Let
UQ"
still
shows that
LXXX.
if
cos
is + OD
two co-axal
cation of the
LXXXI.
where S +
versors,
sin
is = (Sf
be negative
LXXYI.
and
)*
(&T
and
1
)
(n^
)*,
therefore,
LXXX., we
by
have by
multipli
LXXV.,
cos i (S +
S)
+ OD
sin \
(S +
S)=
(&T
)*
(54.) It is easy to extend this result to the area of any spherical polygon, or
extension of
it,
pyramid
as a limit, to the area of any closed curve upon the sphere, con
vertex,
which
is
many
little
from
unity.
or rather, we may
is closely analogous to a definite integral, of the ordinary kind
a Definite Integral, but one of a new kind, which could not easily have been introduced
without Quaternions. In fact, if we did not employ the non-commutative property (168) of quaternion
so that they
multiplication, the Products here considered would evidently become each equal to unity
would furnish no expressions for spherical or other areas, and in short, it would be useless to speak
of them.
On the contrary, when that property or principle of multiplication is introduced, these
in spherical
expressions of product-form are found, as above, to have extremely useful significations
the
a
remarkable
and
it
will
and
theorem,
respecting
be
seen
that
geometry;
embody
they suggest
resultant of rotations of a system, round any number of successive axes, all passing through one fixed
*
This Limit
say that
it is
ART. 297.]
To
(55.)
(comp. 180,
"
The Arcual
may
369
be stated as follows
Sum
Polygon, is equal to
Point of the Polygon for its Pole, and represents the Semi-area of the Figure"
it being understood that this resultant arc is reversed in direction, when the
,
that in the
regards the order thus referred to, it may be observed
the
to
inLXXVL,
arcual addition, which corresponds
quaternion multiplication
(56.)
we
As
first,
from B to
DEF answers
F,
which
the former
arc
BA
a transvector, 180,
(as
And
in fig. 68.
through any
finally,
so far,
or through
LN in the same
(or total
figure, to
correspond to the
as arranged in the formula, being thus represented by the final arc MN, which
has the point D for its positive pole, and the half-area, ^S, for the angle (51.)
of the quaternion (or versor) product which it represents.
(57.)
Now
to be that
round
DFE, as seen* from any point of the surface loithin the triangle that is, in the
order in which the successive sides DF, FE, ED have been taken, before adding
:
formula
multiplied
fo/f
the
latter-,
we saw
in (52.), a new
OB
to
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
370
own
to its
changed
[III.
i.
7.
was simply
of the triangle
negative.
To
on one great
circle
by the laws*
LXXXII.
thus cos
JS =
(59.)
(Sr
and 2 =
1,
)* (E?- )!
(2S-
this case,
the formula,
S&
if
1,
=
;
0.
Again,
;
we have
of complanar quaternions,
For
are complanar.
S, c,
F, or let
then, because
Lxxxir.
(&r
>*
(us- )*
= (ss-
if
)*,
ss&i =
o,
the product of four factors LXXXI. reduces itself to the product of three
factors LXXVI.
the geometrical reason being evidently that in this case the
added area S vanishes so that the quadrilateral DEFH has only the same area
;
But this added area (53.) may even have a negative^ effect, as for
example when the new point H falls on the old side DE. Accordingly, if we
(60.)
write
LXXXIII.
and denote the product
Q, =
LXXXI.
(- )* (&,-
(,r ),
of four square-roots
by Q 2 we
,
shall
have
the transformation,
LXXXIY.
which shows (comp.
(15.)
Qt =
(gc- )*
Qi
(^ft
if
S8, =
OE to OD.
(61.)
From
this
example,
it
may
how
the formula
AET.297.]
D on
A new
(62.)
(50.),
quaternion
is
OB
axis
as the quaternion
by simply
effected by removing
and although
UQ;
this
.
<2
UQ
(g 7 ]3)
LXXXVI.
To show
(ya/3)
-=
may
LXXYL,
yet
it
by LXXIII.
have,
= - (e-S)
yajSS
2
gya/3
=r -e
2
+ 2eS;
2
Qo = - (ya/S) = cos S + OD
sin 2.
(63.)
LMN
of
and
and
r~
be formed
squaring cannot be
formula
For example we
LXXXV.
is
371
its
new
are three
LXXXVIL
n BC = n CBi,
n AC = ^ CAi,
MN
= n
NM
A_
jt_
same kind,
LXXXVIF.
This
fig.
n LM! = n
B^.
rc L,MI represents
w0>
a^"
jSy"
ya"
Fig. 70.
a/3"
product
represents
LXXXVI.
its
ya^jSy"
ajS"
(ya/3)
may
We
LXXXVIII.
namely
as denoting a versor, of
which the
*
Compare the Note to (54.).
t The equation 870/2= 70)88 is not valid generally
W=
p(l>
Qo = I
but
$ ^
7 P
axis is directed
we have
here 8
to,
70)8
or from, the
and in general,
tfpll Vtf.
3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
372
corner
[III.
7.
i.
by the
round a from
as the rotation
angle represents, or
triangle, at least
if
is
we
|3
to
numerically equal
still
given points A, B,
negative or positive
is
we have
suppose, as
the area
to,
and
c,
according
of
which the
of that auxiliary
than quadrants,
less,
considered;
briefly)
may
when they
the case
reserved for a short subsequent Article and other cases being easily referred
to these, by limits, or by passing from a given line to its opposite.
:
(1.)
or that
we may
I.
II.
0,
<
>
-,
<
>
still
0,
0,
<
-,
>
IY. to XT.
XIII.
XV.
and
to
in the equations
be
XXVI.,
are
now
tensor of S,
E,
IV.
(2.)
in XII., if
OD = cos a
still
US
= - r
= cos
rS
OE =
cos b
</,
supposed to be
Ue = - r
= - r cos
new
of
297
still
2r cos a cos
cos c
cos a
fz
= - r cos
we must
= - r~^
c
holding good,
+ cos
0,
>
equations,
OF = -
cos
itself
write,
V.
we
bisected (as in
may
still
cos c
we may now
1,
according as
cosines
VI.
r =
cos J2,
VII.
may
2 cos a cos
according as
>
0, &c.,
or
<
0,
&c.
cos c cos
JS =
cos a
to hold good.
cos b
+ cos
- 1
373
In like manner, we
being negative
YIII.
f3a~
j = sin
iS + OD
when the
sign,
JS
cos
rotation
is
reversed.
US
we have
the area
>
TT,
the radius OD
l
nor
no
- JS
is
is JTT
On the contrary
IX.
(6.)
in
fig.
To
Ax
1
.
fin
- OD
? = DO =
by
X.
L fia y = i (S l
TT).
we may remark
a construction,
that
if,
and although the arc KM, or the angle KDM, or I/DR, or EDP, may
be considered, as in 297, (34.), to represent the versor ficr y, yet the
prolonged
still
And
is
now
of a negative character.
magnitude
of the
angle at D,
it is
again, as in fig. 68, a base-angle of
one of three isosceles
triangles, with P for their
common vertex; but we have now, as in fig. 71,
sum
agreement
XI.
(8.)
The negative
f3a~
= i
(D
4-
E +
Xll.
1
.
<r
F)
TT.
3 = - sin -2 + OD cos
.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
374
[III.
we
7.
i.
are conducted
--
XIII.
= -
= cos
(yaW
S + OD
sin
a result which had only been proved before (comp. 297, (62.), (64.) ) for the
S TT and in which it is still supposed that the rotation round a from
case
)3
to
<
is
(9.)
negative.
With
we have
reciprocal formula,
XIY.
(10.) If
= cos
(/Ba-^)
- OD sin S.
.
happened that only one side, as AB, of the given triangle ABC,
while each of the two others was less than a quadrant, or that
it
was greater,
we had
- = y
^
p
0,
>
>
but n
0,
<
and
if
we wished
and
so
would
fall
negative.
(11.)
And
in like
manner,
if
we had
and
any
In general,
we
if
initial vectors 8,
e,
of
cases.
(12.)
we
unit-vectors
US,
&c., termi
25 ,
nate at the corners of a given or assumed triangle DBF, with sides =
sides
with
we may then suppose (comp. fig. 67) that another triangle ABC,
2<?
2</,
denoted by
this one,
by
LVIIL),
(comp. 297,
XY.
b, c,
oA = a =
U(
),
oB =
/3
U(
or
oc =
g),
<y
U(S
..
+?
2ra cos a
% + S = 2rj3 cos b
),
XYI.
= 2ry cos
AET. 298.]
When
(13.)
simple construction
this
is
adopted,
we have
375
at once (comp.
297, LX.), by merely taking scalars of products of vectors, and icithout any
reference to areas (compare however 297, LXIX., and 298, VII.), the
equations,
XVII.
or
cos a
cos a
_cosb _
cos c
cos 6
cos c
f*
We see,
or equal to unity, or
triangle,
DEF,
is
less
assumed spherical
sum of the
less
tri
(15.)
or all greater than quadrants, a triangle DEF, but only one* such triangle,
less,
can be exscribed to
so as to
it,
have
its
sides bisected, as
above
&c.
and then
draw new
to
through
arcs,
the simplest
from
on AB,
The
the area-f of a spherical triangle, are probably all well known, as certainly
some of them are but they are here brought forward only in connexion with
;
quaternion formula?
present subject,
mentioned, wherein
is
important
XIX.
one of that
as
includes the
a, /3,
class,
which
is
7 denote any
a
.
and
and
(a)3y)
* In the next
Article,
= 2
we
+ a 2 03 7
j3V
2
)
j3 (a
2
2
2 4 7 Saj3S/3 7
7 ) + 7 (aj3)
.:|:
many
t This opportunity
may
on squaring (V
+ S) a&y
this
rp. J
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
376
And
(17.)
we suppose that a,
by o- the
if,
and denote,
[m.
vv
XX.
a +
P
which admits
o-
+ a
stated
under
sm a
7 + a
a+/3
unit-
of several verifications.
We
(18.)
Qy + ~afi+y = cos
7.
+ 7
-~
7 are three
|3,
as in 297, (47.),
this
x>
may,
XXI
K(a +
+
+ 7)
)3)(j3
m
+m
+
(7
+ a tan ^
cos
- a tan -
cos
&
(T\
(cr
^
&
<j
- + a sm .
cos
- a sm -
<*
o"
+ a sin H
pr
LXYII.)
+2e
a)
+ n + ea
+ M - a
it
cos
o-
+ a
sin a, as above.
^/
XXII.
a 3
22 S 2
287080)88)38878
7 (SaS)
2
+ a 2 g (S/3 7 )
[Since
/jBU
"
/8
(j3
+ 7
V"
(5)
~
This
is
/3
?+^
+
j8)
)3
between
^therefore
S (S 7 a)
j8
+ 72 S 2
(jB
7)
(Sa)3) .t
and 7,
+
_--
/\l//3\i/7U
y
/+
a)\/3 +
LXXVI.
to
(a
0)
(-)
(-)
U (a
)3
7+
7
g +
a+/3*7+
XX.]
aa +
+ cy + d$ =
by
f [This may perhaps be more rapidly derived by operating on
from the four
determinant
of
a
form
the
d
in
and
and
and S5.,
eliminating a, b, c,
Set., S/3., 87.,
t>&
results of operation,]
(20.) If
XXIII.
treating
= cos AD = - SUaS,
377
= cos BD = - SU/3S,
ri
= cos cu = SUyS,
a, /3,
as the
XXIV.
+ Pf* + m*m
2mnm
+ nV* +
n + 2nln
+ 2lmn
is
here given
In squaring the lately cited equation 294, XV., we have used the
(21.)
XXV.
2
.
299.
(Va]3)
The
(Saj3)
- a2 2
/3
XXVI.
less,
two foregoing
a, b, c,
it
and
(11.), of certain
which the
case, for
or to inquire
sides of that given triangle are all equal to quadrants
on our general principles, the Fourth Proportional to Three Rectangular
And we shall find, not only that this fourth proportional is not itself
Vectors.
what
is,
it
does not even contain any vector part (292) different from
In
(1.)
fact, if
suppose, in 297,
m = 0,
n=
IIL..S/3 7 = S ya =
Saj3
I.
or
we
0,
0,
= 0,
(1.),
it is still
included
that
or that
while
II.
IV.
a= b=
Ta =
T|3
-,
T7 =
1,
V...S =
0,
0,
= 0;
but these are the vector parts of the three pairs of fourth proportionals to the
*
formula equivalent to this last equation of seventeen terms, connecting the six cosines of the
join, two by two, the corners of a spherical quadrilateral ABCD, is given at page 407 of
which
arcs
Carnot
HAMILTON
ELEMHNTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
378
)3,
7,
taken in
[III.
all possible
orders
7, 8.
i.
place, if
(2.)
In
VI.
jSeT
manner we
this
(here) to
find,
y/B^a
= ay-
ft
=+
VI
l
.
ya~
f3
aftr
(3.)
namely
y = fty~ a =
l
(182) of
j, k,
i,
the
values,
VII.
In
tico
ij-
k =jk- l i =
ki-
j= +
VII
fact,
the
l
.
ternary products,
ijk
and -
ij-
kji,
kj~ i
ik~
j =ji~ k = l
1.
and therefore to +
and -
1,
by the
(183).
To connect this important result with the constructions of the two last
Articles, we may observe that when we seek, on the general plan of 298, (15.),
(4.)
manner
old,
UK
the problem
is
found
to
admit of
indefinitely
in
(or JIK) of 181,
bisected
many
such a
solutions.
Any point
may be assumed, in the interior of the given triangle ABC and then, if its
so that
reflexions D, E, F be taken, with respect to the three sides, a, b, c,
;
(comp.
fig.
bisected
by those three
FD, DE
will be bisected
quired
by the
points A, B,
c,
as re
The
by the
and equal
to
three angles D, E, F
is
equal to
at the
assumed
interior point p.
The
spherical
DBF
is
379
and
its
area
S TT as may be otherwise seen from the same figure 72, and might have
been inferred from the formula 297, LY., or LYI.
=
(6.)
The
XLYIL,
tional /Ba- y, becomes therefore, in the present ease, indeterminate ; but because
the angle L DR, or J(?r - S), in the same equation, vanishes, the formula
becomes simply
jScf
y =
VI.
1,
is
a Scalar,
to
Three Rectangular
in several other
may
Book.
of the present
and similarly in
write,
VIII.
VIIF.
1
.
jSeT
1
ya
= -
= +
7,
7J31
a/3-
j3,
= = +
= -
ay
a,
fly
y,
/3
= + a
the three fourth proportionals VI. are therefore equal, respectively, to - a 2 - 2 and
consequently to + 1 while the corresponding expressions VI
/3
2
2
are equal to + |3 + 7 + a2 , and therefore to - 1.
7",
Or (comp. (3.)
282, XXI.),
IX.
(8.)
we may
l
.
fla
is
y =
a-
2
.
flay,
cT
if
a2 ,
may
the vector part of the ternary product flay vanishes, by 294, III.,
recent conditions ofrectangularity III. are satisfied.
be
while
when
the
(9.)
l
fla~
(supposed to be
SECTION
On an
8.
Three Diplanar
Second Book.
and
we
as a
line,
3
and
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
380
But
aj3y as quaternions.
a)3,
i.
8.
may
it
[III.
(y
a)
or
y,
with y not
y,
\\\
a, /3,
might have been interpreted, on the principles of the Second Book, without at first
assuming as known, or even seeking to discover, any interpretation of the three
mentioned symbols,
lately
II.
It will be
where
297
while u
Proportional
and OP
is
is
;
a-
e is
as a
employed
(/3
aj3y.
a/3,
to
a)
to
7 = 8 + eu
to
68
in
fig.
IY.
And when we
;* so that,
(OB
OA)
oc = OD
cos
JS +
(oi/
OQ)
OP
sin
JS.
which
we
is
to the
being
may be
:
e,
or sin
J2
and while
of
Geome
trical Scalar,
XLVIL,
it,
(/3
symbols
or 298, VIII.,
a)
7 for
is
f3a~ j, to
reproduced, at least if
we
substitute
II.
u ln the abstract
published in the Proceedings (Eoyal Irish Academy, November llth, 1844),
and the sought fourth
South, West, Up were used at first, instead of the symbols i, j, k
Preface to
proportional to jik, which is here denoted by u, was called provisionally, Forward.
*
ihe words
"
Lectures, p. (54).]
ART. 300.]
The
(1.)
construction of
c,
&c., as before,
V.
VI.
OB
OA = OR
OQ = cos c +
oc = OQ cos p + OP
.
VIII.
(OB
OA)
to hold
good
it
may
OQ)
OP
oc =
+ OP cos
it
snip.
u = (oi/
in which
OQ) sin c
for abridgment,
VII.
we have
and writing
(oi/
Admitting then,
(2.)
fig.
to the Third
tions of
381
oi/. sin c
sinp + u
cosp + OQ cos
.
sin c sin p
cosp
coefficients
of the three rectangular unit-vectors, OQ, oi/, OP, and of their fourth proportional,
u, is
equal to unity.
But the
(3.)
IX.
which
sin c
sin^ = sin
MN =
sin
JS =
coefficients in
Q,
X.
or that a point
sin c
(4.)
cosp =
Accordingly
when we substitute D
XI.
r cos L
cos c cosp
= r cos QX
it is
for
+ OQ cos
.
cosp + OP cos
.
three points
cos PX.
last
cos c sinp
VIII.,
be regarded
may
is
c sin
/;
= OD cos JS =
.
S,
whence follow the equations IV. and III. and it only remains to study and
interpret the fourth unit, u, which enters as a factor into the remaining part
;
284, of
/3a,
&c.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
382
it is
)3
i.
8.
are
/3
~
a
and a,
a, )3, 7,
or
[III.
M
m...-y=
7 /;
TTT
and
f"*
are equal
each other
to
7,
]3,
and
to a
two
last
In
Fourth Proportional
"
and
Book, and
of
of either of the
to three Vectors,
from
I.
or II.
I.,
commencement
of that
Second
any two
lines in space is
a Quaternion,
we made
it
|3
(j3
a)
a =
j3
should be
satisfied.
tests
its final
things equal to the same thing, are to be considered as equal to each other.
And it is found, on trial, that both these tests are borne so that they form no
:
objection to our adopting the equation 301, III., as true by definition, whenever
line S,
have by
It
may happen
226
as in
I., is satisfied.
that the
first
namely, when
member
a, |3,
7 are complanar.
In
is
equal to
this case,
we
TTT
1 V ...
7
so that a,
/3
their fourth
7 are
7 =
7 7
also
/3
or
TTT/
IV.
^
7
a
/3"
3
a
7;
proportional likewise
line
is satisfied,
is
both
NEW
TESTS FOR
ARTS. 301-303.]
common
for one
happen
INTERPRETATION.
line,
and a
which
fi
383
general situated in
is in
may
a y
if
a
If then that definition be consistent with
we ought
to find,
III.
by
VIII.
or that
VII...V=Cy";
a
a
4, =
this
C,
/3
T7
7 =
ay
303. It
-^77
/3
-,.
7
]3
-^ = -
7 =
-17
ay
/3"
^77-,
as required.
is
ciples of the
I.
and therefore
to
write, generally,
I...qy =
where
y,
if v
q (y
/) = q
and
q,
q are any
and
vectors,
Now,
II.
if
tivo
quaternions,
which satisfy
10
L? =
= 00 M
or
IV.
v~ (Iv
Iv
=
)
-1
whence
V.
tr
1
.
Iv = v -\ Iv
by the
of which
it is
Product
(v~ Iv) is
is
(1.).
(v),
Compare 217,
if
"
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
384
the Direction, of the
or constant value
8.
i.
Pro
this
common
or, in
";
[III.
common
may
we have
equal to what
symbol,
we
u,
quaternion,
v,
line
VI.
tr
o = u
VII.
IX.
in
which
understood that a =
it is
a = vu
= u
v~
TV,
VIII.
a
= a
last are
here regarded as
X.
where the
XL
we have
lines a, |3, 7,
angular
(]3
7 = xu,
a)
x =
(T|3
This coefficient x
is
Ta)
T7
a JL
if
new
unit, u, is
_L 7,
J- a
XII.
according as
/3
|3,
UT =
Ax
other words, according as the rotation round the first line, from
the third, is on the contrary negative or positive (compare 294, (3)
(1.)
In
about,
from which
we may
by
line 7,
or in
).
which has
conceived to be derived
it is
it is
the second to
j3).
but
to
j3,
from
(a
to the fourth proportional to the lengths of the three given lines oj3y
rect
is
in
XIII.
/3
a = a
j3
= 7
/3,
XIV.
if
we admit
that this
new
a = 7
j3,
u = (7
quantity, or symbol,
* In
equations of this form, the parentheses
are here retained.
or*
may
u, is
]3)
to be operated on at
all,
385
and
quaternions.
It
(2.)
is,
by a
a, |3, 7,
cyclical
|3,
ing
unit-lines),
through the third part of four right angles, round the interior and co-
revolve,
initial
(3.)
And
it is still
j3
(4.)
as
And
a. 7
since thus
a,
if
we shall
But by
rotation ichat-
fixed.
other, of the
to
XV..
x being some scalar
=;
/-*/;
=/3;
coefficient,
ratio required.
]3
a,
ft
and 7 are
to each other
:a),
by 203,
IV.
let
..8"
I.
and
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
II.
j3"
and
II.,
= y-.a,
a
HAMILTON
comes merely
since this
parallel to a, but
so that,
68
we
j3
7"
/3
|3",
Having thus
7 = 7 +
are perpendicular to
shall
7"
Without any
/3 and a, 7 are
to substituting, if neces
L..Ax.(j3:a)J-Ax.( 7
where
fig.
we may suppose
7",
it,
V 2a
a.
and
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
386
We may
[III.
8.
i.
the tranfor-
(2.) ),
mations,
7 +
/3
ft"
j +
7 = o + #W
0"
-
-f
where
VI.
2+
7
S = I3S
&
"S
The
= TS
+
a
/3"S
what we have
and
VII.
$- 7
a
xu =
".
which
is
j3,
7",
and of
7,
two planes
or in
|3";
which
line
)3
7 on the plane of
a, |3,
7,
And
which
aj3, is
is
TS
77
is
another
cos
== t
and
s,
IX.
it
x =
is
sin
s,
where
X.
if c
= T/3
Ta T 7
.
XI.
and
sin
a, j3,
sin c
smp,
plane
7
being positive or negative, according as the rotation round
:
coefficient, x,
from
j3
to
is
negative or positive.
(1.)
condition
I. is satisfied,
what
may
(2.)
It
68,
we
see that
US
when
the
may
to halfihG area
by
oi>,
tig.
the angle
MDN
or
its
is
constructed
SPHERICAL PARALLELOGRAM.
DESK
is
387
2,
oE
CQRD
JS, as before.
The two
(3.)
QR
sides CQ,
of this quadrilateral,
still
being
called
denoted by d
let
p and
d=
cos
which
side CD
JTT),
cos^j cos c
is
opposite
p be
now
and
let s
We
DR which
opposite to
is
QD be denoted by d and d
and the
c,
the side
denote the spherical excess (CDR shall then have the relations,
= cos p cos
cos d
tan;/= cos
f
;
XII.
tan
(cos s
of which
= cosp tan
=
cos^? sec^/
= cos c
sec c
tan j?
cos
d sec c?
proved by
XIII.
and
DD
if
we then
it is
join AC,
and
let fall
new
AB = nQRJ
DBB
is
right
so that
we have
the two
equations,
Hence
is
XV.. DBB =
.
JTT
also tri-rectangular.
the point D
(5.)
may be derived from the three points ABC, by any two
of the four following conditions
1st, the equality XIII. of the arcs AB, QR ;
Ilnd, the corresponding equality XIV. of the arcs AC, B D
Illrd, the
:
CQRD
character of BB D D.
(6.)
In other words,
is
BB
here mentioned
merely in connexion with that theory of fourth proportionals
to vectors, which
they have thus served to illustrate but they are perhaps
;
3D2
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
388
to justify us in
[III.
(or 67), p.
when
as first, second,
the general
case,
when
68
c, A, B,
or B, A,
c,
are
It
third.
fig.
is
and
8.
i.
is
if
we
take
c,
D, B, or B, D, c,
new fourth point, say AI, will not coincide with the old second point
A; although it will very nearly do so, if the sides of the triangle ABC be small:
the deviation AAi being in fact found to be small of the third order, if those
sidered, the
To
and
from A
I.
the
new
pi
(p)
or derived vector
JNp
parallelogram.
We
0p or
and BQCQI
7 +
\P
p, ]3, 7,
shall also
and
distributive
III.
0p
HI 15,
= Upi,
j3,
common
vector part of
7,
(2.) ),
symbol of operation
.
to p, 7,
be what we have
and the
C-Q!
pi,
will
OQ = Up,
13 J,
and
tf>
p=p,
if
/o|||
but
IV...0p = -/p,
(2.)
if
p|lAx.( 7
:/3).
let
J3y the same analogy, the quadrilateral CQKD, in fig. 68, may be called a Spherical Rectangle.
= 7 and
= #. So $ (yft + zy) = zfr + yy.]
t [In fact
4>
<>
ART. 305.]
so that
p, or OP
is
we
shall
tivo
such
have an indefinite
(p,
p\
p"
pi
PI,
or
OP",
pi,
p +
(j>*p
p2
p.>,
is
Then
or rather
l*p" ;
&o.
ttvo
which each
geometrical progression, in
p"
and
on the
vectors,
series,
and
is
of derived
series
389
by the
or
1,
is
equal to the
multiplied
it,
still
supposed
also in general
one before
to
|TT,
be distinct from
we
shall
and
TT,
and
limiting
values,
VII.
p*n
p zn +i
f/i,
n =
if
oo
limiting positions
p3
PI,
and
I,
as
these two limit points being the feet of the two (rectilinear)
the length
if
Tp
of the line
VIII.
pp 2 = p 3 - p = (P -
ff
1)
= - sin 8 *
smp a Tp
,
Up"
And
may
is
and
ceive that D!
A2
if
series
any one is treated as the second point of the next, while the first
remain constant we see that the points A I? A 2
are all
third points
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
390
which
DW
is let fall
from D on
We
BC.
theorem, which
would perhaps be
it
[III.
difficult to prove,
8.
A X and
a remarkable
any other
by
i.
method
if
It
may
we had sought
fig.
v"
v",
part
and
scalar,
articles to 297.
306. Quaternions
which
also be
may
a new construction,
to furnish
employed
I.
when the
A2
D, AI, DI,
D2
&c.,
and thus
shall
of
visible (so to speak), with the help of a new
figure, the tendencies
those derived points to approach, alternately and indefinitely, to the feet, say
D and A , of the two arcual perpendiculars let fall from the two opposite corners,
render
D and
which diagonal
(as
we have
seen)
is
common
on
its
given diagonal BC
lelograms.
(1.)
The given
its sides
abc less than quadrants, as in 297, so that their cosines linn are positive, let
points A, B, c
also let
M and N
equations,
II.
dicular
ND on
AN and BC
BM =
n MC,
AM =
MN
Let
fall
from N a perpen
BC, so that
IIL..A B D = nA c;
and
let
B",
c"
sides prolonged,
IY.
= n AC,
n c
c"
= ^ AB.
and
c,
or on those
Then
(2.)
last points,
B"
and
sides,
391
c",
which completes
point D, on the third side BC of the given triangle, will coincide (comp.
305, (2.) ) with the foot D of the perpendicular on the same side from N ; so that
this
ND
is
To
obtain another locus for that point, adapted to our present pur
(3.)
E
let
denote
now* that new point in which the two diagonals, AD and BC,
pose,
intersect each other; then because (comp. 297, (2.)
V.
we may
VI.
OD = u (w/3 + ny -
the diagonal
we have the
expression,
la),
),
sin
BE
sin
EC = n
m = cos BA
which the
cos
sines are
proportional to the cosines of the adjacent sides of the given triangle, or to the
BA and A
adjacent to the
points
A and
The
(4.)
lesser side,
is
E.
intersection E is therefore a
known
point,
circle
because E
And
ND from N (1.).
it is
less
is,
as above sup
AE cuts ND
between
N and D
or in
the given
from
is less
c"
Fig. 73.
fig. 73.)
fig.
68
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
392
III.
8.
i.
by the equation,
auxiliary point F,
YIII.
and then
which
to
EM =
it till it
MF
AI,
will thus complete the second parallelogram, BDCAi, with BC (as before) for
a given diagonal.
In
like
The
(7.)
by drawing D
and
F,
so
on for ever.
the limit-point B
other limit-point
and
,
A2
which, we may
this
new
by
express
to
to the
construction
the
IX.
.D. = D
A. = A
But
the small ness (305) of HIQ first deviation AA when the sides of the
given triangle ABC are small, becomes at the same time evident, by means of
(8.)
: ,
the sides of the given triangle are supposed to be small of the first order
agreeing thus with the equation 305, YIII.
The theory
(9.)
some interesting
on which however
we cannot
* This new
point, and the intersection of the perpendiculars of the given triangle, are evidently
not the same in the ne\v figure 73, as the points denoted hy the same letters, F and P, in the former
are conceived to bear to each other the same relations
figure 68
although the four points A, B, c,
in the two figures, and indeed in
BACD being, in that figure also, what we have proposed
fig. 67 also
;
r>
to (3.).
VIP.
tan
EM =
tan
MA
a\
tan -
2
;
is
(8.)
here supposed
and generally,
if
7T
<
-, as in (1.), while b
and
c are
M and B
as in
this interval
EM
is less
than MA
(4.).
J This Theorem was communicated to the Royal Irish Academy in June, 1845, as a consequence
of the principles of Quaternions.
See the Proceedings of that date (Vol. III., page 109).
SPHERICAL QUADRILATERALS.
ART. 306.]
"7/KLMN be
also
we complete
any point on
the sphere;
if
X.
and determine
393
the poles
LIMB,
KILA,
MING,
NIKD,
its
four
sides."
shall have,
under
XI.
(11.)
EF
XI
or
ABCD;
(. .)
article
and
EF
BCDA; &c.
(. .)
section,
it
VTT
XII.
,
7 =
sine
]3,
A
;
and that therefore the point p, in which (see again fig. 73) the three arcual
perpendiculars of the triangle ABC intersect, is on the vector,
XIII.
(12.)
It
may
= a tan A +
13
tan B + 7 tan
c.
(2.),
that the
right lines,
XIV.
however far their
series
PP I?
may
and
T,
P^,
be continued,
of
tiro
point P
or assumed.
is given,
namely the
E and F.
real,
points,
are,
* In the
language of modern geometry, the conic in question
four
p3 p 4
-v TT
in
P2 p3,
may
when
DA; and four imaginary, namely two from each of the focal
t>\,
ts=ien,
to page 310.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
394
SECTION
[III.
9.
i.
9.
On a Third Method of
307.
The
to three
Book
present
more
however found
is
to be
and admits
lines in space,
which
and generally
In
fact
we
have only to conceive* that each proposed vector, a, is divided by the new or
and that the quotient so obtained, which is
u, above alluded to
whereof the vector a is the
always (by 303, VIII.) the right quaternion I
fourth unit,
if
we think it convenient, multiplied into the same fourth unit. For in this way
we shall merely reproduce the process of 284, or 289, although now as a con
sequence of a
tation
different train
to the
as before.
The
(1.)
z
equation of the unit-sphere, p
(282,
* It was in a somewhat
analogous
way
Edition, Amsterdam, 1659), that all products and powers of lines, considered relatively to their lengths
alone, and without any referenda to their directions, conld be interpreted as lines, by the suitable
introduction of a line taken for unity, however high the dimension of the product or power might be.
Thus (at page 3 of the cited work) the following remark occurs
:
"Ubi
notandum
concipiam, licet
But
it
est,
illas,
was much
quod per
vel
b-\
similesve, communiter,
non
nisi lineas
omnino simplices
space
or
common
to
all possible
theory,
denoted by the temporary symbol u, and has been obtained, in the foregoing section, as a certain
Fourth Proportional to Three Rectangular Unit- Lines, such as the three co-initial edges, AB, AC, AP of
AKT. 307.]
the quotient p
395
its
square
is
negative
unity.
(2.)
The
(282,
XEL),
may
cases.
ellipsoid,
III
UH
IV...T(-p +
-cV-K--*
u
u
u
J
\tr
adopt
It
this
we merely
is,
suggest
it,
in passing, as one
which
may
serve to throw
some addi
tu O Vectors as a Quaternion.
what
\ve have called an Unit-Cube: for this fourth proportional, by the proposed conception of it,
undergoes no change, when the cube ABCD is in any manner moved, or turned; and therefore may be
considered to be symmetrically related to all directions of lines in space, or to all possible sections (or
translations] of a point, or body. In fact, we conceive its determination, and the distinction of it (as 4- u)
from the opposite unit of the same kind ( u], to depend only on the usual assumption of an unit of
length, combined with the selection of a hand (as, for example, the right hand), rotation towards which
hand shall be considered to be positive, and contrasted (as such) with rotation towards the other hand,
round the same arbitrary axis. Now in whatever manner the supposed cube may be thrown about in
space, the conceived rotation round the edge AB, /row AC to AD, will have the same character, as righthanded or left-handed, at the end as at the beginning of the motion. If then ihe fourth proportional
to these three edges, taken in this
order, be denoted by 4 u, or simply by 4- 1, at one stage of that
it
may (on the plan here considered) be denoted by the same symbol, at every other
while the opposite character of the (conceived) rotation, round the same edge AB, from AD to
AC,
- u, or to 1.
leads us to regard the fourth
proportional to AB, AD, AC as being on the contrary equal to
It is true that this conception of a new unit
for space, symmetrically related (as above) to all linear
arbitrary motion,
stage
directions therein,
may appear somewhat abstract
can of course confine their attention to the rules
3E2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
396
much more
Quotients
convenient,
[III.
i.
9, 10.
calculation,
now
of the two
Books
Operation, such as
S,
V, T,
K, N,
TJ,
supposed to have become prepared for the use of somewhat shorter and more
convenient processes, than those before employed.
SECTION
On
the Interpretation of a
10.
Power of a Vector
as a
Quaternion.
308. The only symbols, of the kinds mentioned in 277, which we have
not yet interpreted, are the cube a 3 and the general power a*, of an arbitrary
vector base,, a, with an arbitrary scalar exponent, t
for we have already assigned
,
interpretations (282,
a~
(1.), (14.),
and 299,
And we
cular interpretations
of the present
nion,
which
as follows
if
we now
1
,
this
Power
a* is
generally a Quater
may
define, in full
and
versor kinds,
L..o*-Ta*.TJa*;
IV
th>
which represents (as usual) the length of the base-line a and Ua* denoting a
versor, which causes any line p, perpendicular to that line a, to revolve round it as
;
an
axis,
tion,
through
t,
and
is itself
397
As
The
T (a) =
= Ta
(Ta)
III.
U (a
= (Ua)* = Ua*.
axis
as a quaternion, are
IY.
Ax
Ua
V.
and
a*
= 2mr
J tir
being
and the
TT.
(3.)
may
an
axis of rotation;
VI. ..am.a =
We may
(4.)
VII.
Ua* =
Ua
sin
In
VIII.
or briefly,
4>
(5.)
ifcr.
Ua
= cas
6
4>
particular,
IX.
Ua
"
= cas
nir
IX
Ua 8w+1 = Ua
X.
(6.)
The
Ua
Ka
a 3 = - aNa.
to turn a line _L a
Ua
and norm
conjugate
XI.
=-
Ta*.
U-
(- a)
XII.
Na* = Ta
2*
;
=-
a.
parentheses being unnecessary, because (by 295, VIII.) Ka
The
the
same
are
and
of
scalar, vector,
reciprocal
power
(7.)
given by the
formulae
:
XIII.
XV.
S. a = Ta. COS
1
a*=
IV.
~
6
Ua-<
XIV.
V. a = Ta .Ua
sin
^
<i
<r*
Ka<
(3.)).
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
398
If
(8.)
we decompose any
tively parallel
XYI.
=
the
new
a*pa*
round
for,
Ax
q,
through
to
p",
a* = p +
p")
Ua
round
for,
191, (5.)),
a,
2
.
p" ,
is
10.
a* (p
the line a as
(9.)
quantity expressed by
axis
we have
to o,
i.
and
which are respec
the general transformation:*
and perpendicular
[III.
if
conical rotation of
its
angle L
q,
its
own
or of its
tensor Tq.
Treating
(10.)
as three
ijk
unit-lines
rectangular
(295),
the symbol, or
expression,
XVIII.
in
= rtffkj-k*,
XIX.
or
P =
rk^k^,
which
XX. .r^O,
may
represent
any
vector
= 0,
= l, ^0,
t^2,
expression
employ
XVIII.
to the less
Id,
in passing
with an
from the
XXI.
s
kf =
=-
S- 1
may
K (kj-) =j k
s
tions as
property,
XXII...
whatever scalars
may
be denoted by
aV=a"
and
suh-article (11.).
f If we conceive (compare the first Note to page 345) that the two lines i and j are directed
respectively towards the south and west points of the horizon, while the third line k is directed
towards the zenith, then sir is the zenith-distance of p and tir is the azimuth of the same line,
measured from south to ivest, and thence (if necessary) through north and east, to south again.
;
As
(13.)
ing a vector,
XVIIL,
we may observe
XXIII... P
that
it
399
considered as represent
gives,
XXIV.
and
-E>;
if
z
.
= - r\
u* be any
scalar,
we have
XXV.
u
.
= (rVj
kj- k-*)*
rWjWj- k-*.
the two last expressions denote generally two equal quaternions, because
= ru Ilnd, equal angles, each = L u ) and
(k
they have, 1st, equal tensors, each
k by one common system
Illrd, equal (or coincident) axes, each formed from
In
fact,
of
two
round
successive rotations,
one through
sir
k.
309.
Any
the form
a*,
quaternion,
by
q,
which
is
and 2
tn
may
I.
2^1
II.
Ta =
III.
T0*;
Ua = Ax
since
7T
and thus
posed quaternion
the base
may
may
Element, presents
a, of
itself in
is
Tq =
a versor,
1,
we have thus Ta = 1
,
is
an
unit-line.
"When
the pro
or in other words,
t,
which
we may
write generally,
IV. ..U? = a
with
V. ..a =
Ax.^ = T-
l,
and
VI.
although
and the
if
>
0,
<
1,
the exponent
becomes
or 2,
base a has
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
400
Conceive that
(1.)
in
P, Q, R,
46
fig.
and let
unit- vectors, a, /3, 7 as usual
determined by the three equations,
VII.
= 2A,
a?7T
10.
i.
[p.
y,
a?,
[III.
= SB,
yir
ZTT
= 2c
where
A, B, c
&;
s>
we have the
so that
diately follow
&
y*~
In X. we
OVJ3* -
3
.
j3V =
]3
X".
/3vy =
- 1
to
a x = CaSA
- 1
may
XI.
rotation is as
X.
or
a*
divisions
by easy
last,
f->;
equation,
IX.
from which
q q
y
]3
for
cjSsB
y*
= cysc
triangle, in
any spherical
XII.
cysc
c]3sB
casA = - 1
or (comp. IX.),
XIII.
- cos
Taking the
(3.)
= - cos
ing that Sj3a
+ y sin c =
scalars
c,
Taking the
(4.)
XV.
which
is
on both sides of
= a
|3
sin
result
sin A)
and remember
cos B
= cos
this other
A cos B +
j3
sin
c sin
A sin
formula
B.
The
A + a
sin B) (cos
we have
+ cos A
cos c
vectors,
sin c
we thus immediately
XIV.
(cos B
and
may
also be usefully
com
XXXVII.
XV. may
follows:
"
If there
be
lines
be
sin
drawn from
cos B
the
another
ART. 309.]
and
if,
sin
= sm B cos A; and
side
of
it
sin c sin
from o
and
the
c."
(6.)
scalars,
from
common hemisphere,
of the
XYI.
sin c cos PC
common
we have
cyclically
changing abcAKC
side of
circle
then,
sin
A sin B
a formula which might have been derived from the equation 210,
first
PQ
by
intermediate diagonal
same
401
sin c sin PQ
XXXYIIL,
to bcavcA.,
tions
by
and denote by
R the
A+B+
XYII.
the formula
XYI.
PA = PB = PC = R,
and
sin
PQ =
7r
if
o-
<r,
and
again
whence
sin
R sin (s
c),
gives easily,
XYIII.
2 cot
<>
a relation between radius and area, which agrees with known results, and
from which we may, by 297, LXX., &c., deduce the known equation
:
VTV
XIX.
tan
T>
b
c
a
- 4A sin sin - sin ^
&
At
.
<&
in
which we have
still,
XX.
(8.)
In
like
equation 210,
XXXYIIL,
*
HAMILTON
= &c.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS*
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
402
the sides
relation,
which
small
circle,
6-
is
XXI.
the semisum of
known
this other
XVIIL,
2 tan r sin s =
r,
10.
i.
[III.
e.
But
these results are mentioned here, only to exemplify the fertility of the
formulaa, to which the present calculus conducts, and from which the theorem
in
(5.)
We
(9.)
might
to be a consequence.
as
we
developed the Unary product XIII. compare scalar and vector parts and
New general theorems, or at least
operate on the latter, by the symbol S p
thus
of
which it may be sufficient in this
new general forms, would
arise,
;
it
is
clear,
from a mere
c,
line
V/3a from
J3
to a
is
(3.)).
any
round
from B
to
still
A should happen
sup
to be (on
the contrary) negative, we should be obliged to modify the formula XV. which
could be done, for example, so as to restore its correctness, by interchanging a
;
with
j3,
and
at the
B.
There
if
we were
case last
supposed
tion X.,
we
(11.).
Accordingly,
x, y, z
are negative,
(13.)
if
XXII.
where
On
er*/3-V =
from
to
]3
y be
exponents, -x,
(1.).
if a, /3,
mined
-y,-z,
itself negative, as in
2,
will be
all positive,
relations
if
deter
or all negative,
AET. 309.]
]3
to
is negative,
as in
403
(1.),
or positive,
as in (11.).
As
(14.)
XXIII.
..#<
2,
z<2;
y<2,
x>-2,
y>-2,
>
2,
they are introduced with a view to render the problem of finding the expo
nents xyz in the formula X. determinate
for since we have, by 308,
;
XXIV.
we might
a =
4
|3
= +
if
1,
Ta =
Tj3
Ty =
1,
X.
2,
we might render
indeterminate in another
way
the problem of
for
would then
it
be sufficient to suppose that any one of the three exponents was thus equal to
- 2, and that the two others were each =
or else that all three were
2, or
of the
form
(16.)
2.
When
formula X.,
if
it
was
limited as above,
z,
in the
each by a quadrant, give angles not equal to those of the spherical triangle
but equal to the supplements of
ABC, whether positively or negatively taken
;
In
fact, it is
2
evident (because a =
still
be
XXII.,
when we
= y2 = -
if it
satisfied,
]3
ttvo
of the three
exponential factors, by the squares of the two unit-vectors, of which those factors
are supposed to be powers
or in other words, if we subtract or add the number
in
each
two
two,
of
exponents.
:
(18.)
We
may,
XXV.
= -
-^y-
is
from XXII.
or
XXVI.
a^/3^ = y
2 2
"
may
circles,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
404
[III.
10.
i.
angles A and B in the triangle ABC, or the angles at the same points A and B in
the co-lunar triangle ABC will represent two vcrsors, a multiplier, and a multi
2 *
plicand, which are precisely those denoted, in XXVI., hy the two factors, a
,
and
/3
versor,
and the product of these two factors, taken in this order, is that third
which has its axis directed to c and is represented, on the same general
"
which, in quantity,
- c.
is equal to the external
angle of the same lune at c, or to the angle n
This product is therefore equal to that power of the unit-line oc , or - y, which
2
= 2 - z we have therefore, by this construction, the
has its exponent = - (TT ;
<;)
7T
equation,
XXVII...
which (by 308,
The
310.
(6.)
a-*j3
-y=
2 2
(-T)
XXVI.
equation,
2
I... j
2n
fr
2A
a=
-1,
the exponents of the three factors, represent generally the angular quantities
of rotation, round those three unit-lines, or radii, a, j3, y, from the plane AOC
to the plane A OB,
from BOA
to BOC,
to COA,
and are
positive or
or
negative according as these rotations of planes are themselves positive
must be regarded as an important formula, in the applications of
negative
the present Calculus. It includes, for example, the whole doctrine of Spherical
not merely because it conducts, as we have seen (309, (3.) ), to one
Triangles
form of tlic fundamental scalar equation of spherical trigonometry, namely to the
:
equation,
II.
it
cos c
c sin
any system
B, c,
with
A sin B
(4.)
),
which serves
to connect
from one
ft,
7, or
origin.
It
* This
may be considered to bo another instance of that habitual reference to direction, as distin
mere quantity (or magnitude), although combined therewith, which pervades the present
guished from
hud aimed to
Calculus, and is eminently characteristic of it; whereas Lea Cartes, on the contrary,
all
reduce all problems of geometry to the determination of the lengths of right lines; although (as
who use his co-ordinates arc of course well aware) a certain reference to direction is even in his theory
inevitable, in connexion with the interpretation of negative roots (by
him
may,
therefore, bo
make
not improper to
405
nential y
*",
we have
III...(3
2A
2c
a* =
c)
2(?r
-7
(1.)
= 7
2A
(2.)
formula
7r
into* a
I.
we
2c
2A
IV.
..y"p
A)
2(jr
=-a^=<T
ir
.
2A
2c
n
Multiplying this last equation IV. by a and the equation III.
we derive these other forms
(3.)
into
7%
2A
V.
a-
2B
2c
7-"^
2a
= - 1
VI.
equation I.
J3
j3,
2A
2c
= - 1
a"
7"
7,
and
A, u, c,
in
allowed in the
as indeed
2n
2c
2(ir-B)
and IV., we
III.
Taking the
pare 309,
XXII.)
2A
VIII.
of equations.
of Des Cartes,
Thus
B)
2(_7T
2c
= - 1;
7~~
a"*/3~~
2(7T-_A)
IX.
or
2u
2(TT
"
L, we obtain (com
0)
ft
7""
-f
wo
find
it
said
"
cognoscere."
The very difFerent view of geometry, to which the present writer has been
led, makes it the more
proper to express here the profound admiration with which ho regards the cited Treatise of Des Cartes
as
it
does the germs of so large a portion of all that has since been done in mathematical
containing
:
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBMONS.
406
XL
for
A)
2u
fS~"
2c
-y
7
.
B)
2(ir
)3~~~ = 7
2A
..a^
2(7r
= (-
(7.)
and
is
X
(6.)
10.
i.
[III.
XXVII.)
Q)
7)""""
),
illustrate
exponent,
t,
through
if
is
mind
in
right angles,
The
(8.)
we bear
effect
a,
with a scalar
of turning a line J_ a,
principle expressed
by the equation
I.,
from which
all
the sub
sequent equations have been deduced, may be stated in the following manner,
we adopt the definition proposed in an earlier part of this work (180, (4.) ),
if
a suitable Order,
In
(9.)
sum
of
any spherical
fact,
is
triangle?,
equal to
when the
Two Right
Angles."
negative,
if
we
is
(by
spherically
Sum
A,
is
the definition referred to) equal to the external angle at c if then we add to
this sum, or supplement of
or total sum,
c, the angle c itself we get a final
;
which
is
exactly equal to
?r
and
Chapter
I.
planes.
(10.)
Without pretending
we may
it
in passing, as one
just propose
represent the conception here referred
to.
Using a plus
in parentheses, as a
XII.
c (+) B (+)
A =
TT
I.
may
407
the symbol of an added angle being written to the left of the symbol of the
because such addition corresponds
angle to which it is added (comp. 264, (4.) )
;
of the multiplier to the left* of the symbol of the multiplicand, in every multi
plication of quaternions.
311. There is, however, another view of the important equation 310, L,
according to which it is connected rather with addition of arcs (180. (3.) ), than
with addition of angles (180, (4.) J and may be interpreted, and proved anew,
;
a,
j3
to
j3
y
is
and let
c be (as in 175) the positive poles of the sides BC, CA, AB
from
round
a
rotation
the
because
be their unit-vectors.
Then,
y
positive (by 180, (2.)), and is in quantity the supplement of the
;
which a
is
products,
(2.)
the
y /3
and A the angle
axis,
(3.)
(2.),
a versor, of
/3V.
If then we write (comp. 291),
c*Y>
I.
a = UV/3y,
=UVya,
/3
UVa/3,
supposing that
II.
we
shall
To =
T/3
T7
(2.)
and
1,
III.
Saj3y
>
),
and
V.
A = Ly
fi
B =
Lay
C =
Z/3V
whence (by 308 or 309) we have the following exponential expressions for these
three last products of unit-lines.
2A
VI.
(3.)
a"
2c
SB
Y=
|3-
|3
V = -f
therefore, the
new product
2c
T7TT
\ JLL.
f [Here
2B
2A
/Q^T
/Q
2/Q 2
y n u=^ja.ay.y^j = ytjct =
~TT~
TT"
|3
to
I. is
(3.
in this
way proved
anew.
page 147.
UVjS 7
= UVVyaVafl = U (-
aSafl?)
=-
aUSajS?.]
we
have,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
408
(4.)
And
we might have
VTTT
n*
__ V
3-
- -
ft*
P
proved
i.
10.
written,
a
.
0"
we
[III.
may
identity
/-j/
"
TX
1JS-
7
and may be
~~7
interpreted as expressing,
-- +
7^7
-I>
what
a point be
supposed to move first along the side B C of the polar triangle A B C from B
to c
then along the successive side C A , from c to A
and finally along the
remaining side A B from A to B it will thus have returned to the position
is
evident, that
if
from which
(5.)
In
it set out,
this
view,
then,
(264, (4.)
),
we may
and in a
all.
elsewhere called an
X.
AV + CV +
n B C =
r.
it,
or
is
written next
it,
The expressions VI. or VIII., for the exponential factors in 310, I.,
new way the necessity of attending to the order of those factors, in
that formula for if we should invert that order, without altering (as in 310,
VIII.) the exponents, we may now see that we should obtain this new product:
(6.)
show
in a
2A
2B
2c
inferred from
we cannot
in 297, (64.),
and
upon which
here delay.
!.../=?,
between two quaternions, includes a system offour* scalar equations, such as the
following
S/3?
* The
propriety, which such results as this establish, for the use of the name, QUATERNIONS, as
applied to this whole Calculus, on account of its essential connexion with the number FOUR, does not
require to be again insisted on.
AKTS. 311,312.]
where
409
a, j3,
if a,
j3,
and are
duce,
But
vectors is equivalent
last
XXII.
equations II.
is
XXI.,
includes generally a system of three, but of not more than three, scalar equa
tions; because the versorlJq depends generally (comp. 157) on a system of three
scalar s,
determines
its
angle L q
Ax
axis
its
q,
IV.
Oy =
310,
I., is
unit-lines.
we met
compare 187
Tg,
Now
I.
7 be
still supposed to be
one of inform had occurred to
if a, |3,
that equation, or if
(13.),
(1.)
Writing
may
for abridgment,
V.
cot
A =
cot B
t,
u,
cot c
v,
and
YI.
c,
VII.
(v
+ y)
(u
)3) (t
a)
VIII. ..s 2 =
* An
Up = Up,
a
t?
lw + l^+l.
equation,
U\Y
two quaternions
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS
OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
410
[III.
i.
10.
- a, and
Multiplying the equation VII. by t + a, and into t
dividing
2
the result by t + 1, we have this new equation of the same/orm, but differing
(2.)
by
(comp. 310,
cyclical permutation
IX.
and
in like
(t
a) (v
(3.)
+ y) (u +
manner,
X. ..(U +
j3) (t
f* fj3y
.JL\_ -L
ay/3)
a) (V
+ y) =
of the
(3.)
= V.
arrive at this
two
|3Vy
8.
and observing
last equations,
ySajS
S/3y,
J (/3y
we
|3)
new
XII.
t>V/3o
yj3)
V/3y,
it
gives
(4.)
operate on
it
by S
XIII.
and
if
we
a,
and
for
if
we
ifSajSy
XIV.
(5.)
SajSy
y Sa/3
Say Sy/3
y,
we
= S
(Vay .Vyj3).
XV.
Sya
]3
is resolved,
wSa]3y
Sy/3 Sj3a
u, v, or for
t,
= S (Vy/3
.V/3a)
scalar,
(6.),
changing S
vectors a,
XVI.
/3Sa/3y
to a,
]3,
and afterwards
cyclically per
V (V/3a .Vay),
V
=
=V(Vy/3.V]3a),
(Vy/3 .V]3a),
AET. 312.]
XV. XIY.
XVII.
411
give,
(u
(3)
Sa]3 7
((;+ 7 )Sa/3 7
VT
Va 7 .V7 j3;
/3
.V|3a
whence, by VII.,
XVIII.
and thus the remaining
And
(7.)
expressions
(Sa|3 7 )
s, is
scalar,
XVII.
may
give,
XIX.
(+ 1) (S/37
2
)
2
= (V 7 2
/3) (Vj3a)
(8.)
these
2
)
give,
by elimination
of Sa/3 7 ,
XX.
a*-
= (V
S) ( Vj3a
^=
Va 7
fin-*
- (V 8) (V
7j3
:
we
I.,
Vj3)
(V:S)(V 7 .V 7 j3);
c,
t,
a, ]3,
negatives of those
or positive-, that
),
is
XVIII., according
second
member
of that
equation
s, is
XVIII.
>
or
<
0; or
finally,
by
is
In the
1st case,
which
I.,
usually denoted
equation
we
by V.
which are
TT
to
letters.
But we
one even,
icithout
VI, by
(1.),
exponential
by the same
any
that of 309,
even multiples of
or
is
of
s is,
disturbing
IT,
in
any
the
exponential
order, so as to
(8.).
3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
412
i.
[III.
we may,
10.
which
is
c,
(10.)
In the Ilnd
case,
requires, because s
is
now
triangle
and
as thus having,
for similar
(11.)
The
in conducting which
evident that
it is
we have
XXI.
operating,
S,
a,
and
]3,
8.7;
which would have given, with the significations 297, (1.), (3.), of /, m, n, and
relation between those four scalar data,
e,
XXII.
e*
- m* -
+ 2lmn,
n*
=
=
XXIII
nv - tuv +
+ mtu + ntv + uv -
et
- - eu
-<
mu +
It
Itu
+-
tv
+ nuv +
- 2ln
ev
tu
Itv
+ muv - n
eliminating uv and u between the three last of which, we find, with the help
of
XX1Y.
..0 =
m,
n,
mt, ntv +
It
XXY.
and
XXYI.
Uv +
t,
(f + 1)
e,
et
ev
tv
e (t
1) (ev
-n +
Im)
- 2ln
give,
.
(e
e (t*
uv - (m
+
-
1) (eu
nl) (n
-m + nl),
Im)
(1
(et
- /+
mn)
ART. 312.]
(14.)
we
-t-
find, as
XXVII.
XXVIIL
and
et
e*s
=-
mn
(1
m - nl
eu =
(1
ev=n
- w2
)
(1
Ini
413
formula (310).
(15.)
algebraic side,
XXIII.
XXIX.
it is
+ 1 =
=
;
( s
= tuv
It
mu - nv - e =
which
it
may
employed,
may
from the equation VII. to IX., after
certain preliminary multiplications, we divided by f + 1, as we were entitled
to do, when seeking only for real solutions, because t was supposed to be a
be remembered that in passing
it
(2.)
scalar.
XXX.
from Vya
to
Vaj3,
is
always positive; or
is
round
the rotation
(3.)),
as the rotation
(17.)
XXXI.
XXXII.
and
(Sa/3y)
(Sa/3 7 )
ment
from Vay
(18.) If
then
A",
B",
c"
any spherical
a, /3,
^6>Vj3a
7 may
is
2
,
negative,
whatever arrange
A"
from
B"
to
sides,
c"
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
414
which
negative:
is
A quantitative
assigned
be
for
i.
10.
[III.
we may
from
infer
OA
if normals
and 294,
it
pyramid, OABC.
for
we may
write, generally,
2A /J _ 1
2A,,
I.
if
AiA 2
A,,-!
2A 2
^a^~.
an
2Aj
a^ a^
= (-
1)",
the scalars
if
AI, A 2 ,
in the
is
2.
>
Let
(1.) One mode of proving this extended formula is the following.
oc = y be the unit- vector of an arbitrary point c on the spheric surface and
conceive that arcs of great circles are drawn from this point c to the n suc
cessive corners of the polygon.
shall thus have a system of n spherical
;
We
triangles,
two
of the
polygon
will (generally) be
II.
III.
CAiA 3 = A
A w AiC =
CA 2 A 3
I,
AiAjjC
A"!,
may
=
2,
A"
decomposed into
be thus denoted
Also
IV.
V.
A!
=A +
I
A"I,
A2 = A
A" Z
&C.
let
A 2 CA! =
C],
A 3 CA 2 =
C 2 , &C.
and therefore
VI.
which reduces
GI
Ca
itself to 2?r in
c,t
= an even multiple of
TT,
c in its interior.
2.
(2.)
have,
!^j
VII.
like
I,
A"
2,
we
by 310,
and in
415
az
^j.
= - 7
01"^
"
ff
;
2^3
~
2A^s
VIII.
=-7
ff
a2
"
^202
*
&c.
IX.
and
so proceeding,
a^ ai
we have
at last,
X.
ai~ a n
2(o 1
2A
2A 2
a2
310,
The theorem
(3.) ).
(3.)
when
itself to I.,
is
it is
of the form,
V cn~ = (_
which reduces
+ c2
*
by VI., a product
2A,,
2A"i
~=+
2A
2A 2
03"""
1)
^j
!l!i
multiplied by a
and
into a
*"
(comp.
therefore proved.
"
the spherical
(8.) ),
sum of
Sum
of a Spherical
may
When
spherical surface, as in
And
side, is
(1.),
an arbitrary point c
is
the reasoning
taken on the
all
is
some whole multiple thereof therefore the sum of their supplements can
differ only by some such multiple from nw if n be the number of the
or
sides.
(4.)
If any
conically
we have
be, if
we denote by p n
and
the exponential
q,
XI.
"
I.,
..
may
line OP,
round any n
~
p n pp n = p
XII.
(by 308,
drawn from
radii, OA
;,
(8.)
pn qpn
~l
= q
be thus interpreted
oA n
as
successive axes
be
made
to revolve
of rotation, through
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
416
[III.
10.
i.
angles equal respectively to the doubles of the angles of the spherical polygon AJ
AW,
the line will be brought back to its initial position, by the composition of these
rotations"
Another way
(5.)
any spherical
polygon,
} ,
Then
the point AI
polygon.
2Aj
XIII.
= a a
ai
an n = a
n -i
Al V
"VTTT"
.
n n w _i
n _ia n _ 2
a 2a
f
x
^a n
\n
{- 1)
proved anew.
(6.) This latter process may be translated into another theorem of rotation,
on which it is possible that we may briefly return,* in the Second and last
is
Chapter of this Third Book, but upon which we cannot here delay.
(7.) It may be remarked however here (comp. 309, XII.), that the extended
XV.
(8.)
be thus written
may
exponential formula I.
For example,
Ca n S A n
if
Ca n _iS A_i
ABCD be any
AD
unit vectors of
its
Hence (comp.
XVII.
and
(cos c
therefore,
XVIII.
Ca 2 S A 2
CaiS AI
(- l)
which the
by
A,
D, so that
to AB, &o.,
while
a,
A represents the
|3,
7, S are the
corners, then
XVI.
(9.)
spherical quadrilateral, of
CSD
=
CySC C/3SB CaSA +
sin c) (cos
we may
D+
D-3
scalars
sin D)
on both
sin c sin
309, XIII.),
by taking
cos c cos
write also,
(cos
sides,
cos CD
1.
B+
j3
sin B) (cos
and changing
= - cos B cos A +
Compare 297,
(24.).
A+a
sin A)
signs,
sin B sin
cos
BA
417
XI Y.)
to the
member
is
cosine of the angle AEB, or CED, if the opposite sides AD, BC of the quadri
lateral intersect in E.
Let p = OP be the unit vector of any fifth point, p, upon the spheric
then operating by S p on XYIL, we obtain this other general
(10.)
surface
formula,
sin
sin c cos
cos B cos
AP +
cos CP
sin B cos
sin
A cos BP +
DP +
cos c cos
sin
sin c sin
sin
CD sin PR
in which the sines of the sides AB, CD are treated as always positive
but the
of the perpendiculars
sines
positive or negative,
but
less
positions
be derived.
(11.)
sides
will
if
we make
side, or
of a diagonal.
The
314.
form some useful expressions, by quaternions, for circular, elliptic, and spiral
loci, in a given plane, or in space, a few of which may be mentioned here.
to
(1.)
perpendicular to
it
then,
I.
by the
f3
definition (308), if
OP = p =
/3,
Ta =
Sa]3
1,
we
If
the product
if
we
take
Ta =
1,
we
=
line OB,
write,
0,
circle,
with o for
centre,
its
vector-part (292),
II.
III.
we can form
OP = p = Y. a fj3 =
j3
this
cos x
new vector-expression,
+ y
sill x,
where
its
locus of
is
2x =
and
IY.
ellipse,
with
tir,
a plane
= oc =
Yoj3
its centre at o,
x, is
what
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
418
If
(3.)
V,
we
OB =
/3
and P
so that B
write,
= V/3a
a = a~ y,
and
YI.
we have
VII.
)3
rectangular
then,
is
VIII.
IX.
or
IX
which
last
Syfto,
X.
by
OA
II.,
aVpa,
jS
o,
the equation,
;
TVap
TVa/3
of the point p
itself,
(5.) ),
If
we
Sa/>
j3
Ty,
form we have, by
Saj3 cos x,
Sj3p
/3
and IV.,
II.
cos x.
(1.),
Vpa
the plane,
as a confirmation of
(5.)
OP = p =
circle,
made by
radii.
Under
(4.)
is
(2.),
cos0 + 7 sin # = a
10.
i.
[III.
but the
locus
of p will
line OP,
correspond
now
line,
of the locus,
is
XL
XXIV.)
length Tp
scalar exponent
Up
is
which
it
multiplied by To.
by
4, so that
= TJaMJ/3
to the direction
increased
itself,
is
not
now
equal to unity.
(7.)
If
we
reject both
the conditions
Ta =
(1.),
and
l,
Sa]3
0,
an unit-line, nor
power a*, is now neither
as a factor,
perpendicular to j3, namely to the line on which that power operates,
we must again take vector parts, but we have now this new expression
so that the line a, or the base of the
XII.
in which
we have
OP = p = V.
a*/3
(/3
cos^ + 7 sinz)
XIII.
..fl
= Ta,
<y=.V(Ua./3).
ART. 314.]
In
(8.)
be said to be
may
now an
more complex
tliis
is still
logarithmic spiral
elliptic*
419
for if
we
suppress the
scalar factor, a*, we fall back on the/om II., and have again an ellipse as the
but when we take account of that factor, we find (comp. (2.) that equal
locus
)
respond
spiral.
We may
(9.)
also project B
and
P, as in (3.), into
the equation of
tlie
we
and
it is
a*
../>
(ft cos #
Ta
spiral, of the
known and
on the
>
or
+ 7 sin x] = a
be a logarithmic
still
XIY.
so that
then, since
points B and P
/3
<
Ua
/3
1),
is
seen to
ordinary kind.
(10.) Several spirals of double curvature are easily represented, on the same
general plan, by merely introducing a vector-term proportional to t, combined
or not with a constant vector-term, in each of the expressions above given, for
XY.
while
c is
cta
a%
Ta =
with
l,
and
Saj3
0,
helix,
on the right
circular cylinder
And
if
XVI.
eta
/3,
we
namely
which
is
the locus
traced.
The
usual logarithmic spiral might perhaps bo called, hy contrast to this one, a circular loga
Compare the following sub-article (9.), respecting the projection of what is here called
rithmic spiral.
an
elliptic
logarithmic spiral.
3H2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
420
[III.
10, 11.
i.
315. Without at present pursuing farther the study of these loci by quater
1
nions, it may be remarked that the definition (308) of the power a , especially
when Ta =
which
will be
(1.)
Let
a be
I.
III.
any
= S
r<
a^S.a
V.
(2.)
Let a and
VI.
+aS.a*-
(4.)
We
have
X.
xi.
(5.)
The
also,
*
by
the
eT
IV.
1
;
= S
= - S OM
+1
- aS O M
a*
let
be
still
S.a^S.a*
any scalar
then
a*"
1
.
/, k,
= *v.
k<
= s
a**
1
.
j V.
k*
= V.
A?v.y*
AV.
= - v.
**
= V.y
v.
AJ*
= - v.y.
may be
put under
may
XIII.
V. a*= aS
vector p,
expression 308, (10.), for an arbitrary
it
a^=l.
and
.
a*
a* = S
VII.
=/w
V./ = V. #
XII.
And
i,
v.
yv. ^ = - v. *
(6.)
aV.a ^a
ix.
unit-vectors,
= S
a*
VIII.
(3.)
2
2
=
.(S.a0 +(S.a^)
let
II.
a*;
any two
be
and
unit-vector,
be expanded as follows
.
(i
cos
tir
+j
sin
2S
.*
tir)
sin
sir
+ k cos STT)
We
of poivers of vectors
may
suffice.
[Since
/* =
8 -1
./Si
Sk*>
this
rk*
j->
A 1 --, remembering
that
421
11.
We
with the
and a connected
when
definition shall
be given (consistent
of the
"We
and
of logarithms, of real
Napierian) system
and
known
positive scalars
so that (as
usual),
II.
(Compare 240,
(2.)
for
We
what we
and
(1.)
any quaternion
shall
4i
(2.).)
III.
and thus
1?
= 1T? +
q,
simply
its
Logarithm
Z?.UV<?;
IV.
&=
q.
(3.) When q is any actual quaternion (144), which does not degenerate (131)
into a negative scalar, the formula III.
assigns a definite value for the logarithm,
\q
which
is
V.
VII.
SI? = IT?
UV1? = UV?
VIII.
TV1? = L
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
422
[III.
11.
i.
the scalar part of the logarithm being thus the (natural) logarithm of the tensor
and the vector part of the same logarithm Iq heing constructed by a line in the
;
Ax
of
q,
to the
assumed unit of
length, the same ratio as that which the angle L q bears, to the usual unit of
If
it
IX.
in which q
to
is
supposed
any negative
X.
where n
is
..f-q,
and actual quaternion, which
to be a given
scalar (3.),
.
we might do
= (log
q
q) n
this
not equal
243),
+ 2mrUVq,
Iq
what we have
is
and
in this view,
XI. ..lq=
(5.)
The
where q
(log 0)
is
since
we have,
for
example, by the definition III,, the following expression for the logarithm of
negative unity,
XII.
which in
its form
(- 1)
iV - 1
is
here inter
preted as signifying any unit-vector, of which the length bears to the unit of
length the ratio of TT to 1 (coinp. 243, VII.).
We propose
former quaternion q
is
XIII.
and thus
tions I.
(7.)
tf
is
the exponent
this quaternion
and
and
which
is
XV.
to be multiplied
f
&**.
by /,
in the expression,
AET. 316.]
(8.)
last
for the
When,
formula becomes
same
XVII.
we
I.,
* up
^ = TV.
../>=
= cos x +
Up
sin x,
U
P,
= -
2z =
if
we may
XVIII.
(9.)
the
by the
(UpY =
tTr
XVII
or briefly,
c*
power a
17
is
cpsx,
in this
way
is
write,
** Up
mentioned
last
definition,
that the
t,
1 gives,
power q q
scalar,
XYI.
and because, by
becomes a
423
x and t^p.
of
The
XIX.
in which (comp. (3.)
\q
),
z.0;
(11.)
We
any quaternion
XXII.
UlUg = TJV?.
XXIII.
t,
and
the power,
.
q*
&=
(Tq)<.
(cos
Lq +
UV?
sin
q)
or briefly,
XXIir.
in
q*
= iy. cus
XXIV.
(g
may
q,
if
UV?
be omitted, because
= (Tqy=Tq*
(comp. 237,
II.).
* In
243, (3), it might have been observed, that every value of each member of the formula IX.,
there given, is one of the values of the other member ; and a similar remark
applies to the formulae I.
and II. of 236.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
424
[III.
11.
i.
XXV.
we have
Ta + Ua
T. P P =
XXVII.
and generally
to the base,
Thus whatever
XXVIII.
= ** = - k
*>
(15.)
c is
If, for
=0;
/= &- +
scalar c
may
i cj
when
Pj
(7.),*
tive or negative
S,
if
1,
rm s becomes
the case
if
but perpendicular
(14.)
any vector
is
XXVIII.),
itself to
sin Ta, if a be
therefore,
XXVI.
(13.)
cos
and
may
e-i
a line perpendicular
indeterminate,
c *-
= cos
rms
its
to
both
happen.
we may
be,
t cfli
is
is
write,
-k
sin
j-
+ k
but in
^%
real quaternion
any
XXIX...UV0 = 0,
axis
q,
becomes indeterminate
we
(131).
write again,
and therefore
= -l,
the process of 239 will hold good, when we change i to v the series, denoted
in I. by ? is therefore always at last convergent,^ however great (but finite) the
tensor Tq may be
and in like manner the two following other series, derived
;
from
it,
(3.)
cosine
what we
and
by
XXXII.
XXXIIL
cos? - J
sing -
-")
J3 + L/8.4
~) - | - j-f^ +
- &0
T^O
&C>
* In the
a certain multiplicity
theory of complanar quaternions, it was found convenient to admit
a notation for the
of value for a power, when the exponent was not a whole number and therefore
section enable us
principal value of a power was employed, with which the conventions of the present
;
now
to dispense.
t In
fact, it
nary, or
when
any but
real quaternions.
it
exists,
;
but
ART. 316.]
We
(16.)
of a quaternion, supposed
XXXIV.
still
sec? =
We
cos
c v!7
cos q
+ v
~v
sin q,
and
XXXVII.
And
//
may
whatever quaternion q
(18.)
2u
cosec? =
q,
&c.
XXXVI.
^w?o
shall
(17.)
and cotangent
XXXV... tan,
and thus
-^
425
(cos
qY +
(sin q}*
".
cos q
- v
sin q
),
&* = e
1,
be.
and
swzes of
swms of
or wore arcs, &c., will thus hold good for quaternions also, provided that the
XXXVIII.
(19.)
(9.)
it
cos (q
= cos /
q)
cos q
for example,
sin q sin
q,
if
\\\
q.
Thus, we
may
indeed write,
XXXIX.
e^ =
XL.
? +?
gg + terms
V = g?
e,
if
\\\q<,
of third
difference,
<o
XLI.
and
- q
q)
V? V/),
.
are
diplanar.
of vectors, that
HAMILTON
if a,
]3,
7 be any
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
and
if
o-
denote the
3 I
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
426
XX. may
written
i.
[III.
11.
be thus
p+7
a+
p 7+
(22.)
vectors,
the relation
XLTII.
2
2
2
(Uaj3y) + (Uj3y) + (Uay) + (Uaj3) + 4TJay
for example,
(23.)
7 be
if a,
|3,
made equal
1-1-1-1
tion becomes,
XIX.,
298,
The following
is
= -
to
/,
j, k,
the
SU/3
member
first
= - 2
SUj3 7
of this
equa
2.
identity, involving as
it
not only three arbitrary vectors a, |3, 7, but also four arbitrary scalars, a,
and r\ but it has some geometrical applications, and a student would find
for himself.
does
ft,
it
c,
To
to investigate a proof of it
are
the
three
vectors
a, |3, 7, and the three scalars a, ft, c,
abridge notation,
sums
are
formed
which
to
considered as each composing a cycle, with respect
2,
and products
II,
on a plan which
XLIV.
20V/3y = aVj3y +
be thus exemplified
may
+ cYa/3
ftV 7 a
XLY.
+ (2aY/3 7
(Sa/3 7 )
2H (r
+ 8)87 +
+ S(r 2 + a 8 +
2
)
be]
2H (r +
2
{(V/37)
W.
Ha* =
the following
+ r 2 (2V/3 7 ) 2 - r(2a
is
(/3
XLYI.
vectors a,
2
(Sa/3 7 )
/3,
7)
az)
2ftc(r
the sign of summation in the last line governing all that follows
(24.)
scalars a,
ft,
c,
it.
r each
0, this
7, the relation,
+ 2nS/?7 =
2H
+ 2
8
.
(Yj3 7 )
which agrees with the very useful equation 294, LIIL, because
XLYII.
(25.)
Let
a a (V)3y)
= a2
{(Sj3 7 )
]3y) =
(aS]3y)
a, /j,
a given sphere, of
- Ua\
XLYIII.
2
2
=
p + r
exterior to
ART. 316.]
427
and
let a, b, c
We
tions
XLIX.
thus r 2 +
the
a?
= - a2
formula
of that
We
= -
z
;
of the formula
XLY.
vanishes
is
(26.)
= 72 +
&c.,
member
first
a 2 + a2 =
obtained, which
is
of the
by quaternions
circles,
found
system of
of three small
may remark
but
set
is
that
the origin o
let fall
V/3
line
AB
XL
LI.
or
TVfBa = rT
(a
/3)
LIL
or
2
.
This
(27.)
+ Sa/3) 2 =
LIII.
(r
(r
(r
(V/3a)
of
r z (a
j3)
XLIX.,
= aW.
last
LIV.
and
if
we
r2
+ Sa/3 - ab =
still
LV.
and
+ Sa|3 + ab =
b (25.) as positive, it is
P, at
In
(28.)
LVI.
AB
line
T(/3
easy to prove,
to be selected,
is
a)
a,
LVII.
which the
and B
is
T (]3 - a) =
(b
or
XLIX.
-
a),
or
(|3
a)
(b
a)
= - 2
+ Saj3
(r
ab),
=
(]3
a)
(b
a)
=-2
(r
+ Sa/3 + ab)
312
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
428
and
it
be remarked, that
may
we might
[III.i.ll.
in this
its
trans
We may
XLVIIL,
and touching
LYIII.
and in
like
is
Sap +
easily
r*
its
equation,
LIX.
..8/3,0
+ r2 =
0,
represents the polar plane of the point B, which plane cuts the sphere in a
second small circle and these tivo circles touch each other, when either of the two
:
conditions (27.)
is satisfied
LY.
The
and
sphere,
LX.
o = (xa + yfiY +
x +
yY r\
or
LXI.
(r
z
+ a 2 ) + 2xy(r* + 8a0) + y (r* +
/3
) ;
sections.
LXII.
2
r + Sa)3 =
if
In
like
this
analogous equation,
LXIII...S-S^-sfY^.Y^)
a
a
\
PJ
P
connecting the vectors A,
tively to the ellipsoid
ju
of
216, II.
l,
AKT. 316.]
429
equation LXIII. will represent the tangent plane at that point L, considered as
the locus of the conjugate point M; whence it is easy to deduce the normal, at
any point of the ellipsoid. But all researches respecting normals to surfaces
LXIY.
are symbols of one
[Some
(?*
qt
This
t"
quaternion.
"
and
2"is
5
<?
i<z
"
=
(<f."f
is
(qrq-J
care
By
)*"
common
and
(0
1
t*"
)3"
^ =
^"^
0*"*
"
"
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
430
CHAPTER
[III. n.
1.
II.
SECTION
On
1.
317. IN the foregoing Chapter of the present Book, and in several parts of
Book preceding it, we have taken occasion to exhibit, as we went along,
the
but these have been given, chiefly as assisting to impress on the reader
the meanings of new notations, or of new combinations of symbols, when such
nions
more
surfaces
and
to give at least
to Physical Inquiries.
But
some
it
and normals
to curves
and
first
establish
and
318.
The
coefficients,
and
of derivedfunctions,
of Quaternions.
and
to
to be consistent with,
DEFINITION OF DIFFERENTIALS.
ARTS. 317-320.]
new
431
definition, it is natural to
go back
to the
if
is
familiar equation,
calculation,
;
or
which
by the
xy = yx,
still
still
excluded:
and
The answer
to suggest, is
to this question,
And
then,
if
any
any system
differences,
any
of
any system
of
the
Differences"
variables, all
to
letter d,
and are
denoted, as such,
by prefixing
variable.
"
t As regards the notion of multiplying such differences, or generally any quantities -which all
diminish together, in order to render their ultimate relations more evident, it may he suggested by
various parts of the Principia of Sir Isaac Newton but especially by the First Section of the First
;
Lemma
occur:
"
intelligantur semper
.
A~B
et
(p. 31),
AD ad puncta longinqua b et
."
AE (page
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
432
More
321.
fully
and symbolically,
I.
[III. n.
let
q, r, s,
1,2.
and
let
ever they
q + Ag,
+ Ar,
+ A*,
in
new system
made
to the
(in
But
IY.
may
when
tend to
this
become equal
happens, as in all
adjustment of the increase of n to the decrease of A#, &c., the limits thus obtained
are said to be simultaneous differentials of the related variables,
denoted, as such,
q, r, s
and are
by the symbols,
Y.
dq,
dr,
SECTION
d-s,
2.
To
leave no possible
shall show, that while for such cases the old rules are reproduced, the differen
tials
* A quaternion
may be said
when that tensor tends to zero.
to decrease,
and that
when
it
its tensor
would be a
decreases
and
vitiation,
and
not a
to decrease indefinitely,
433
into their
expressions, for the purpose of rendering all the differentials equal to the cor
responding
in the
first
In Algebra, then,
(1.)
namely,
y = x\
Ay =
y +
(x
therefore, as usual,*
III.
or
so,
gives,
II.
and
be
let
I.
which
to
what comes
where n
to the
Ay =
same thing,
Conceive
(2.)
now
may
connected with each other and with x by the equation III., decrease, and
tend together to zero, the number n increases, in the transformed
equation IV.,
and tends to infinity, in such a manner that the product, or multiple, n&x, tends
to
some finite
satisfy
limit a
which
may
A0 to
V.
pression
We
A# =
some
by IV.,
a,
given
n-Ay
= 2xa + n~
and therefore a 2
is
and
and
b (since
its
nkx =
or
and finite
with this
quantities, a
n~ l a,
VI.
But because
a,
value for
a*
given
a~,
a.
+ n~ a\
and
difference,
if
following ex
Ay
= 2xa.
ft
while the
finite, (2.),
number n
limit is rigorously
Hence
null.
be
supposed
finite), are two simultaneous limits,
to which, under the
supposed conditions, the two equimultiples, n&x and
*
is
to
2
write here, as is common, A# 3 to denote
x 2 would be written, on the same
(Ao;) ; while A
2
In like manner we shall write d# 2 , as usual, for (d#) 2 and shall
plan, for A (x }, or Ay.
-
"We
known
denote d(z 2 ) by d
HAMILTON
x-.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
2
,
and V# 2
2
,
in 199
and 204.
3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
434
x and y
and we may
by the
And
it
d# =
elimination of
VIII.
(4.)
VII.
or, as usual, after
2.
ir.
[III.
= 2xa
a,
z
dy = d x = 2%dx.
dy =
a,
vitiate,
defi
nition (320), this usual expression for the differential of the square of a variable x
in algebra, if
we were
and
to
add to
For
x*.
it
?
the term d# in imitation of the formula III.
,
this
or w^da?
in the expres
VI. for n Ay, could fail to tend to zero, while the number, n, by which the
square of d# is divided, increases without limit, or feM^s (as above) to infinity.
sion
(5.)
As an
IX. ..^ =
and
let it
y=
2,
;r
4,
d^ = 1000;
arithmetical value of
definition (320),
We
the
X.
n Ax
= dx = 1000
but the limit of the n th part of a million (or of way greater, but
number) is exactly zero, if w increase without limit the required
1
;
0w0>*
an
tYZ/we
of
dy
is,
XI.
(6.)
And we
XII.
dy = 4000.
two simultaneous
dx = 1000,
differentials,
dy = 4000,
are not, in this example, even approximately equal to the two simultaneous
differences,
XIII.
= d^ = 1000,
Ay = 1002 2
2 2 = 1004000,
* In this
a but
case, indeed, the multiple nAx has by V. a constant value, namely
convenient to extend the use of the word, limit, so as to include the case of constants
constant is its own limit.
generally, that a
it
is
found
or to say,
embodied in the
of simultaneous differentials, as
they must
and
d#
definition (320),
of themselves taken,
XIY.
435
n~ dy,
number
n, to
differences,
XV.
A#
and
Ay
and more and more nearly equal to such a system, even in the way of ratio, as
to vanish.
they all become smaller and smaller together, and tend together
(7.)
XYI.
n~ l
&x = 0-001,
differentials
two simultaneous
and
number n
of the
dy = 0*004,
gives,
n = 1000000
if
differences, as follows,
XYII.
A0 =
and
0-001,
values
XY. may
= 0-004001
Ay
XIY.
already be considered
or
XYI.,
of the
1000
function, y,
and
is
form
differentials,
of the
between
d# and dy,
XVIII.
which
2, as
4000
two
approximation would
without the rigorous and
this
dy = 4d*,
reasonings.
we
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
436
[III. n.
2.
homogeneous among
homogeneous
?#A
differential, as
it
the variable to
being
any law or
which
it
correspond*,
and
of
should be
which
it
tiuo
of
area,
of
the
is
line
any reference
to
sum
units of length, or of
calculation
whatever.
Let, then, as in the annexed figure 74, ABCD be any given rectangle,
(1.)
and
let
finite
increments of
the
or
sum
by
i,
Oil the
B H
may
be
Fig. 74.
multiples BH,
DK
of the
of those
two given
sides.
(2.)
or that
Conceive
we
now
take a series of
new
approaches
to c,
points i,
nearer to the given point c, by taking the line ci successively a smaller and
Then the two new linear intervals, BH, DK, and
smaller part of that diagonal.
sum
and
two given
(3.)
sides,
But the
ci,
remaining,
(by the construction) equimultiples of the two first of the three new and decreasing
differences
they may, therefore, by the definition (320), be arbitrarily taken as
;
tivo sides,
that
we
then
Book
is
here used \vith a slightly more extended signification, than in the Second
ART. 323.]
AI, or the
BE
sum
(2.) of
to BH, or of
For
difference
AC and
rectangles,
are then, first, to increase this new gnomon, or the difference of AC,
"We
(4.)
437
DG
to
DK
and
by the
ci,
if the given
be the
to
and
finite increments,
differentials
of the
sides,
AB, AD.
Now when we
(5.)
we get
tico
given and
constant,
must be considered
to be their
own limits*
ci,
But when we
we do
not recover
as the point
this
new
(6.)
approaches to c
rectangle CL or CM,
//, then,
is
in such a
manner
AB,
rigorously null.
assumed to be the
differ-
to be
still
per milted), the differential of the given area, or rectangle, AC, is proved (not
assumed) to be, as a necessary consequence of the definition (320), exactly and
because such
rigorously equal to the sum of the two partial rectangles CE and CG
;
is
the limit
(7.)
(5.)
And
if
to suppose that
term, or part, so as to
make
it
by adding
gnomon
(1.),
new
he would
homologous
sides.
to
page 434.
duplicate ratio,
of
their
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
438
SECTION
On some
[III. n,
3.
3.
and
let dq,
differentials
<?,
on which
dr,
is
supposed to depend,
by the equation
their function,
II...
where n
is
expresses,
dQ = lim.
n {F(q +
n~ 1 dq,
Then
I.
Q,
is
the corresponding
+ n~ dr,...) - F(q,
l
r,
...)};
any whole number (or other positive* scalar) which, as the formula
conceived to become indefinitely greater and greater, and so to
is
And
tend to infinity.
in particular,
if,
q,
IY.
Q,
as in
Q=
dQ - dfq = lim.
so that
III...
then
we
n=
n {f(q + n
dq)
fq\
cc
a formula for the differential of a single explicit function of a single variable, which
agrees perfectly with those given, near the end of the First Book, for the
differentials of a vector, and of a scalar, considered each as a function (100) of
but which
now
variables, q, Q,
and their
differentials,
still
is
dq,
nions.
As an example
(1.)
its square, so
that
V.
..
Q = fq =
q\
YI.
* Except
may
dQ = dfq = lim.n
z
{(q+ n~ dq)
l
-q
z
}
=lim.
(q
.dq + dq.
q+n
in some rare cases of discontinuity, not at present under our consideration, this scalar n
as well be conceived to tend to negative infinity.
AKT. 324.]
where dg 2
of
signifies* the square
VII.
dq
.
that
is,
= q dq + dq
(f
439
VII
= qdq + dq q
(f
an expression for the differential of the square of a quaternion, which does not
because q and dq are not generally
in general admit of any further reduction
:
When, however,
it
happens, as in
becomes,
(2.)
VUL
= 2?dft
As another example,
let
d?
if
q (123).
I]]
IX...
Q=fq
q-i.
Then, because
X.
f(q +
=
(q
=of which,
when
multiplied by
n~ l dq)
-fq =
+ n-*dq)- 1
+
n~ l (q
(q+ n dq)
is
n~ l dq)~ l
the limit
n,
{q
+ ir dq)
1
(q
q~
}q~
dq
l
q~
dq
q~
we have
the following
1
,
(as in
VIF.)
as a whole symbol,
XI
d q
.
= - q
dq
q~
an expression which does not generally admit of being any farther reduced, but
becomes, as in the ordinary calculus,
XIL..d.<r
that
*
is,
=
-<r<l<7,
if
d?
HI ?,
and
its
differential^
to page 433.
f The point between d and q z , in the first member of VII., is indispensable, to distinguish the
But just as this latter square is denoted
differential of the square from the square of the differential.
2
the symbol, dq,
so the products, q dy and dq q, may be written as qdq and d^ q
briefly by
d<?
being thus treated as a whole one, or as if it were a single letter. Yet, for greater clearness of expres
sion, we shall retain the point between q and d#, in several (though not in all) of the subsequent
formulae, leaving it to the student to omit it, at his pleasure.
J Compare the note immediately preceding.
[See 329 (4.) for a result including XI.]
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
440
[m. n
3.
older calculus, while exemplifying also the distinction which generally exists
between them. And we shall here proceed to explain a notation, which (at
least in the statement of the present theory of differentials) appears to possess
some advantages
and
more
nition^ of
We
of
an
indefinitely
when taken
variable
q,
number,
n, is
is
of that
(single)
of the multiplying
relatively to an indefinite increase
denoted, as such,
(2.)
But
multiplier, n,
a function of that number, n, as well as of the two independent variables, gand dq.
And we propose to denote (at least for the present) this new function of the
three variables,
II.
of
n, q,
in such a
manner as
to write, for
by
.
and
d^,
by the formula
I.,
../;(?,
any two
d ? );
variables, q
n,
the equation,
IV. ../(?, sO =
and
is
"
/(? +
*)- /)5
f(q +
"Y)
=/? + n Vn
(<?,
4),
as small.
anything]whatever being neglected,
DISTRIBUTIVE PROPERTY.
For example,
it
VI-
M*>
And
flO
calculation in 324,
little
= Vt + fa + try 1
if
fq =
that,
(1.),
that,
(2.),
VII.
(4.)
441
fn (q,
= -
n^\^ T \
(q
may now
fq =
if
>.
the sub-index
be understood,
IX.
we may
),
still
write,
more simply,
pendent variables q and /, of which the form is derived* or deduced (comp. (2.)),
from the given or proposed form of the function/*?, of a single variable, q, accord
it is
(at
326.
One
class f(q, q
of the
dent variable, q
which
called derivation,^
which
may
is
),
is
from some
be not, quaternions.
f
and let n be any number;
(1.) Let c{ be any third independent variable,
then the formula 325, Y. gives the three following equations, resulting from
the law of derivation of fn (q, q
from fq
I.../fe +
II.
..f(q +
III.
w-y +
../(<?
-1
O-A +
w-y) =/(?
4-
/feO5
rl
n-y) + n~%(q +
n^q",
q")
* It was
remarked, or hinted, in 318, that the usual definition of a derived function, namely, that
given hy Lagrange in the Calcul des Fonctions, cannot be taken as a, foundation for a differential cal
culus of quaternions: although such derived functions of scalars present themselves occasionally in the
applications of that calculus, as in 100, (3.)
which will be noticed soon. The present
and
Law
(4.),
cases,
fq, although
it
has in general a
less
of Derivation
its
own
is
limit,
(q,
},
oi f(y, q
}.
ELEMENTS OF QUATEKKEONS.
442
by comparing which we
IV.
[III.ir.g3.
./(<?,
q +
=f,
(q
q")
~Y,
Q")
/(<?,
the form of the original function, fq, and the values of the four variables, q, q ,
q \ and n, remaining altogether arbitrary
except that n is supposed to be a
:
q,
may
q"
(or
not) be quaternions.
may
=
(2.) For example, if we take the particular function/^
the form 325, YI. of the derived function/,^, q ), we have
<f,
which gives
VI.
q +
.fn (q,
q(<f
?")
0")
(q
?")
1
? + ir
^+
8
g")
and therefore
VII.
as required
.fn (q,
q +
q")
-fn (q,
q")
= qq + q q +
2
,r>(<?
+ q
q"
n,
Admitting then that formula as proved, for all values of the number
we have only to conceive that number (or scalar) to tend to infinity, in order
to
(3.)
VIII.
./.
(q,
q")
-/.
(g,
/) + /.
?)
5")
IX.
f(q,
q +
q")
=f(q, q
+f(q,
q")
(4.)
(3.)
and
),
X.
and XI.
if
fq = q\
if
fq = q
we
then
then
f(q, q
= qq + q q
f(q, q
= )
q^q q^
them that
is distributive
although
happens to be
distributive with respect to q also.
(5.) It follows at once from the formula IX. that we have generally*
relatively to q
it
is
XII.
*
../(<?,
it
0)=0;
AnTS.326, 327.]
and
not
it is
As
(6.)
difficult to prove, as
XIII.
/(#, ff/)
%f(q,
<?
),
if
scalar.
may
% be any
we may
tion of f(q, q
443
XIV.
.f(q, ?
= lim
n{f(q +
=
n^)
-fq]
oo
we have
therefore, if x be
XV.
.f(q, xq
finite scalar,
any
and
xr n,
-fq};
OT=<
327.
i.
we
IX.) that
tion
may
fq
be.
in fact
it
is
variable,
being
any
f(q, xdq)
evident,
it
is
(as
= mf(q
dq), if
dq of
the
scalar, or that
x be any
conception
scalar.
and
(320) of
definition
must admit
of
always
is
to
II.
And
=/(?, a?),
variable, q, be multiplied by
comes
d/?
XL)
an independent
We see
VII. and
or writing anew,
permitted
to
or
more generally,
scalar.
(1.)
III.
..dfq: dq =f(q,
dq)
dq,
quotient III.
is
Ud^,
if
and
d<?
be quaternions
it is
except that
it
3
remains
444
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
in general unchanged,
(or negative), or to
is
[III. n.
that versor to
own
its
TJd<?,
3.
opposite
1,
which
a scalar.
(2.)
IY.
in which d^
and
Ud^
dq = q + dq
q*
l
.
dq~
Udg
.Ud^"
is
Ud<?,
we
Ud^
and
q,
from
being derived
angle
2z.d<?
by a
q,
the versor
(comp. 191,
conical rotation of
Ud<?,
since
A#
represents, as
it
(5.)),
be considered as
may
round A.X
see,
which
dq,
through an
on
that versor.
factors,
differential dq,
and the
other
a,
function of q
alone.
(4.)
And
for the
we
a Derived
understand a Function
t,
so that
we have an equation
Y.
it is
VI.
d?
where
ft,
denotes a scalar,
and
(3.)
dt = dft
of the form,
(4.)
d* = lim
ns
to write,
2.[f (* + **}
dtff \
nj
ft\
)
-lim.
and
t,
alone,
and
is
independent of
tial, d*.
to 325, (4.).
it is
(in fact)
ARTS. 327,328.]
We may
(6.)
VII.
and
dq =
Dq
t
But
as regards the
ice
D ft,
or
X.
At,
differential,
by
or
dft,
it,
dq or dft.
regard
IK. ..ft,
an actual
=ft
differential, dt, is
coefficient,
as being
differential equation,
/00r*c
remember that
important to
dfq
or/% as
VIII.
or
dt,
may
in. tf/aw
also write,
445
),
it is
or differential
D q,
or
by an actual scalar, dt, of which the value is altogether arbitrary, and may (if
while the dividend quaternion
choose) be supposed to be large (comp. 322)
we
X.
depends, for
and on
its
which
is
and
dt,
expressed by
the general formula 324, IV., for the differentiation of explicit functions of any
single variable.
328. It
tions
is
tion is
dQ
dF(q,
r, s,
.)
= F(q,
r, s,
.),
the new function jFis always distributive, with respect to each separately of the
II.
where x
tials
F(q,
may
r, s,
be any scalar
q,
r,
.)
= xF(q,
r, s,
must possess
II.),
.),
&c. considered as so
many
variables
on which
function Q.
*
I.,
dQ
of the
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
446
For example,
(1.)
if
III.
it is
3.
quaternions,
then
[III. n.
Q=
F(q, r)
qr,
found from the general formula 324, II., that (because the
dq dr is null, when the number n -increases without limit) the
easily
limit of n~
IY.
= d qr =
dF(q,
dQ
with analogous
is,
r)
= F(q,
dq, dr)
r,
= q
dr + dq r
.
nions.
(2.)
if
Again,
we take
Y.
= F(q,
= q~\
r)
then, applying the same general formula 324, II., and observing that we
have, for all values of the number (or other scalar), n, and of the four quater
nions, q, r, q
VI.
we
n[(q + n^q
)-
+ n r)
(r
tial
of the function
VII.
which
dQ =
q~ r]
q~ r
when n tends
(q
(2.) ),
n~ q )~
l
q q~ (r +
wV),
q~ r
dF(q,
r)
= F(q
dq, dr)
r,
q~
dr -
q~
dq
q~ r
again, like the expression IV., distributive with respect to each of the
differentials d^, dr, of the variables q, r, and does not involve the product of
is
those two differentials: although these two differential expressions, IV. and
and VII., are both entirely rigorous, and are not in any way dependent on
any supposition that the tensors of dq and dr are small (comp. again 322).
329. In thus differentiating a function of more variables than one, we are
led to consider
d 3 Q,
or
if
dQ
we
shall
= d Q + d r Q + ds Q +
q
447
and symbolically,
or, briefly
III.
d = d, + d r + d s +
if q, r, 8,
(1.)
Q=
if
qr,
then d q Q = dq
(2.)
Y.
Q=
if
r,
and d r Q =
Q makes up
differentials of
dr
then d q Q = -
q~
as that which
dQ
dq
d r Q = q~ l dr
q~ r
before, for
this
and
To exemplify
(3.)
(2.)),
q~ r,
(1.) ),
r,
have
shall then
Q=
dQ
1,
q~
dq
-d r Q.
= c = any constant quaternion
Again, in IY., let qr
= dQ = d q Q + d r Q-, and may infer that
again have
(4.)
VI.
dr = -
qr
dq.
if
r,
qr
const.
we
shall then
a result which evidently agrees with, and includes, the expression 324, XI.,
for the differential of a reciprocal.
(5.)
A quaternion
more scalar
q,
variables,
t,
u,
may
may happen
and then
d
it
But
d u q, &c.
q,
by the present
we
VII.
where the
calculus),
coefficients
we
dtq
Dq
t
d uq =
d*,
D uq
dw,
have (by
shall
II.)
the form,
VIII.
dq =
d# + d u q
Dq
t
dt + ~D u q
du +
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
448
and
may
[III. n.
3-
at pleasure say, under the conditions here supposed, that the derived
quaternions,
IX.
D q,
are either the Partial Derivatives, or the Partial Differential Coefficients, of the
Quaternion Function,
X.
c,
when the
case,
u,
.)
may
it
= F(t,
is zero
L, then
so that if
And
dQ
he changed to any
to be replaced by 0,
is
if
corresponding
therefore, legitimately in
and may
qr =
and
c,
II.
= r2
where
we
III.
dr + dq
IY.
The equation
I.
dr = -
gr
&q
ds = r
The former
.
r,
this
new
d<?
q~
dq
.r =
= (q^cf =
l
<r
cq~
we thereby
(1.)
gives,
VII.
and 324,
dr + dr r
differential equation,
ds = - rq~ l
VIII.
VI.
as in 329,
and obtain
VI.
(2.)
might be omitted.
V.
differential dr,
(1.),
c,
to 324, (1.).
2
.
eliminate
the
ELIMINATION OF DIFFERENTIALS.
ARTS. 329,331.]
by
And
IX.
= -
(qr c)*
q- cq~
dq
we
s,
q~ c
q~
dq
l
q~ cq~ c
331.
No
(1.)
and
(2.) ),
substitute
we
if,
and
for r
449
functions of quaternions
but
be instructive to show,
may
it
briefly,
how
the
offunctions of the
class f(q,
<?
otherwise esta
blished.
(1.)
Let/,
$,
II.
r =fq,
and III.
we may
is,
we have IV.
<f>r,
whence V.
That
^=
then writing
ds =
differentiate the
(as usual)
i/#
compound function,
fy(fq), as iffq
(2.)
dfq by
But, by the
its
value,
definitions of
dfq
and/n (g,
),
we saw
by
f(q, dq)
may
dipq
also,
VIII. IX.)
(325,
by
by an extension
of the
or simply
(3.)
by
We
0(r, dr)
and
same
\l>(q,
dq),
^(q, dq).
VL...t.(q,dq)-1>.(fq,f.(q,W),
if
^=$
fq)
or briefly that
VII.
..i
if
-,
f unctions
q>
functions, f,
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
450
when
limits to
symbols, f(q, q
fn (q,
3, 4.
by
&c.
),
To prove
(4.)
[III. n.
),
we may observe
that the general and rigorous transformation 325, V., of the formula 325, IV.
by which the functions fn (q, q } are defined, gives for all values of n the
equation
VIII.
but
also,
by
= (fq + n\ Tn (q, q
tf(q + irY)
$
tlie
^ (q + wY) = $q +
of the number
all values
q,
and
n^
(<l,
(5.)
n (q,
n, as
tn (q,
<t>(fq,f,
(q,
),
^ - tfq
if
we
<f>,
oo, is
particular
example
an
yet, merely as
exercise,
it
may
by any
be remarked that
if
XI... fq = f,
which the two
first
XII.
the formula
give,
=
<t>q
^q = q\
q* 9
.fn (q,
=
}
1>
n (q 9
q)
= qf + qq +
n^\
X. becomes,
XIII.
= ?(qtf + q q +
wY)
+ H (q,
=
)
^ n (q\ qq + q q +
+ to + fa +
z
)
+ n
~l
nV)
(tf +
fa +
~l
n v
which agrees with the value deduced immediately from the function
by
q)
of
n^ n (fq,fn
write,
X.
we
= tfq +
may
) )
xiv.
z
)
-^q
or
namely,
feO-Mto+^W-^J-M^+ ^W+^+^T-b*)
!-
q*,
(6.)
451
may
& function
if
we
supplied,
know
a proof of
it,
its
correctness
SECTION
would be
formula VII.
4.
Examples of Ctuaternion
Differentiation.
now
If c be
(1.)
any
1.
III.
if
dc = 0;
cfq
= cdfq
II.
IV.
d (fq.c] = dfq.
c.
In general,
(2.)
V.
&(fq +
<J>q
...)
= &fq +
d(j>q
or briefly,
VI.
dS =
2d,
(3.)
VII.
Also,
and similarly
.
<j>q
+ fq
for a product of
and then
to
In
if
particular,
VIII.
m = mq
dq +
m ~z
ix.
(2.)
dq q
.
+ qdq q m
.
~2
+ dq
m~ L
,
that
= -
d?
x
<r
>
3M2
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
452
we have
[III.ii.
4.
= (5.)
To
we
m = -
q~
l~
^ d?
m -
04
+ d
0*
0*
04
0~
.
we
XL
if
q~
X.
m dq.q-
(10
md
m
.
q~
^ d?
q~*
m
q~
dq
q~
XI
or
rr + r r =
XII.
(6.)
Writing
XIY.
it
d0,
/=
04,
= dr.
Kr
= ISY = Tr 2 = T0,
rs
purpose,
XIII.
whence (by 190, 196)
XV.
and
= 2Sr = 2S
we
have, by
XI
XVI.
rqs
0*,
being thus
s,
.,
r- q s
= r
whence, by addition,
XVII.
and
r
.
(r
+s) r +
(r
= 2/(r +
s)
finally,
XVIII
/-"
2(r +
or
s)
XIX
4S
Although such solution of a linear equation, or equation of the first degree, in quaternions, is
enough accomplished in the present instance, yet in general the problem presents difficulties,
without the consideration of which the theory of differentiation of implicit functions of quaternions
would be entirely incomplete. But a general method, for the solution of all such equations, will be
easily
453
but
forms, as follows
XX.
and
when
xxn.
in
if
XXI.
a.
m~
m =
mq dq
2*
q^dq,
XXIIL
if
m = m~
mq~ ^q
l
q~
<ty|||?(i23)
or with r, in the
complanar with g, and therefore with
the
numerator
of
that
expression XVIII.,
expression may be written as r~ q
r + s).
because,
is
<^,
More
(8.)
XXIV.
333.
may
if
generally,
still
The functions
f = xq
x~ l
XXV.
or
?d
f = xqx &q.
of quaternions,
be said to be of algebraic
what may be
differentials of
dq
by
called,
transcendental functions of
contrast,
In
plex.
most
part, the known and usual forms, of the ordinary differential calculus.
I.
(2.)
We have
III.
(3.)
Also,
if
IV
also,
Mq
II. ..
IV.
=
dl<?
r
.
= d
rl ?
q~ dq.
of definitions (316),
.
d cos q = -
r
.
rlq
sin qdq
d?, then,
q (\qdir
&c.
by 316,
q~ r&q)
V.
(4.)
dq
In particular,
r
.
q
if
= rq r dq,
l
and
VI.
dr
r
.
q lqdr.
t,
VII.
aM ITa +
Ua Wdt.
a,
XIV.
and
if
the
of \p] the
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
454
(5.)
we may
so that
line,
[HI.
ITa =
0,
and
Ua
4.
a,
write simply,
VIII.
a*
if
d*,
da =
0,
Ta =
and
1.
4>
(6.)
line,
1A.
since
it is
pression
t
.
a*
tir
= COS -- + a
Sin
ITT
-
-,
if
Ta =
is
equal to the ex
itself
334. Besides algebraical and transcendental forms, there are other results
of
operation on a quaternion, q, or on a function thereof, which may be regarded
as
forming a new
class (or
by the
I.
or
symbols,
TSq, Sq,
V?
of the
same
signs of operation,
such as
II.
And
it
is
these forms,
essential that
to differentiate expressions of
which can be done in the following manner, with the help of the
and former Chapters, and without now assuming the
complanarity , dq
|||
q.
distributive symbol,
(1.) In general, let /represent, for a moment, any
the
have
that for any two quaternions, q and q we shall
equation,
,
in. ../
*
Compare the
first
=+
note to page 135.
so
DIFFEBENTIALS OF
and therefore
455
]fy.
IY.
= fq,
f(xq)
if
^ be any scalar.
(2.)
and
AND
Sy, Vy,
therefore,
for
by 325, YIII.,
we
fq,
shall
have the
differential expression,
VI. ..dfq=fdq.
But
(3.)
S,
Y,
(197, 207)
we
VII.
dK<?
Kd?
VIII.
dS? = Sdg
IX.
..
the
scalar,
and
dV? = Yd?
and
the vector of a
To
(4.)
,
we
to
X.
dN? =
qKq =
but
and
N#, or
(1
4-
K)
= 2S q
Kq
qKq = dq Kq +
.
Kq
XI.
therefore
= 2S(K? q
.
),
II.
by 196,
dN? = 2S(K?
Kdq
II.,
and 198,
I.
dj).
more im
(5.) Or we might have deduced this expression XI. for
mediately, by the general formula 324, IY., from the earlier expression 200,
VII., or 210, XX., for the norm of a sum, under the form,
dN<?,
XI
dNq =
N<?)
CD
= lim
{2S(Kq d?) + n~ Ndq}
l
as before.
* In
quaternions the equation III.
is
so of the former; for example, the equation IV., but not the
equation III., will be satisfied, if
assume /#
scalars.
qcq-
(/q,
where
and
are
is
we
into
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
456
The
(6.)
Tq and
N<?
tensor,
Tq,
[III. n.
is
XXTI. may
N#; and
be applied
4.
because
which gives,
for the differential of the tensor of a quaternion, the expression (conip. 158),
XII.
a result which
is
more
dT ?
S(KU?
s^.
T?
The
(7.)
vcrsor
nion q divided by
whence follows
U^
its
is
- S
easily remembered,
xm...
dj)
tensor
it
easily
remembered,
XV
q
have generally
(8.) We might also have observed that because (by 188) we
=
therefore
we
have
also,
Tq Ug,
q
(by 332, (3.))
.
XVI.
d? = dTq
U?
+ Tq dU?,
.
and
_
XVII
dTTj.
7~T
we have
then
in
(9.)
It
may
XVIII.
*
S(dU</
:U?) =
d<?,
or
XVIIF.
When the
dU?
:TJ?
= S^O
connexion of the theory of normals to surfaces, with the differential calculus of quater
have heen (even briefly) explained in a subsequent Section, the student will perhaps be
able to perceive, in this formula XVIII., a recognition, though not ?, ie?y direct one, of the geo
nions, shall
its
normals,
dU?
we
follows.
457
have,
XIX.
K (dU?
1
.
IT?
KUq~
dKU?
U?
d(Uq-
= -
1
)
dU?
ll?
whence
XX.
which agrees (by 196,
The
(10.)
II.)
+ K) (dU? U?-
(1
with XVIII.
T<?,
XXI.
but IT? = SI?, by 316, V.
be thus written,
dlT? = dT?
When
equation
XV.
Tq
XXIF.
or
dty-^d^S^O.
XXIII.
And
we have
in fact
tials of
these
XXIV.
335.
We
are formed
XXII.),
:?)
= dl? - d?
?.
which
I.,
E,8,V,N,T, U;
and
are formed
by
The
axis
may
TJV?
by 334, IX. and XIV., be thus expressed
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
to
admit of being
there
may
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
458
I.
d(Ax.
q)
= V(Yd? Vg)
dUV?
[III. n.
UV?
4.
whence
d(Ax.g)
"
dUVg ~
UV?
Ax.</
The
of the axis
differential
is
tJie
quaternion
and
its differential
(2.)
but
constant
is
It
dUVg
or
this complanarity
IV.
IV. ..dg|||g;
if
0,
may
is
VdU?
V.
dVU?
VI.
dSU? = SdU? = S
V^
V
\
223,
vanishes,
Hence,
and conversely
(4.)
it
are complanar.
III.
(3.)
Ydg
Vq
Ug
But
(5.))
VII.
S(Vg
g)
= S (Vg
V?) = S
.
<?
V?
we have (comp.
d<?
new
or
by
outside
or
factor
:
<?UV<?,
because
UV<?|||
may
(5.)
Now
may
it
be remembered, that
among
IX.
we had
also, in
SUg =
cos L
q,
TVU?
= sin L q
X.
.z
we may
459
angle of a quaternion,
XL
The following
(6.)
d L q = dTVl? = dTlU? = S
is
another
way
dq
qUVq
of arriving at the
same
result,
through
the differentiation of the sine instead of the cosine of the angle, or through
For this purpose, it is only
the calculation of clTVU?, instead of dSUg.
necessary to remark that we have, by 334, XII. XIV., and by some easy
transformations of the kind lately employed in (4.), the formula,
XII
dTVU<7-S
U
b
?-
dividing which by
and attending
STJ<?,
to
at
Eliminating S (dq
(7.)
obtain the
differential equation,
XIII.
of which,
STJ0
XIV.
2
2
= const.
(SU?) + (TVU?)
first
member
of
(8.)
XV.
with the verification, that
.dZ2
S(V(d<?.):UV<ri;
when we suppose
336.
An
are defined
to the
when
those functions
It will be found, in fact, that such differentiations play a very extensive part,
in the applications of quaternions to geometry but, for the moment, we shall
;
treat
them
here, as
The following
are a few
examples.
3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
460
(1.)
I.
r*
p*
by 279,
dp to
we
be,
II.
In
pp + p p
III.,
have,
fact, if r
Vr =
in which
0,
[III. n.
and
Differentiating,
and observing
rdr + Spdp =
or
be supposed
III.
dr = -
equation,
r~
S P dp = rSp~
dp.
positive, it is here,
that,
we suppose
if
the
let
0,
2$pp
4.
is
XIII.
If this tensor,
(2.)
r,
simply,
IV.
let
Again,
(3.)
V.
so that
more
or
2r 3
d>*
T (tp
+ p K ),
or
const.,
d =
with
334,
XL,
because Kip
= idN( + K = S
tj0
p )
(pt +
if
dT/>
0.
K p) (idp
d* =
0,
0,
pi, &o.),
+ dp K ) =
2
(
+ K
briefly,
VII.
if
- Pz =
if
0,
we have (by
tiating,
VI.
and
Spdp
2r- J dr
VIII.
.r*v =
by the
a
(i
equation,
+ K)p+.2Viff/M;
(4.)
IX.
or,
by 294,
X.
r*v
III.,
z
(i
r*v
(t
2
K-
write,
p +
by 295, VII.,
K pt
tp K
(ip
-f
pK)
K (pi
+ Kp)
= (i-
K}
p + 2(iSK+KSip)
&o.
The equation Y.
(5.)
gives
461
differentiation,
XI.
f*
=
N(<p
by transformations
of the
XII.
When
(6.)
(t
+PK)
+K
Z
)
p*
same kind
(ip
+ Kp)
/OK) (pi
IpKp
as before
we have
by the
therefore,
r*v,
and
.Sp
the scalar,
r,
v,
= l;
is
XII
or
we
constant,
Sv =
1.
by YIL, the
have,
differential
equation,
XIII.
Svdp =
whence
also
XIY.
Spdv
by XII.
0,
of
which
(7.)
for 2r 3 dr
YI.
v,
either of the
may
two
last expression
be otherwise obtained, by taking half the differential of
last
it
being remembered,
in all these little calculations, that cyclical permutation of factors, under the
is
if
odd,
it
is
(8.)
As
vector, let
XY.
- (- 2
p )-* = Tp-\
or
XY
denote the
so that
*
2
p~ + P =
0.
Then,
XYI.
v being here a
dp = Svdp,
new auxiliary
we
its
if
XVII.
vector, distinct
= p* P = /Up
lately considered
as the
see) the same versor (or the same direction)
tensor equal to the square of the proximity of~ptoo ,
337.
On
we have
from
arising
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
462
[III.ii.
4.
out of operations on quaternions, and therefore such as had not been considered
And whenever we have thus an expression such as either
two following,
of the
I.
or
II.
<t>(t),
p = 0(s,
t),
and
and 329,
partial
forms
and so
and
I.
may
(5.)
III.
IY.
dp =
dt = p dt = Dtp
dp = d s p + d p =
tft
from the
Dp
s
d^
ds +
Dp
t
fit
Y.
we
And
= o
/3,
1,
Saj3
p = V.
Ta =
a*/3,
0,
derived vector,
VII.
we
have,
(2.)
1,
which
0,
IX.
*
We
to which
>
we
<)>(q,
dq).
some recent
Articles, according
ART. 337.]
463
is given, so that
p is the
of
the
is r,
which
radius
a
variable vector of a point upon
given spheric surface,
and the centre is at the origin while s and t are tico independent scalar variables,
in
with respect to which the two partial derivatives of the vector p are to be
determined.
The
(4.)
(295), and
X.
if
Ta =
derivation relatively to
we have
since
d a* =
.
Z
1,
and
is
easy
by 333, VIII.,
generally,
XI.
and therefore
a^dtf,
if
t,
D<
a x = ^a* +1 D^,
&
we may
write, at once,
by
279, IV.,
XII.
and we
Dtp
=
&
(fy
-M)
TVfy
see that
XIII.
8pT>
0,
XIV.
which
.^+r-0
follows,
To form an
(5.)
vector part
(its
XV.
we may observe
scalar vanishing)
.
Dp
s
irVjk-tp
for the
equal to its
is
own
hence*
XVI.
or
(11.).
And
D,p
irtf
jp
irjk^p,
tfjk"*
is
zero,
we
XVII.
which
is
SjoD.p
0,
The
partial derivative
p must be perpendicular
under the last form, is
D,p must be a
is
[Thus D, (/#-)
equivalent to
XV.]
=^0
* +1
hence,
by XV.
or/Af
or
XVI.,
a result which,
easily confirmed
vector
^T +y *y-t-1 ) = y+
*;-
TT
rk*jk-Wj*kj-*Jrt
which
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
464
XVIII.
4, 5.
which have
of p,
- TrrrV./ 25
IV
[III. n.
XIX.
Dp
= irr(ArV.
zs + l
- V.
2s
7c
And
(7.)
315, XIII.,
we
new forms
obtain these
XX.
XXI.
D/jo
D p = Trr
s
= trr(j cos
{
(*
cos
tir
tir
+/ sin
sin
sir
- k sin
STT
each of
to
to
each other
we may
for
XXII.
write,
S (Dsp
A vector may
(9.)
variables,
such as
r, s, t
3V) = 7r S
XXIII.
may
k*jp*k
dp
=
;
XX.
and XXI.
= d r/ o + d sp +
dtp
T>
and then
dr +
IV
it
will
have a
derivatives.
XXIV.
may
also be thus
XXV.
Dp
r
more
total
&s
partial derivative,
and we
will thus
(10.)
= TrVS
which
sin
We may
(8.)
and
^TT)
Dp
r
r~
this third
Up,
= h js 7(j-*k- t =
t
(i
cos
tir
+j sin
frr)
sin
sir
+ k cos
STT
XXVI.
is to
differentials, of functions of
orders of differentials
ARTS. 337,338.]
SECTION
On
465
5.
now be no
will be
found to be
or partial, of functions of
useful,
besides
developments of functions:
that
it
is
necessary for
many
those
of
serve to show,
more
of the operation
easily
square,
We
be twice differentiated.
but we are
now
d fq of the function
of
and
dfq = d
tensor,
q*
= q dq + dq
q
.
(2.)
The
to
Td
2
<?,
dd</
= d 2 ?, where d 2
#
is
differential
still equal
a new arbitrary quaternion,
And
II.
is
(f,
in general writing
which the
which
to d#,
(f,
tffq
= d2
= q dty + 2d? 2 +
&q
<f
thus
we
get,
q.
is
generally
d2
1
.
(3.)
and
we have,
IV.
(4.)
If fp be
d p 2 = 2S P dp
.
any
HAMILTON
d/jj
Y.
d 2 P z = 2S od 2/0 + 2d /0 2
.
VI.
2Svdp, when v
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
is
and if (comp.
be put under the form,
ELEMENTS OF QUATEKNIONS.
466
VII.
in
[III. n.
may be
expressed as follows
briefly,
VIII.
(6.)
5.
dVpdp = V/odV
As an example
because
V. dp 2 =
0.
and 337,
(1.)
},
the follow
line, so that a
= -
1,
IX.
(7.)
nion q
d 2 a* = a
.
The second
may
X.
d 2 (fq
.
<<?)
tffq
.
<}>q
+ 2dfq
d^q +fq
d%.
The second
339.
reason,
it is
permitted,
and
it
is
is
is
constant.
this
new
supposition,
I.
dq = constant,
or
d2 ^ =
0,
the expressions for d*fq become of course more -simple, as in the following
examples.
(1.)
With
II.
d2
<
= 2d*
and the
III.
.,
reciprocal of a quaternion
d2
~l
.
CQ , c l9 c 2 are
second
any three
fq = Wdqct,
constant quaternions,
ARTS. 338-340.]
we
find,
or I
I.
.,
that
its first
and second
467
differen
tials are,
Y.
dfq =
dq
c,qc 2
The
(3.)
322,
c8
2
VI. .. d /? = 2c Q dq c,dq
.
cz
be omitted.
may
and 325,
(8.),
small,
c^qc.dq
(2.) ), so
rigorously.
VII...
an equation which
may
(g
d^^ + d.if+id
And
in like
.?
manner we
(1
+ d + Jd2 )
shall have,
q\
(1
+ d + Jd )/?,
the function fq be the sum of any number of monomes, each separately of the
IV., and therefore each rational, integral, and homogeneous of the second
form
#1,
o,
i,
and
c lt
or of such monoines,
2,
o,
c/ 2,
is,
and
X.
is
then treat
A.
few examples
may
be
given, chiefly with a view to the extension of the recent formula 339, IX., for
the function f(q + dq) of a sum, of any two quaternions, q and d^, to polynomial
forms, of dimensions higher than the second.
to
page 439.
302
ELEMENTS OE QUATEBNIONS.
468
The
(1.)
More
(2.)
d3
= q
q*
d 3 (/?
W)
<?
be thus expressed
may
= d 3/^
More generally
(3.)
d*q
dq).
+ d z q q + 3 (dq d 2 +
d*q
is
[IIT.ii.5.
2
+ 3d /?
.
<j>q
+ Sdfq
.
d<j>q
dz
+fq d^q.
.
(j>q
still,
is,
as in the
ordinary calculus,
III.
..
~l
<j>q
= n(n-l);
{
lf
n,
--!)(2%-
n(n
= -i
2)
&c.
-L,
(j>q
n
+fq. d
(j>q,
(4.)
changing $q
IV.
(5.)
briefly
the function fq by
Hence
d n rq = d n r
.
under
also,
constant quaternion,
n l
q + nd r
dq
d2q =
if
dq,
is
constant,
0.
if c
be any other
dr=0.
if
(6.)
t
by
Hence, by 339,
(4.), it is
VI.
d
.
-L d
= 1 + d + |d 2 +
is, if
we
if
I.),
4/
that
and
r,
to q,
&
.,
series
which
is
and
the function fq, thus operated on, be any finite poly nome, involving (like
if
it
VII.
/? =f(q + dq),
if
d2? =
may
then
469
here a perfectly rigorous one, all the terms of this expansion for a
function of a sum of two quaternions, q and dq, becoming separately equal to
zero, as soon as the symbolic exponent of d becomes greater than the dimension
which
of the
is
polynome.
(7.)
We
transformation VII.
composed as above
which
this exponential
VIII.
which
or briefly,
IX.
d= 1 +
positive
X.
Am =
f*
and
1),
XI.
dm =
(log (1
+ A) ) m
of IX.,
being always
Then
jFO - 0,
00 =
which both
0.
of the variable
x,
Fx,
three simultaneous
differences, as
fyx,
simultaneous values,
III.
If,
then,
any
FO,
<pO.
equimultiples,
IV.
0,
combined with a
nx,
nFx,
n$x,
any system of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
470
those limits
limits,
[III. n.
5.
definition in 320,
V.
cb,
answering to the system of initial values III. and must be proportional to the
ultimate values of the connected system of derivatives,
;
YI.
We may
F x, 0X
1,
when x
tends to zero.
VII.
And
JF"0
= lim nF-,
values vanish, or
if
^0
VIII.
F x,
of quotients, which
IX.
is
lim (Fx
or
$x)
may
tend together
r -,
nd>
.PO = r
if
d>0
tfwo
new conditions
0,
0.
0,
we may
conditions VIII.,
last
= lim (F x
:
(f>
if
x),
.FO =
with x
cases,
to infinity,
00
when x
may
both vanish
This theorem
is so
important, that it will not be useless to confirm it
a geometrical illustration, which may at the same time serve for a geometri
(1.)
by
the
independent of these
Z=
it
= lim
d/0
r
cal proof
XY
mon
abscissa
OX),
be represented, or constructed, by
(or ordinates answering to one com
may
XZ
0#Y and
of two curves
in one plane,
and
set
out from (or pass through) one common origin 0, as in the annexed figure 75.
shall afterwards see that the result, so obtained, can be extended to quater
We
nion functions.
(2.)
Suppose then,
first,
the equation,
X.
is satisfied
XY XZ = xy
:
corresponding ordinates
may
be.
OX and
and
:
<rs,
Prolonging then
(if
GEOMETRICAL ILLUSTRATIONS.
ART. 341.]
Yy
determine a subsecant
corresponding chord Ziz
point,
meet the
we
some point
and
t,
so to
see at once
axis of abscissae in
471
it
same subsecant,
tX..
Hence,
(3.)
if
YT
with the line ZT, which line therefore must be the tangent to that second
curve
coincide,
and
when
indefinitely diminished, or
to
and
let
be
still
TX is still
Then
TX
TJX, which had been a ratio of equality, when the condition of proportionality
X. was satisfied rigorously, will now at least tend to such a ratio so that we
;
shall have,
under
this
new
XL
We
might
.lim(TX:UX) =
results,
lim (tan
also
XTY
tan
have observed
XUZ)
that,
= lim(XY
XZ).
when
OXY^/O OXZsO =
:
the proportion
of the
so that
proportion,
XIII.
l;
XY
rigorous,
XZ,
Corollary, in
is
other equation, or
this
X.
anticipated.
its
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNION S.
472
then
Hence
[m.
n.
5.
we only
is
also rigorous.
if
the second member of the equation IX. have any definite value, as a
whereas the recent proof,
first memher must have the same
:
by
the
limit,
siibtangents,
served rather to show that if the first (or left hand) limit in IX. existed, then
the second limit in that equation existed also, and was equal to the first.
(6.)
Fx be
If the Junction
a quaternion,
express
it
as
follows,
XIV.
where W, X, T,
Fx =
W+ iX + jY + kZ,
of x, of
nation
when
W= 0.
And
(7.)
if -tyx
itself to
a vector function of
x,
limiting equation of the form IX. may thus be proved to hold good, when
both the functions compared are vectors, or quaternions, supposed still to vanish
with
x.
The general
(8.)
to be
direct
and
is
it
was
evident
that they give, in like manner, this other but analogous equation, in which
are second derivatives, and the conditions VIII. are now supposed
F"x and
"x
to be satisfied
XV.
(F"x
f V),
if
FO
0,
0.
* Instead of the
equation IX.,
to give one of the following
if
6 denoting
is
and
1.
And
can be constructed
<f>x
any
finite
But this
point of thai finite arc.
double curvature ; and accordingly the equation in this note is not generally true,
are quaternions
or even when one of them is a
quaternion, or a vector.
;
when
the functions
And
so
we might
473
Hence, in particular,
we take
if
XVII.
and
if
00 =
4/0
0,
0"0
XVIII.
while
0,
FO =
^ ^O =
value
0,
<0
1,
such that
F"0
0,
lim. (Fx
and the
0,
$x)
F^Q,
F^O
F( m ~^0 =
0,
may
although they
finite value,
XIX.
quaternions
FO
0,
is
0,
them
342. It will
VII.
and
to
now
which
is,
is
A =/(? +
known* mode
in fact, a
if
d?),
d3
0,
Theorem of
good
states,
and
of the
II. .. dfq,
is infinite,
of any function of a
first differentials,
(\~fq,
& mfq,
dq =
in which
const.,
be supposed that no one is infinite, and that the last of them is different
them
zero; while all that precede it, and the functions/*? and/(<7 +
or
first
not
the
m
selves, may
terms, of the
may
happen to vanish. Let
let it
from
d<?)
Lacroix, for instance, in page 168 of the First Volume of bis larger Treatise on the Differential
(Paris, 1810), presents the Theorem of Taylor under the form,
-\
d%
d-w
(\u
-i
1.2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
d%
1
1.2.3
1.2.3.4
receives,
when
&c.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
474
[III. n.
5.
and
let rm
denote what
manner
in such a
(t
mine
of the difference,
we
that
=/(<?
+ dq) -fq
shall
the equation,
IY.
qz
+ q m + rm
where
am
=
t
xi
erw
Y.
lim. (Trm
zero,
we please,
to the tensor
WZ
infinite 9
lim.
if
0,
Then we
Tq m =
may
Tdq =
be
made
to
bear as small a
general result,
quaternions,
which we
is
which
Taylor s theorem to
be called, for the sake of
lately alluded
"
Taylor
reference,
(in
340,
(7.)
Theorem adapted
and
it
may
to Quaternions"
Writing
(1.)
YI.
we
shall
.- 77-,,- ^-r
HI
x,
VII.
(
m-Vx =
Wx
d.
=
d"/
-]f(q + ccdq)
(q
+ xdq)
- dm
~\fq
and
finally,
VIII.
and in
like
n~ dq)
-f(q +
xdq)}
manner,
IX.
= df(q + xdq),
ART. 342.]
mark
the
on
of derivation
q alone,
(2.)
X.
a?,
while d operates
nor on dq.
a?,
"We
475
FO =
FQ
0,
we have
XL
F"0
0,
0,
-l
FWQ
0,
= d mfq
..lim. *&:
x=Q
F( m
/O.O
-d%;
or
XII.
(3.)
and
qm ,
But
by changing dq
decreasing scalar, x,
We
versor
Udg.
+ ?*) qm
*
(qm
xdq
we may
Fx and
XIII.
and
it is
we have
XV.
and
th
differential is (for
dm
fq
= dm
l
.
q~
= 2
when
this
:
is
its
V. holds good.
dq =
.
by a
its
by IV. from q m + r m
of thus multiplying dq
tensor
its
may
are formed
As an
339, III.)
-^x,
and instead
diminish
if
1,
1
;
then (comp.
const.),
]
.
differentials,
q~ (- r)
r = dq
if
1
.
q-
that
therefore here
..q,n
C (-
m
r)
rm =
- mr
q
(1
+ r)-\
T (rm
qm)
= Tr
T (1
r)~
,,1-2
XVI..
P2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
476
[III. n.
5.
which for the particular value m = 1, if we suppress the upper index, coincides
with the form 325, VIII. of the definition dfx, but for higher values of m
m
namely (when d /g is supposed neither to vanish, nor to
what we have called Taylor s Theorem adapted to Quaternions.
contains a theorem
become
infinite),
be effected; and to those new forms (334), which result from the peculiar
few such applications may here
operations of the present Calculus itself.
be given.
first this
Taking
(1.)
scalar,
I...q = ft =
we
Ta =
with
a*,
da =
1,
d* = const.,
0,
=
dividing then
correct,
d
.
a*
by
and convergent
a*,
we
obtain an
a d* = l
+ #a+
A(tfa)
-7T-
(2.)
(xa)-+
OQ
m
o
</
..
are obtained
when we
is
found
to
operate with
irdt
vdt
= cos+asm-7r
7r
4i
<>
V (q + dg), K (q + dq),
N<?
and
;
example (dq being still constant), the third and higher differentials of
vanish by 334, XI., and we have
d
IV.
Ng =
+ d + |d 2 )
(1
be
a:a
N (q + dq),
which
(4.) ),
4>
o
2
lf
infinite series,
III..
a* (ma)
Ng - N? + 2S (Kg
dg)
Ndg
N (g + dg)
for
Ng
an expression for the norm of a sum, which agrees with 210, XX., and with
200, VII.
let us
develop, on like principles, the tensor and versor of a sum,
this
of
quotient
again write r for dg g, and denote the scalar and vector parts
(3.)
To
by
and
(4.)
?;
so that,
Then writing
also,
for
abridgment, as in a known
factorials,
Y1L.. [-!]-(-!).
notation
of
we
shall have,
still
m
VIII.
of
which
it is
IX.
(5.)
We
d m (* +
= d m r - [-
v]
ds
==
have
- S
=-
(s
v)
(s
d lW*
XIII.
we
to = -
2
) ;
(*
BI+1
,
t?)
for example,
=-
t?)
2sv.
(s
+ d)
(0
+ d)
+ d) z
(t?+ d)
XV.
Ttf
V
XIV, ..T(q+
or,
(s
Ta
XII.
d"*
To
The
[- 1]
by V. and VI.,
also,
ml
(6.)
m
=
m+l
1] r
477
I.,
d?)
+ d)
(s
(t?
d)
= s 2 + ds = 8
v=
t?
df>
gives, therefore,
=
~U(q + dq)
XVI.
(1
s+d
1>)
XVII.
U (1 +
=
1?)
c+d l
being here a scalar and a vector, which are entirely independent of each
but
of which, in the applications, the tensors must not be taken too
other;
s
and
The
may
symbolical expressions,
converge.
for those
two
scries,
may
be developed by (4.) and (5.) thus, if we only write down the terms which do
not exceed the second dimension, with respect to s and v, we have by XII.
and XIII. the development,
;
XVIII.
T (1
v)
= 1 +
v,
W+
XIX.. .U
of
is 1
to the
same order
of approxi
mation.
(8.)
without differentials,
sum
A. function of a
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
478
happens, we
tliis
m
342, XIII. for d
q
(9.)
And
and
from the
series
may we
not only
XX...T(l
XXI. ..TJ
processes,
the
if
also,
of these, for
first
which are in
we can
of the
infertile expression
XVIII. and
developments,
algebraical forms*
(1
XIV-,
342,
0)
for example,
but
5.
may
Series,
[III. n.
+ ?)4(l +
s-t>)4,
tials,
XXII.
we can then
(q
=
)
(1
\tf
Tq, where
and second
a quaternion, as follows
XXIII.
and
differentials of
V^V
1
,
the tensor of
dTq = S
T?
d z Tq = -
(V^
\
q
it,
XXIV.
(10.)
first
deduced from
whereof the
S/^
d Tj = d
In general,
if
(g
( (S
T?)
^J-
(^J)
a function f(q + q
</
Tq.
as far as the
we
shall still
obtain thus an expression for the first differential dfq by merely writing dq in
the place of q
But we have not chosen (comp. 100, (14.) ) to regard this
9
possibility of
it is
tions)
we
way
This opportunity
may
expression,
XXVI.
d
.
<T
1+
to the transformations
=-
r*
and
(r
d)
(r
d)
r2
rz
0.]
r.t
ARTS. 343-345.]
479
be said.
We
(1.)
can easily prove, from the definition 324, IV. of dfq, that
if
dq
be constant,
I.
d 2/? = lim.
n* {f(q
M = oo
II.
d /?,
dfq,
ay?,
=
frq
for
differentials,
0,
n~~fq,
nkfq,
when
simultaneously tend,
/<?,
the multiple
become equal
w3 A3
nAq
for
0,
is
number n
increases
indefinitely.
And
(3.)
new way,
successive dimensions,
to
adapted
Theorem*
Quaternions (342).
345. It
and partial:
differentials, total
as also a
The
(1.)
involves d 2 ^, dV,
but
it is
then
a*Q, or
m
d.
function of the
F(q
r,
.),
becomes a
th
(d q
Some remarks on
.)
are constant
and
and homogeneous
differentials dq, dr,
which
rational, integral,
dimension, of those
may (comp. 329, III.) be thus denoted,
m
II.
dm Q =
+d +
or
.
first
briefly,
III.
dm =
(d,
+ dr +
.)
",
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
480
[III. n.
be employed
5.
may
calculus,
IY.
(2.)
V.
For example,
.
= rqr,
r),
d q Q = rq r
and suppose
dr Q =
r>r
r + n
^dr)
We
its
to
tend to
operation
I.),
dq, r)
+ F(q,
Q + &Q = F(q +
XL
or briefly,
+ dr,
dq, r
.)
* f +r+-
XVIII.
XII.
which has been seen
we may
} ;
infinity.
^ + ^"F(q
r)
r)
may
X..
r<?/;
/0V + r? /.
nn [F(q + n^dq,
(3.)
and
VII.
in
ff
d r d q Q = d,d r Q =
on F(q,
IX.
VI.
V11I.
And
dr d q = d d r
we denote dq and dr by
if
then
and
and partial
derivation, if
have
we resume
= rtffkj-
k-
any point of
space,
by the principle
mentioned in 308, (11.), and by the sub-articles to 315, not only the form
observe that
XIII.
but
also, if
it
p = rVj^k
as in 308,
-*,
XIX.,
XIV.
rtt^ k*
r V.k
= rk*(k8
a 25
*S
*-
k~
f
;
whence
XV.
(5.)
articles
+ rk zf V.
zs
,
as in 315,
XII.
have therefore the following new expressions (compare the subto 337), for the two partial derivatives of ft& first order, of this variable
"We"
XVI.
and
Dp
fa
irrtfj
y-
k =-
irptfjk-*,
XVII.
P D sp
vrr
kj-
k*
tffif*k* = TrrWAr*
and
AET. 345.]
XVIII.
Dtp = irrV
= nr& jS
V.f
a^
r^pD p S
481
whence
XIX
T>
= -
;-D,p
r-
24 - 1
XX.
and
D.p
= TrVpS
D^
25
1
;
while
XXL
so that
first
we have
Dp
r
XXV.
= #/#/#-, as in 337,
order,
XXII.
Dp Dp
= TryS a 25
= 7rrD,S a 2 *
.
the scalar character of which product depends (comp. 299, (9.)) on the cir
cumstance, that the vectors thus multiplied compose (337, (10.)) a rectangular
system.
(6.)
It
is
same three
of the
p,
scalar variables,
r, s,
t,
XXIII.
XXIV.
(7.)
.T) r
D D p = r^D p
V&ip = D T) p . r/r^V. /
V*p = - TrV
The
DDp
T>
7T
T>
XXV.
d,./o
DDp=
r
DV = -
s+1
;
tp
ir
rk tfV
rs
same variable
of the
>
r~
d s/o =
pdr
Dp
s
ds
d tp
D^
d^
XXVI.
XXVII.
(8.)
These
d,p
d rp
d r p, like
D p,
r
= -
dtp
d sp
25
d*
TrrpdS a
dtp
d r p, d s]0
7rr
dr dS a zs
.
dt.
differential rectors,
generally finite
d s p, like T) sp,
r,
be positive
while
a tangent
s
to the
small
are constant.
(9.)
PQ
is
represented by the
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
finite difference,
6j
and
3
in like
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
482
[III.
5.
manner, if we pass from p to a point R, or (s, t + At), on the same parallel, the
new chord PR is represented by the other partial and finite difference, & p
while the point (s + As, t + A^J may be denoted by s.
t
now
(10.) If
come
be very near
to
it,
of meridian
drawn
so
and
to
parallel
and
and
PR
to p,
tangential vectors, d s p
and
d/p,
if
two
arcs
we suppose
we may, comp.
and consequently
Whether the
(11.)
d sp
(as in
and dt be
differentials ds
Dp
dtp,
to
which the
of
(comp. 281) the same ratio, as that which the rectangle under the two perpen
dicular tangents, d s p and dtp, to the sphere, bears to the unit of area.
Hence,
with the recent suppositions (10.), we may regard this product d sp dtp as
representing, with a continually and indefinitely increasing accuracy, even
.
in the
way
of ratio,
what we may
of spheric surface,
may
increases
call
and
XXVIH.
while
from
is
T(d sp d
.
p)
= -
S a
retained, because
to 1, is
dS
Tir
2s
a 2s
d*,
decreases from + 1 to -
1,
by
to
quantity,
to
direction.
all
to
and from
2,
then,
(12.) Integrating,
to s
s l9
that
is,
expression
equation
XXVIII., from
we
XXIX.
27ir S(a
2s o
- a 2s
i)
whence
XXX.
and
(s)
2irr*(l
- S a 2s =
.
47rr
finally,
XXXI.
Area of Sphere =
4?rr
2
,
as usual.
s 2
(TV. a )
ART. 345.]
In
(13.)
like
and
thus,
to
2s
,
XXVIL,
as in (11.)
),
with
483
its
to s
and from
1,
XXXII.
^(rf
o
3
;
and
4-irr3
XXXIII,.
Volume of Sphere
(r)
= -
(14.)
as usual.
be called Scalar
may
and
it
take the
briefly to
it
more
will be
having a normal
For
direction,
XX
we may employ
the expression
VI. with its
in
order
to
an
denote
inward
a
or
sign changed,
normal,
pressure acting from
without and if we then substitute for p its value XV., and observe that
(15.)
this purpose,
XXXIV.
VdJ
(VdJ
because
cause
0,,
7r
= -
1,,
Jo
XXXV.
XXXVI.
7;S
*,
we
is
TVAy>,
expression
XXXVII.
and
(*)
inward normals
?rr
(S
a 25 /
2s 2
= - wr z
k(l
(S a ) )
.
is
that of +
A-
TT
(VAy>)
hence,
if
and the
we still
this
Sum
[Since
d/c 2
-1
XXXVI., we
~k*t&(2t-
1)
2
7rA-(V/y>)
by 333
(5.),
Sum
new
corresponding,
common
2s+1
Sum
But the
(16.)
7t
3Q2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
484
XXXVIII.
a result which
known
may
Sum
[III. n.
5, 6.
= Zcro\
of Directed Elements of Spheric Segment
(17.)
and
that,
when
so applied, it
is
if
differentials will
connexion.
SECTION
On the
6.
Differentiation
346.
(5.)
and
We
(6.)
when
saw,
),
that
it
I.
in which r
rr +
resolve
a linear
rr =
<f
of
explicit
.dQ = d/?=/(?,
function fq,
when
differential
d,?),
we
dQ
/"
We
to
page 452.
ARTS. 345-347.]
them only
which the
485
relations to
each other
are to be studied.
or distributive
347.
I.
=/S? + /V? = Bq
./I + /V?
proposed
ii.
where r
on the
is
../<?
we can
Sq,
linear equation,
in general eliminate
linear
and
vector equation,
of the form,
III.
where a
is
shall
we
and
=
(ftp
cr
is
is
used as the
which function
corresponds
what may be
connected with
fy
p,
it
IV.
= Sp^ A
SAfto
vectors.
then, as
Assuming
we may,
that
ju
and v
V.
and therefore
Vfiv
<T,
also,
VI.
SA<T
SXfJLV,
S/LLCF
0,
Sv<7
0,
where A is a third auxiliary and arbitrary vector, we may (comp. 312) replace
the one vector equation III. by the three scalar equations,
VII.
And
these give,
by
Spf A
= SA/^v,
principles with
=
S/>0>
Spt v =
0,
is
0.
supposed to be already
VIII.
*
mp =
i/,cr,
or
IX.
p =
$-*<!
= nr
\^a,
student might find it useful, at this stage, to read again the Sixth Section of the preceding
or at least the
early sub-articles to Art, 294, a familiar acquaintance with which is
presumed in the present Section.
Chapter
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
486
if
be a scalar-constant, and
\p
an auxiliary
and
linear
[III.
vector function, of
the value and the/orw are determined by the two following equations
X.
6.
which
And
thus the proposed Problem of Inversion, of the linear and vector function
may be considered to be, in all its generality, resolved because it is always
;
(j),
members
of the equations
X. and XI.,
that
they shall take the forms indicated in the first members of those equations.*
a and
(1.) For example, if we assume any three diplanar vectors a, a
,
deduce from
XII.
j3
Saa
a"
Va
vectors
j3
oSaa
/3
a",
j3
0j
a"
j3"o>
by the equations,
jS^oSaa
Va"a,
a"
= Vaa
XIII.
if
we
then
j3
Sa/>
j3
SaV +
j3"
Sa"p
write,
XIV.
|3
/3
</>j3,,,
tP
^)3"o,t
ft"
we
shall
XY.
containing, as
we
.
ft>
= jSSap +
/3
Sa p +
/3"Sa"/[>
/r
]3, /3
)3
or
wme
scalar constants,
such as
XVI.
SJ3, Sa
)3,
Sa^jS;
S|3
So
Sa^
r/
;
Saj3
Sa
Sa"j3";
(and generally will) all vary, in passing from one linear and
but which are all supposed to be
function $p to another such function
and given, for each particular form of that function.
which
may
sub-art.
[For a more elementary solution of the problem of Inversion, see
real,
(4.).]
three
f [The equations XIV. lead to a useful expression for a linear vector function in terms of
and
vectors
vectors
and
and
the
derived
#,
,
)8
/3".]
o,
o,
diplanar
"o,
AET. 347.]
(2.)
XY.
form
487
fy
p, the
gives,
XVII.
= aS/3 P + a
.
0>
S/3
a"Sj3"p
f>
but
]3
XVIII.
+ a
(aS]3i>
V. pVfiv = Vaa S
Y<i
a"S/3"/3>
I/Y>
= Vaa S
S/3 v)
= V/3
4-
i//
gives,
f
Vaa
S/373,0,
of
V/3"/3Saa
/3"S"a>
/3
/3V/iv
j3
Va"aS/3/3>
XIX.
+ V/SjS Sa
>
a/o
may
be
r
by interchanging each of
changed to ^ when ^ is changed to
the three alphas with the corresponding beta.
we propose to do,
(3.) If we write, as in this whole investigation
so that
^/
is
XX.
the formulae XI. and
XXI.
X - V^y,
= VvX,
i/
= VA,u,
X. become,
= Y.
i,A
</>
XXII.
and
0Wv,
twSXX = S
Xl
SaaV
jj
+
the division by
SAX
7
,
or
by
which
may
may
by XVII. XVIII.,
and we
when we
Sj3/3
Va,
j3"Sa
pass from
<
to
on which account we
write also,
XXIV.
because,
by
XXIIF.
so that
is
^X^X
SX/zv, succeeds,
XXIII.
XXII.
(2.),
SXX = S 0X^ X
.
or
XXIV.
XXV.
.X
wSX^iv
= S
= V.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
488
(4.)
We
XXVI
has
its solution
XXVII.
<r
6.
linear equation,
0p = jSSap +
Sa p +
|3"Sa"p,
pSaa
[III. n.
and accordingly,
if
a"S/3"/3
we
|3
Ya
a +
a"S/3"/3
Y"aS|3|3"<r
XXVI.
for
+ Yaa S/373*
o-
symbols,
XXVIII.
we obtain the
p p,
0/3",
j3 /3,
XXIX.
from which the equation
8(3"
ft* =
XXVII.
S/3"/3
/3Sap, &c.,
/UL,
v,
theory generally.
(5.)
Conversely,
XXVII.
the equation
if
were
given,
of a
XXX.
and
a,
(6.)
each
for
y,
It will be
what we have
dimension, but
i//
for then
and
we may say
of the second,
i//
into
the expression
would follow.
ff
beta, in
j3 9
XXVI.
and
that
of
Form
(1.) of
<f>p,
as being of
a,
a,
a",
and
v, p,
<r
(7.)
And
general, yet
if
XXXI.
we choose
. ..
to take the
f p - SjSSap,
XV.
A,
JJL,
being
sufficiently
which gives
XXXII.
>
- 2aSj3p,
any number of terms of 0p, such as /3Sap, /3 Sa p, &c., being now included in
the stm 2, there is no difficulty in proving that the equations VII 1. and IX.
are satisfied,
when we
write,
*
[Compare the
first
Note
to Art. 350.]
XXXIII.
and
$p = SVaa
XXXV.
XXXIY.
With
S/373f>,
= 2Saa a
Sj3
/3 )3
SS/3/3
fp = SVjSjS SaV,
489
j3"Sa"a
a.
The important property (2.), that the auxiliary function ^/is changed
when is changed to $ may be proved without any
to its own conjugate
reference to the form Sj3Sp of
by means of the definitions IV. and XI.,
as follows.
Whatever four vectors ,u, v, jui, and vi may be, if we
and
of
(8.)
;//,
<j>p,
i//,
write
XXXVI.
\\ = Yun/i,
= V.
last
XXXVII.
and
it
conjugate to
is
i//,
we may
^/,
transformations,
XXXVIII.
SA
,i/A
And
when we
to
pass from
XV.
the/orm
or
<//,
XXXI.
of
and
(3.),
i//.
that
remains unchanged
may
to
i//
in like
y
XXXIX.
- S
= SA
=
t/^A
0Xi//A
<$>\<t>n<t>v
wSA
A = wSAjuv,
XL.
^p
whatever vector p
nip,
function
348. It
is
and ^ from
0/o
with the
We
0.
.
II.
gives
<T,
III.
X. or
in
ntp
i//a,
general method,
ma
=
(j)if;<r,
mp
above explained, of
identities,
=
\l/<f>p
and symbolically,
III
HAMILTON
was
or briefly
m may now
be
<
deducing
it
may
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS
= 0^ =
i//0
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
490
..m
III".
6.
=
i/,
and
v to if/p
in the equation
T//V,
of
or in the formula,
i//,
=v.0Vfv,
i/v// v
we
[HI.
347,
xr.,
IV.
- J.V.
m V.fi^v
v^fjL
Y.
may
i//V.
i;
i>/,
m V^
2
may
is
and we
And many
preserved.
other
may
few examples.
Operating on Y. by
(1.)
i/r
YI.
by wr
or
Y.
y
<//>//
^,
we
get this
= w*0Yjuv
new
formula,
comparing which with the lately cited definition of ^, we see that we may
to mty, and therefore also m to m~
to
if we at the same time change
change
$ being then changed to \f/, and i// to
;
i//
\fr t
m<j>\
(2.)
VII.
Vv
and
v,
VIII.
V.
to the formulae,
0>0
in which
still
observed.
obtained, by inter
- wr
with
and the
or
with
and
in
and
v
i/T
^,
IY.,
operating
changing
of
of
definition
the
formula VIII. may be at once deduced from
equation
In fact, our rule of inversion, of the linear function
by operating on it with
(3.)
jj.
i/>,
<.
0,
may
IX.
where
(4.)
is
By
^V/xv = w^V.
0V<p
X.
2
.
XII.
XIII.
XL
Y.
and
substitutions,
= w^Vjui; = Y.
f/ju^ v
wj0
wi
Y.
/a
Y.
= iV/ii;
&o.
But we have
(5.)
also,
XIV.
Atf>V.
\ = S
<j>p<j>
and
2
formed from
is
i//
= S
hence, by XIII.,
pf
A,
</>
may
also
to
<",
we change
",
It
(6.)
491
(1.)
conduct to the
equation,
XV.
and
to
many
The
349.
(S
^Ai/Y^v
expressions,
f/(j)jLL
1/<^>V,
XX.
of A
A,
/n,
each such
since
SA/^v,
A ^A +
when
by
2
0A0/^v) = SA/*vS
A 0A +
divisible
//, i/,
v are
f/l^/LL
4-
lfjV
and others
of the
same type,
auxiliary
Writing, then,
I.
..<?:
and
II.
we
^A +
f/^fi
(A
these
^uSi^A
and
of
of
vSA<>,
parts
is
and therefore ^ to \ff. On
change signs, wlien
changed to
the other hand, we may change the
vectors
A, n, v to A //, i/, if
arbitrary
we at the same time change A to V^V, or to - ASA/zv, &c., and SX/av, or
SAA to - (SA^v) 2
then
we find these new
of #1
qz
dividing
III.
qi
IV.
q,
by
SA^uv,
expressions,
[^7 Pitting v = x\ +
t [It may be instructive to the student to reduce these quaternion constants by replacing
and v by xi + yj + zk, x i + y y + z k, and
+
+ k.~]
yft.."]
z"
"i
y"y
3R2
A,
yu,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
492
Hence the
by passing
VI.
K?
VIII.
(A
A +
<A
fo
n + v
^>
yv
and
I.
are obtained
write,
fv)
"Kq Z9
interchanging A with A
VII.
= (A
..?!
v.
or,
and
6.
[III.n.
A/A +
iV
V.
- X
pVA ^A
<(ASA
SAfp,
&o.,
while
^(ASA
/o
and
A SA^
/o
4-
IX.
we
find that
V.
|oV(? 2 ,
and
X.
(4.)
V.
Accordingly, since
the vector 0^ - ty p, if
therefore of the form,
it
XI.
.
<pp
in
which y
is
0jO
and
jO
<>
is *Vs o-ww
namely the
XIV.
and
2VyjO,
so that
we may
conjugate, or is the
write,
common
self-conjugate part
part,
XIII.
And we
<f)
p,
cj0
$(4>
P +
0.
or
XIV.
Vft - 2y
</>.]
QUATERNION CONSTANTS.
AET. 349.]
while
we have,
XV.
in like
V(AtyA +
493
manner,
fi^fi
+ i/iH = - 2SSA0V,
XVI.
Vy, - -
..
4-
yS(AA +
(5.)
by
vSyi/)
and
(1.), (2.),
juju
/)
ySAjuv
if
we
3ySA/ui>.
&o.,
23,
P = 2V8p.
...i/y>-i/,
As
XV.
or
write,
(4.),
XVII.
XVIII.
or
XIX.
and
XX.
we have
this relation
XXI.
for 0,
that
form
is
;
and
have
We may
(6.)
all
the
0-y
sfl/we
^)
this
XXIII.
If
particular vector, 7.
8- JV(V/3
7
.
j3"
XV.,
we have
of 0^,
iV(/3a + |3V +
)3"a"),
VaV + V/3 73 V
r/
we denote by ^ and m
what
i//
and
the expressions,
a + V/3|3
r
.
become when
).
is
changed
XXIV.
i/p
=
!/,/>
7 S r/0 +
so that the
self-conjugate part of
Vgp
XXV.
^p contains a
and
fP
term,
pass from
to
or
from 7
[Expand
to
m
-
+ 878 =
7.*
= ^
-
in like
XXVI.
we
XXII.
we
= -
on
^<?c#,
(7.)
and
to 0o,
0/
T S 7jo
Vfy>
manner,
87^7
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
494
It
(8.)
is
evident that
we have
XXVII.
and
and
[III. n.
6.
the relations,
and
>
^o>
are of the
first, second,
350. After thus considering the vector parts of the hco quaternion constants,
q
and
qz
new scalar
we proceed
constants,
m"
and
and
whence
conjugate auxiliary functions, %p and xp
ment of a certain Symbolic and Cubic Equation,
is
the
by
satisfied
employment
new
of two
>
which
which
is
of great
Writing, then,
II.
we
= 8q l9
m"
and
III.
= S? 2
pass from
seen that
denote by
to
</>
from 7
or
we only change
m\ and m
to
and
q 2 to
m and
\ what
and ~Kq 2
K<? t
become, when
m"
Accordingly,
is
</>
changed
to
if
we
we
<
IV.
* [Or
directly,
m"
=
i"o
and
without introducing ^ or %
3
ASA</>A</>
This
where the
may
\(p
\ +
y\
^)AS^)
3
AA^ A +
2
4>
ASA(A<f>
coefficients
^ or
>
2
\S<p\(p
V.
mi<f>-\
<
mz\
mz(f)\
and
A.
0,
Operating on this by
and
2
<
<p
=
and
= 0.
But an arbitrary vector
may
tc,
y,
and
msp
z,
results.
This must be identical with the equation found by treating p directly, in the same manner
as A has been treated, and therefore the coefficients
must be independent of A. The suffixes here
See 347 (6.).]
printed serve to indicate the dimensions of the in.
It
and
be noted that
may
or
w",
w"
is
495
form of
and
VI.
= S/3 + Sa j3 +
m"
Sa"|3"
and
VII.
(3.)
If
S(VaV
we introduce
V/3 73 +
Va"a
V/3/3"
and x
VIII.
+ Vim
/o,
V/3
/3).
such that
and
IX.
it is
each
easily
proved that these functions are conjugate to each other, and that
dimension in fact, with the standard form of $p, we have
of the first
is
the expressions,
X.
XP = V(aV/3 o + a
XI.
xp = V(/3Va P +
Also,
V/3>
]3
Va>
a"V/3"|o),
jS
To V)
formed from
XQ be
if
OJ
as
^ f rom
0>
it
XII.
where
is
xp
XP
and
Vyp,
XIII.
x p = X/ +
VT/
x<>
(4.)
Since
= 8
the expression II. gives,
XIV.
m UU
= S
XV.
or briefly
=
$p + xp
"p
be,
by
and symbolically,
XVI.
x+
XV.
<j>p,
the constant
m" .
"
<j>
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
496
(5.)
[III. n.
6.
gives,
XVII.
and accordingly the identity
and v to
by changing
=
easily be otherwise proved,
in the
i//v
4>X
and $x may
x<
and
/u
*"0
x<
of
i//
f.i
definition
VIII. of
x>
remembering that
V
for thus
we
fv =
>
wjVuv
i/
and
wa,
have,
XVIII.
as required.
Since, then,
(6.)
?;/
gives,
XIX.
w SAA
XX.
= S
Aty +
ipp
And
m p,
(f>xp
which
/B".
VpVa
is
for
i//p.
mf
=
i//
coefficients,
XXIV.
may
also be
Sp
proved thus
3
(<>
2
m"0
;
<j>
because the
conjugate equation,
[Tins
+
m"(j>
m,
m",
V^oV
V/3"/3
x>
r/>^
a"
equation
XXIII.
And
/>x
XX., when it
expression 347, XVIII.
verifies the
V^
^+
form of $p we have
hence,
or briefly,
XXI.
X )X
+m
This requires
to
<p
m) a
2
<
-I-
m}
have been
.*
tf>
vectors,
m"<j>
ty
(^>
3
m"
Sff
we may
m"<t>
If p
(0
m tf +
of that equation,
cr
by 348 (5.),
$ - in) p,
0,
as p is arbitrary.]
(9.)
by
\p(f>
In general,
(10.)
therefore
m"
defined
m<j>,
while \
is
XYI.
to
And
if
(11.)
other
2
w<
by
may
changed
XXI.
^/
m^
-t
in
and reducing
\f/,
\fs.
when we change $
to
but also
to
to
0x>
mm",
and the
or to
to
and
i//,
x$>
we may
new
the two
mm
at the
is
be remarked, that
may
it
as before,
to
to
quaternion
relation
which
and
by
XXV.
in
I.
497
Accordingly,
auxiliary functions,
and IX.,
x and x be considered
,
as
to establish the
(8.),
It
(12.)
may
<,
x,
and
m"
>
XXYI.
XXYII.
give
The
cubic in
I.
where p
is
be thus written
may
.
= mp -
an arbitrary vector.
m (pp
m"(j>
If then
$*p
happen that
it
3
</>
/o
0, &c.,
the constant
II.
if
0JO
must be
sero
and
0,
T/o
some particular
= 0,
= 0,
for
<j>p
<fp
or in symbols,
then
0.
>
0.
Hence, by the expression 347, XXIII. for m, when the standard form for
adopted, we must have either
fyp
is
III.
Saa
a"
0,
or else
IV.
Sj3"j3
follows, as
HAMILTON
for
w"V,ui>
= 0T/*y +
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
V/t^j,
m"S\nv
V^>/*v.
= SA
This
is
)3
=
;
+ Y/^v + V^/tv
XXYI.]
equivalent to
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
498
being reduced
a binomial.
to
[III. n.
Conversely,
6.
a function of
V.
we have
$p
-f
jSSap
j3
So>,
then,
VI.
0Vcm =
and a be actual and non-parallel lines, the real and actual vector
Vaa will be a value of p, which will satisfy the equation 0p =
but no
other real and actual value of p, except p = #Vcm will
if
that
so that
if
satisfy
/3
and
/3
In
<f>p
.
<t>
we
]3, ]3
which plane
p = aSfto + a
S/3>,
namely that of
which
is
by
p, is another fixed
HCLQ
is
the
is
in like
VIII.
line
destroyed
a,
$ reduces
is
also,
VII.
plane,
equation,
latter
0T/3]3 =0,
or its
but not $ p
0, for any actual p, in any direction except that of Vj3/3
same.*
the
for
as
the present purpose, be regarded
opposite, which may however,
,
In
this case
we have
IX.
also
$P = Vaa Sp pp,
X.
and
i/y>
.
i/,>
Sa
V/3j3
a,o
and
i//,
t//
or
first
with
we
or
first
with
<//;
<j>,
<
and then
XL
which belong
*
^T//
i//0
i//
i//0
0,
"direction
direction."
fixed direction,
"
or the
499
(1.)
</>p,
namely Y.
w$
Y/uv,
might have enabled us to foresee that T///O and -^p, if they do not both
and therefore
constantly vanish, must (if m = 0) have each & fixed direction
;
\fr
(2.)
And
because,
Y/v = Y.
and
and the
if
<J)
$p and Q
p,
\f,p
and
\j/p
<pp,
case
when
0,
might
S
also
p, for
X41
= S
and the same equations might have enabled us to foresee, that the
constant m must be zero, if for
any one actual vector, such as X, either
scalar
0/\ or
becomes
(5.)
the
null.
And
when
this
),
lines.
352. It
may
when
I.
exists
the relation
.
3 S 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
500
thus losing
[III. n.
6.
may
other
its
III.
or in another way,
V.
arise,
is
principal
it
2
.
and
0,
by the existence
w"
by our having
either
namely
may
4m
we
cases,
..<!>
=
\m")*
0.
tivo
fixed planes,
and
of
which the
loci
(j>p
satisfies at
(8.)
),
satisfies this
<
2
(3>
new
f-
Jw",
cubic,
i");
coefficients
namely
X.
We saw
YIIL
and
symbol
IX.
(1.)
0(0
Jw",
(comp. 350,
=
4>
<!>
=
w")
if
YIL
while
(0
VI.
O p,
p and
and
0,
IY.
(0 +
when
ij")-
the line
T///O
has generally
a fixed direction, to which that of the line $p is perpendicular and that in like
manner the line \frp has then another fixed direction, to which /o is perpen
;
dicular.
we must
also
loci
of
XL
= S
XLI.
since p
(2.)
i/^
is
= Pn,
to each other,
lines i//A
whence
XIII.
or
= 0,
an arbitrary vector.
Now
in general,
by the functional
relation 350,
XI Y.
z
.
=
<
XXI. combined
with
ART. 352.]
if then
^ must
the symbol
0, as in I.,
equation,
XV.
which
501
i/,
4*
is
XYI.
\l?
XXY.
is
3
i//
this supposition of
by
reduced,
vanishing.
we have
If then
(3.)
not only
by XY.
is satisfied,
but
0, as in I.,
also
0, as in III.,
We
xvn.
for every direction of
The
$ =
that
o,
but in
xvir.
is,
this case,
by sup
be equal to
still
particular supposition
$p =
o,
would
we had always,
posing that
zero.
it
alter
completely the
(2.))
On
(6.)
functions,
we should thus
$p and
p,
<j>
XVIII.
.
</>
fiSap,
<t>
= aSpp
whence, by 347, XV1IL, and 350, VII., we should recover the equations,
f
=
and m = 0.
\pp
We
(7.)
XIX.
so that
(ftp
and in
like
should have
.
now
$p
0,
vanishes, if
manner
fip
p_La,
p be any
(8.)
line
a null line,
is
the two
and
if
XX.
fy
p and $p
0,
.
<p
_L j3
is
line, )3.
]3,
),
if
equation,
xxi.
if
tfp
o,
or
xxr.
.
<p
o,
we have
this
new
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
502
6.
Saj3
<f>~p
[III. n.
.
<j>p
if
0,
and
/3 _L a,
reciprocally.
i//
satisfies
(comp.
(2.)
XXII.
m"$
<f
which
The
is
not
<j>p
XXIII.
0,
and
its
0,
m"
XVII.
and
0,
quadratic factor
i/,
XXIV.
the cubic in
(11.)
having thus
We may
cubic 350,
3
.
I. is zero,
that
is
XXV.
and
0,
when
XXVI.
0,
and
null,
when even
=
;
and
\^p vanishing.
.
<j>p
was seen (in 351) to be satisfied by one real direction of p, so when we have
also m = 0, or when the cubic in
has two null roots, or takes the form IV.,
then the two vector equations,
XXVII.
.
fr>
0,
are satisfied
$p =
0,
(12.)
it
And
follows that
because,
when
line
xp
because
when
we
"
"p
01
>
the three
ART. 352.]
XXIII.
scalar equations
XXVIII.
have a common
and
(real
503
^=
0,
fc>
Xp =
0,
0,
by one common
direction of p.
(13.) Since
m"
may
XXIX.
x =
=
<x0
X0 =
0X = &c
->
which accented
o,nd.
from
first
Suppose
(14.)
that
XXIV.
and
is
m"
different
is
0x>
x$>
<j>p
<f)
line A
of the
Then
itself,
A and A
it is
while
form x\
common
IUL
0) to the plane
(j>~p
ju,
may
also
be denoted by x -1
XXX.
= xv =
=
;
II.
is,
and
destroys the
with Vo? =
of
And
so
easily
it
may
be.
0,
or that
ni"n
fa,
we have
the equation,
if
fji
<fp,
(16.) For example, we may represent the conditions of the present case by
the following system of equations (comp. 351, V. VII. IX. X., and 350, VI.
VII. X. XL)
:
=
w"
*
zero,
m
=
= S (Va
S]3
+ Sa
jj
V/3 0)
= S/3Sa
j3
Saj3 Sa
f3,
We propose to include the case where an operation of this sort destroys a line, or reduces it to
under the case when the same operation reduces a line to o.Jijced direction, or to a fixed plane.
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
504
a V/3
v o=Yfl3Yao
XXXII.
and
may
"p
0p>
X =
.
Yaa
SXX =0,
||
0j3
fi
0V
||
fa,
= SX
SX/z
/-
after
/\
10X =
/2
/j,
we have
Since
we have
manner,
is
xj
,/o
2
,/
II
p||,u,
0,
xV =
thus
o =
0,
where p
is
f\
x^=0.
-JXA>
/*
in this plane J_ //
</>x
0,
in like
And
^?
or of X
results,
=
0>
it
X0
see,
are interchanged
and that
symbolical equations, 0x
(19.) As a verification,
when accented
Accordingly we
Yau
with analogous
and
is
x =
direction of 0~K), or of
We
//
or
is
/UL
x/*
>>
(j)fj.=m/ui,
SpxV = VXP.
(18.)
<M
XXXY.
the locus of
0>u/*,
-I
/-v
(17.)
(0V =0,
AAJLI V
^a?^
6,
XXXIII.
of
/o)
[III. n.
0x>
=
^>
may
^ e interpreted.
may
r
,
of
(f>Xp
x0j>
<f>p
<f>
xp
or
but that
x$
which
is
p>
/r
is still
different
zero.
In
itself to
ft>
from
reduces
we have
this case, it
0,
we have ^ =
0,
(6.)
and
not
now
Sa/3
0.
(||
]3),
which
is
not contained in
ART. 352.]
In
(21.)
we have by
this case
rrp
(/OO aV/3/o
quadratic
C!
/3 ^ A
= oap
r ^ U,
"
<
(m"
to 0, the expressions,
j3
XP
tip>
"V-
x/
/3Vap = (w
<>,
XVIII.
XXII.
Q/Q
= abpp,
X p = Y.
equating a or
(16.),
6p = ipoap,
rr
r
505
in 0,
may
XXXVII.
= AY =
and
vd).
Accordingly (comp.
(5.)
(7.) ),
and
of
<J>p
XXXI.
we have
=
We
<j>
0,
and
0,
m"
0, as in
have also
= Sa/3Sa
now
/3
Sa/3 Sa
= Sa/3 + Sa
]3,
~
xp =
xp = 0p,
becomes simply 3 =
to observe that we have not here (comp.
= 0, since we have now on the
tion
<
/3
0, as in
(9.)
<t>
XXIV.
>
but
it is
important
<f>*
XL.
.
<fp
= $p = Vaa
2
<
S/373/o,
And
fV
$p =
the equation
3
<
In
is
SaV
now
interpreted,
all lines in
<p~
which are
2
<
and are
S
V/3/3
destroyed by
HAMILTON
that
the expressions,
(25.)
XXIII., but
XXXIX.
equal,
vector constants,
XXXVIII.
by
and
is
<j>p
(24.)
and
of
between their
dition
<j)p
(8.)
On
vanish, or that
forms
<f>
(23.)
(f>
\p
m"
and (comp.
null, the
theorem
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
which
(12.), of
the cubic in
are
vector root
3
506
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
XXVIII. may
,
now,
XLI.
6.
ir.
;/Yaa =
0,
4>Vaa
[III.
X Vaa =
0,
we had supposed
the third of which would not have here held good, unless
fw"=Q.
This
(26.)
XLII.
the lines
n and
XLI1I.
this
new
fa =
0,
IT
(16.),
V/A
0,
8^
0,
0,
X and A
VAA
||
Vjiju
S^v =
so that
S//v
0,
In
/3,
/3
b,
may
a, b
which p
(in
be any four
may be any
XLV.
XLYI.
XLVII.
so that the scalar, So]3
j3,
(28.)
(26.), it
jSiSa./o
+ Sa
V
jS
/3
iSa
=
j/o
jSSa^ +
j3
Sa>
/
1
/3
Sa p
//,
4-
scalars,
/u,
and
= #a
vector]
p,
AljIV.
in which a,
<p
A, v) will
(27.)
to
0,
planes, which were lately seen (14.) to be the loci of the lines ^p and
are now (comp. (17.) ) the loci of %p and % p
and the three lines
(or A
then we write,
if
v =
VpX
0,
<>
fjf
the planes
by
ijS
i,
by expressions
With
may
We have,
in these transformations,
examples of what
may
ART. 352.]
XLVIII.
which evidently conduct
So/3
= Sa
Sa p
(3
j3
507
for fyp
= So
S/3/3
/3
~VT
^vJUl^X.
w^
T"V
(p
/3Q /Q Q
p = pfOCtp (3d
Ji3
(b
p,
A
= U
and thus put in evidence, in a very simple manner, the general non-depression
2
= 0.
of the cubic 3 = 0, to the quadratic,
<
The
(29.)
but
ff/.$0
i/<
case,
0,
and therefore
</>
linear function
<f>p
=
Sa/3
or sub-case,
between
reducing
0,
=
3
form of
0, as a depressed
<
0,
w"
0,
0,
by the
itself to
equal but null roots of the cubic in 0, have been perhaps sufficiently discussed.
(30.) As regards the other principal case of equal roots, of the cubic
L.
mm
4m =
+ Sa /3
(Sa|3
4S(Vaa
=
it
may
remark that
suffice to
it
.V/3
by VL,
conducts,
j3)
- S
(Sa/3
j3
+ 4Sj3 S
or
/3,
to the
symbolical equation,
LI.
2
0<D
its interpretation is
if
<
\m" ;
equation,
2
X<
as given in (14.),
0,
\ =
where
m"
sub-articles.*
*
[The following resume of the special cases discussed in recent
Assuming arbitrarily any three constant and diplanar vectors
function
<f>p
sion x, x
may
and
XXIX.,
0,
thus
<pp
articles
ft,
xft
fi
+x
ft
ft",
x"ft".
x"
p,
So."
&"Sa"p
<pp
a".
<p
<p
If
$p =
a"
ft".
a".
p,
Sap
= Sap =
Sa"p
3T2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
508
When we
353.
but not
0,
of the cubic in
have
(347),
I.
and
when
(j)p,
+ m
Ci,
is
4m
still null,
as before
ff
c~2
to
c,
We
real or imaginary.
shall
p and p 2 in i^i fixed plane II which is the locus (351, 352) of the
possessing the property that for each of them the homogeneous and
directions,
line
m"
6.
is
find that
nor
0,
which
c,
of the quadratic
roots
[III. n.
II.
or
0,
0p
p,
il
III.
= -
(j>pi
and
Y/00/o
without p vanishing
is satisfied,
two
IY.
or
pi,
0^! =
if
0,
0!
= -
or
2/0-2,
p2
if
0,
<
4- Ci
and
But
o, a
(if actual) must be complanar.
nomial form, reduces on rearrangement to the binomial form
a"
+ c2
(j>
(j)
<t>p-
therefore
if a,
p, satisfies
and
o"
the equation
a"
a"
aa
(if
Con
must be
a a.
actual)
complanar.
Further reduction to the monomial form will not be possible unless these three vectors are parallel.
In general, also, as typ - Ya a"Sp"& p 4 Va"oSj8"p + Yaa Sy8 /3p, typ will not vanish identically, or the
equation
ij/
by #, $ and
Remarking that, when $
successively
".
<f>
two ways
(1)
when Voa =
0, in
if
m =
SVoa
(2)
when Vaa
is
is
reducible to the
actual
the vectors
/8
/3
and
are pre
equal to zero.
is
V/3
if
that is,
and perpendicular to Y
In this latter case, the assumptions
,
ART. 353.]
509
V.
and
^o =
VI.
by the
Tp
0.
>
when
is satisfied
with
0,
It will also be
rfrp
= Sp^A,
S\<j)p
by the
given form of $, or
but
the condition
VF.
or
0/o,
when
constants
composition of that linear symbol but that when this condition of self-conju
gation is not satisfied, the roots of the quadratic I, may happen to he imaginary:
and that in this case there exists no real direction of p, for which the vector
;
(1.)
by
V.
than
=
an(i ^
to assume an expression of the form, p
#|3 + # j3
=
=
+
the
+
with
0,
satisfy
equation,
$p
j3Sap
c)p
is
through V.,
seek thereby to
(<
two
by
is satisfied,
one direction
VII.
= x(c +
S]3) + /S/3
scalar equations,
= x
+ Sa
(c
j3
+ *S
j3,
a
is
a =
-f bVftft and a
-f b Yftft are legitimate when a, a
b, and V are scalars, while
some vector in the plane of ft and ft and not, as before, diplanar to them. Replacing a and a, the
= (aft + a ft )Sft"p + (bft + b ft ) SV/3 p is obtained, and typ = (ab a b)
new binomial form,
a&"
ft"
ft"
<pp
V.
ft-
= Saft + Sa ft = S(aft + a ft ) = 0, or if
Again, a third root wil vanish if
V(0 + a ft )Vftft
Examining separately the case in which the symbolic equation of the binomial is depressed to a
2
= 0. It cannot be of the form
+
quadratic, it is seen at once that it must be of the form
in"
ft"
ft"
\\
<
x(j>
2
<
On
4xq>
0,
for
<$>p,
calculation of
it is
<p-p,
<p~p
and
if this
Xtpp
vanishes for
ft(SaftSap
values of
all
The second
the
a
first
a\ftft
=-
pair of equations
pair x
- x
Sr
-,,
and a
=-
Of course
case, since
and
it is
=
when m
these x
xSap) +
ft
and
+ Sa ft Sa
(Sa ftSap
a Vftft
jS
and
SajS
by assuming a
it
+X==r,
= Sa
= \r
ft
and
fyn",
is zero,
m"<p*p
indeterminate
if
a;
=+ m =
0,
-f
xSa p)
or
in addition
o-
m =
^in"
If
mp =
+
m"<pff
0,
0.
=-
x ( aft + a
ft
- -
\ftft I
\
.
is
<pp
ft
\ftft
3
<f>
Hence,
\ftft
From
So
satisfied
Srftft
Sa p
ft
p,
Sa.fi
is
ft ft
Saft
and
ft
/>,
<j>
4/<r
=
of the equation
= 0, the solution is
(j>p
<pp
the solution
is
m"p
ff
0- 0.]
<r
is
nugatory.
mp=
m"<r
<f><r
In this
]
</>"
0,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
510
VIII. ..(c +
which
by
Ci
real,
is
and
<?
Pl
p2
in like
and
write
Pl
(w"
I.
/3,
j3
Sa /3 = */3 +
/3
and IV.
it
j3
In
c z j3
)3, /3
Va V]3
/3
Ya
/3
Y/3
fact,
or
1/
0,
thus,
= -
0)3
c,)/3
r2
/3
= -
0/3
2 j3
= -
0/3
wV ^
1
be thus written,
may
d|3
0/3
)]3
(m"
as above,
Denoting then,
0/3
==
0,|3
= -
0)3
zV/3,
gives,
(2.)
We may
XIII.
XIV.
and
PV=
shall then
(3.)
/3 (c 2
XVI.
we have
2
= -
or
c^p,
2j
o2
0.
Sa/3)
jSSa/^
r
j3Saj3
= cfi + YaY/3/3
+ VaV]3^ = /
c 2 j3
j3
II
pi
$$
\\
p2
J3
2 j3
||
frp\
0,
will be the
new
so will furnish no
Since
p( Cl + S/3)
and
m fi
c 2 0/3
also write,
p\
XV.
it
Saj3
j3
0]0 2
pa,
= - dp!,
^0/3 + mfi
we may
jS
+ Sa
|3(f 2
0/>i
XII.
=
)
I.,
j3(d + Sa
XI.
/3
6.
c,
X.
because
+ Sa
(c
8,
IX.
and
Sa/3)
we have
which
x,
[III. n.
solution of the
p^
and
just resolved.
problem
thus,
||
Pl
0r
\\
0,
XVI.
and
0,/B
II
^//e
0i/3
II
P,
II
0^0,
fixed plane of
0p
to
the fated direction of 01^0; and that, in like manner, the operation 0i reduces
~
every line, in the same fixed plane of 0jO, to the other fixed direction of 2 0.
]
(4.)
Hence we may
XVII.
in which the points
XVIII.
may
0!
be omitted
=
0i0 2
0!
(0
0,
and in
C,)
(0
fact
Co)
0,0
we have the
W"0
so that
0102
0l
= ^0 =
0,
0.
transformations,
Wl
=
1/>,
ART. 353.]
we propose
If
(5.)
XI.) by which
i//
XIX.
and
therefore,
XX.
and in
like
0V0V = V. (0V
+ dXP +
\l>p
+ dp) (0
XXI-
or
zero,
^ =$ +
and
if
d>
2X +
+ d2
<?,x
XXIII.
0il//i
vanishes, if
XXI.
+ d)
(0
cz\
be arbitrary scalar 8.
what the
is
scalar
m$Xv
by the
= S
m
iX
when
becomes,
ii
= S
iv
operate on
by
i//x
we
0i,
T//I/O
get
Ci )
+ ^(0 + x) +
changed
or
to
^i
is
such that
</>i,
X +
definitions of
is
<
we
for
CiX +
<M
as appears
= ^ +
^i
XXIV.
+ dv),
manner,
be different from
where Wi
rule (347,
VIII. of x
XXII.
even if
0i,
we have
definition 350,
fap
from
0,
= V.
t//iVjuv
by the
form
to
formed from
is
511
^, x?
w/
>
by the
an(l
Wi//
>
>
relations
in the sub-articles
XXV.
if
0i^i
be formed from
Comparing
(8.)
=
;
m by
XXV.
it
and
in like
XXVI.
manner
2
i/>
changing d
to c z
= nh =
0,
XXVII., we may
with
0,
or of pi
and
in fact
relations
xxvu.
^ = ^ + d\
=
(?//
Ci)0
K=
^"0
C2
+ 2) +
= 00 2
and similarly
XXVIII.
=
while
<//
0i(/) 3 ,
as before,
^=
0i0
00i
c i( w
*"
0) + c
2
i
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
512
We have
(9.)
which the
in
6.
XXIX.
00!0 2
0,
and
[III. n.
is
an arbitrary
but we
vector p.
been
may
already partly given
the fixed plane D, 0i reduces every line to another fixed plane, IIi, and
2
reduces to a third plane, II 2 thus 0i0 2 or 2 0i, while it destroys two lines p lt
p 2 and therefore every line in the plane n, reduces an arbitrary line to the
;
which intersection
direction of 0~ 1
and
in like
pi of
0, as
2>
hand 00 2
the other
line in II 2
so
The
(10.)
conjugate equation,
xxx.
may
o,
loci
of
(f>
p,
a^o,
p,
lines
i0
II
2
2,
II
i,
and
i,
which
2,
destroy
-1
of
0V
0,
0,
It is
(11.)
0V1Q.
important to observe that these three
II"
and
the normals
To prove
this, it is sufficient
to observe that
XXXI.
and
Sp fp = S p 0y =
1
similarly,
_L 0~ 0,
0,
if
0V =
or that
0,
(0
vector
c\)
any
form xQrp
&c.*
* [More
+
(<t>
J_
0/o
+
-f
(<>
yq>p
symbolical cubic
+
(<j>
(<f>
zp,
and
so
ci)pi
(<p
0) is
c->)
(<p
likewise
C3)a
||
pi.
= X(^p\ +
yfypi
Thus the
zp\
operators
^i 2
(<p
cz)
yc\
(<p
z )pi (since
<?a),
(<j>
s)
by the
(<p
C
0>
AKT. 353.]
Instead of eliminating
(12.)
XXXII.
also, if
x\
x and #
XXXIV.
XiXz
^Sa /B + ^(Sa jS -
(x,x\
Pl
xi$ + ^]3
||
+ x 2 x\]
0"Sa/3
x 9 then
Pz
Sa]3)
II
x\x\ = - Saj3
we
XXXIII.
and
of
513
y j3
x$
- Sa
(Sa/3
lines
p l9 p 2
j3
Sa
j3
^O, ^O,
or
is
XXXV.
=-
/3
Saj3 + Sj3)3
(Sflj3
- Sa
jS
|3
Sa
j3
XXXVI.
in fact the binomial form of
XXXVII.
$p
jp
.Vj3a +
(aS/fy
jSSa/o)
/3j3
V(/3
+ /3V)
be self-conjugate (VI.),
<
Vj3V=0;
<
=S
(a
S/3>
XXII.),
- Sa
= V. pVtfa +
p)
/3
/3V),
which cannot vanish independently of p unless the constants satisfy the con
9
dition
XXXVI.
With
(13.)
we have
the relation
of red angularity,
XXXVIII.
The
to be, as follows.
XXXIX.
Spipz
and p z be
condition
^0
or
real,
XXXVI.
= S aa V(|3a + j3V) =
^0
0,*
JL
gives,
a Sa|3 +
Saa^Sa
/S
Saj3)
- a /2
Sa/3
+ cz) reduce any vector to lines parallel respectively to three fixed directions pi, p?,
ci)
4- ci)p is a general expression for a
Further, by the property of the conjugate function
In the same way
vector perpendicular to pi.
+ c%)
+ c$) p is perpendicular to pz and also to ^3
and p z and p s similarly found and
and parallel to a fixed direction p i which satisfies
+ ci)p \ =
and
and
(</>
(</>
ps.
(<
(<
+ c^p
and
(<J/
(</>
(<p
(<p
c 3 )p 3
U/>i,
TJ(<
U(cp
by
UV7(/>7
is
the
common
When
Up
i,
the function
the two supplemental triangles coincide, and consequently the solutions of Vp(pop
is
self-conjugate,
are mutually
perpendicular (16.).]
*
- cfiSpipz. So if pi is perpendicular
- )pipz =
[In general by 349 (4.), 2S7pip 2 =
to pa, 7, if it does not vanish, lies in their plane.
Conversely, if 7 lies in the plane of pi and pi,
<t>
S(<p
either Spipa
HAMILTON
0,
or
c\
(<b
=
GZ."]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
514
8
hence
(a
aV
Sa
- a /2
Saj3
/3
(aV -
(Saa
and
XL.
(Saj3
aV
(Sa|3
- Sa
jS
{(Sa/3
]3
- Sa
(Sa/3
- Sa
- Sa
4m
= (Saa
2
)
(a
+ 4Saj3 Sa
|3
+ 4Sa/3 Sa
Sa
/3
/3
2
w"
j3)
/2
/3
6.
[Ill.n.
a Sa|3
4m"
2
>
0,
>
unequal roots
expressions
/3
substitute for
/3
and
r
.
j3
XLI.
hence
when
Vaa
or
^O
the function
Saj3/3
8a
now normal
is
P p l9
,
In the present
]3Sa/>,
when
/o 2 ,
or
an arbitrary
which
is
^0, 0f
/3)
=
;
and therefore by
(13.),
0,
0,
(to 353),
we suppose
that the
a self-conjugate function
we must have
reduces
.V/3
are
si/stem.
V(Vaa
to the plane
form
0,
series of sub-articles
in passing, that
/3
is
XLII.
(15.)
0,
(5.)
m=
0)
may be remarked,
reducible to the monomial
but
is
it
<f>p
and
(6.)
line /B, to
the operation
then
destroyed
by that operation
0.
In genera], if
be thus self -con jugate, it is evident that the three
n
IT
which
are (comp. (10.)) the loci of
2
FT,
i,
planes
$ z p, coincide
p,
with the planes n, Ed, Efo, which are the loci of 0p, 0ip,
o.
(16.)
<t>\p,
2J
(17.)
equal,
it
symbolical cubic in 0,
roots
and
<j>
which
by any
real direction
itself
the linear equation V., or causes
to vanish, while p remains real and actual.
As an example of such imaginary
satisfies
<pp
ABT.353.]
which correspond
),
we may
515
to those scalars,
and are
XLIIL
y denotes some
in which
Vy/o,
(j>p
real
and given
<j>
Vy/o
vector,
p =
<
its
own
We
have thus,
XLIV.
m, =
0,
XLV.
the quadratic
/-
0,
and
I.,
XLVI.
where
c~
1 is the
= - y2
roots c h cz
0,
to
in"
its
"
0,
0,
0,
Xo
= -
= -
\pp
ySy/>,
0,
\f>
Vy/o
therefore,
- + v/^T. Ty,
ci
fa
0,
become
0,
= - v/ 1
c2
"!.
(3.)
Ty,
thus by
XX.
or
XLVII.
= -
faff
ySyo-
hence
XLVIII.
and in
if
CiVya +
like
01^
(0
0,
XLVIII
from
fay
it
we
shall
L.
as ones
nary
(y
7
.
o-,
Cl )
CL )
faff
Vy<r,
= (y -
C z ) Vycr
y^itr, &c.,
(y
d)Vy<r
^^o- =
and derive
= (y 2 cf)Vya =
0,
operations fa
and
XLIX.
and
Vy(//i(T
+ cj^a =
manner
= (y -
<?iV
which are
directions,
p2
pi=
=
fa(T,
faff,
<jnp!
<^
2J
o2
0,
0,
<jo
= <j>pt
= -
p and p z
}
=
Ci/Oi,
c2 /o 2 ,
V/Oi0/>i
V|0 2 0j0 3
We find then
==
0,
0,
vector root p,
except
satisfies
=
the linear equation V., or
gives Qp
0.
8 U 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATEENIOKS.
516
[III. n.
6.
(18.)
less
LI.
which
when we
gives,
operate on
LIL
if
Y. p^Vyp = p$7p - p 2 7
by V. 7 and V.
it
Yrp
p, these others,
= p2
Y7p
S 7 p,
Yyp =
we must
0,
LIIL
and conversely,
have
if
we can
S 7p =
2
p =
0,
satisfy these
by any
equation LIII.
LIY.
where o
is
when we assume
is satisfied,
p =
(c
the expression,
+ y)Vy(7 =
Yyd
laws of scalars
imaginary) p, we shall
equation LI. Now the first
(real or
(c
y),
scalar, or
p,
with
its
assigned, gives
LY.
the quadratic
roots,
2
.
XLYI.
and imaginary
(19.)
p
is
(c
(Y 7
<r)
0,
therefore reproduced,
if
2
7 =
directions, as before.
<p,
If
<pp
</>
(<j>
<J>
</>
<^
a>
<
517
it is
(4.) )
we have thus
which the
the function
<j>p
yet there
0,
is
Vpfto
0,
which has already been considered (353) in combination with the condition
m = 0, is satisfied and that if the function be a self-conjugate one, then
;
by
tions,
and rectangular
direc
namely when
of self-conjugation,
II.
0V
IF.
or
and
A, the
and
S\(j)p
<t>p,
&p<j>\,
may happen
I.
equation
to
become
show
also
We
mc
2
m"c
shall
c*,
which is formed from the symbolic and cubic equation 350, I., by changing $
- c, enters
importantly into this whole theory and that if it have one real
and two imaginary roots, the quadratic and vector equation I. is satisfied by
to
be satisfied
roots
also
by
be formed
of any linear
<f>p
and
which thus
Op =
where
c is
to
may
Q
proved to be always real so that if m Q m\, and
349 and 350) from the self-conjugate part $,p
m"
vector function
itself,
IV.
may
function
(1.) If
it
V.
but that
we
and
m"
are
+ m\c +
imaginary
m \& +
3
,
roots.
write,
+
<j>p
as m,
<j>p,
cubic,
cp,
<$
an arbitrary
=
<}>
p+
scalar,
or briefly,
cp,
and
if
V.
we denote by
<
<
and
<
c,
what
c,
i/, -\j/ t
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
518
and
+ c or
to
become, by this change of
353, (5.), (6.), show that we have the expressions,
t
VI.
= $ + c x + c\
and
VII.
with
VIII.
Hence
(2.)
may
it
=
+
m"c*
6.
the calculations in
<,
+ GX +
<//
M= m + m
[III.
z
,
3
,
M=
become,
m"
IX.
D*
= x +
2lf
lJr
D c Jf =
iD
2c,
D^
+ 3c
2m" c
Jf=m"
2c,
-t-
2
,
3tf;
XI.
as
we
<P
X =
X = IT,
4>
4>X
4>
X +
= Jf
+ X =
(3.)
The
wew?
+ x =
^wear symbol
XII.
which accordingly can be
<P
w// ^
*X + ^ =
must
satisfy the
= Jf - -a/^ + Jf
fX
O
new
2
from the
at once derived
^=m
cubic,
3
;
under
the form,
XIII.
(4.)
Now
it is
by substituting
m"(c
2
$) +
(c
XII.
=
and conducts
- Jf
^ + JfO
and thereby
to
2
>
to analogous
consequences,
352, II.,
w>,
to the form,
f>
case
(5.)
3
3>)
XV.
is
+
<J>)
which
m (c -
who
<&p
AET. 354.]
(7.)
IS ZERO.
519
<1>
there
case,
is
one real
/<?tfs
and therefore
also
way
(as
And
(6.)
XYI.
see that
may
roots,
XVIII.
will generally
<Pp
distinct
while
0,
<
o2
2J
but
the cubic
The
satisfying
for if
=
3>!
have for
<E>
IT C + W,
we then
19
Ci,
its locus
one of which
for
3>
to
3>
and
I.,
write,
<I>
2 jo,
XVI.,
and
if
or
I.
be
respectively.
gp,
then
XX.
(g
if
0)
0,
XXI.
and
by
M=
(g +
cf
I.
I.,
comp. 353,
XIV.
satisfied
(8.)
C->
2
<7
vanishing, if this
<j>p
being
p,
||
4>p
ticular form (g
XIX.
d,
by changing
Cases of equal and
may
it
directions pi
formed from
(7.)
or
0,
<&p
<J>!pi
0,
without causing p
I.,
be thus written,
it
XYII.
the line
VpQp
quadratic equation,
Qp =
vanish.
itself to
we
when
the
condition
II.
is
be proved as in
may
satisfied,
of three directions
And
same condition
m"c
II.
=
proved to have always real roots (353, (13.)) when
p
must
have
XVII.
likewise
then
real
roots, (7i,
quadratic
<j>
the analogous
<j>p,
<7
whence
it
immediately follows (comp. XII. and XIII.), that (under the same con
dition of self-conjugation) the cubic III. has three real roots, c, c + Ci, c + C2
(as
is
formed
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
520
from the
which
may
we denote
(10.) If
- S
7
<IVy
has
0,
manner by
in like
XXVI., comp.
(349,
m
On
m\ - y
-S 7
a>o
as in 350, (1.).*
m^ V/zv = V.i/^y
becomes,
vectors,
the equation
XXI.) becomes,
m\
m"
c9
the symbol
<J>
349,
we
c,
and
XXIV.
in
and
its
XXIII... Jf=Jf
(11.)
vector function 0,
6.
XXII.
and
part
self-conjugate
[III. n.
and
c is
an arbitrary
scalar
or
more
fully,
XXV.
3
(m + m c + m"& + c )
+ c) V/*v = V.
(</>
(^ + GXH + c
/*)
(^v + c^y +
c*v)
XXVI.
XXVII.
(m +
XXVIII.
which can
to
</>
i//,
m
wY
(m +
<t>
(w"
)Vnv =
V(^
=
) YJUV
VGu^>
$v
vi/^
X^)>
+ XM
X")
=
)V,uv
V(^ X v VXM),
XXIX.
(12.)
As an
XXX.
g being here any real and
[If
Qpi
From
this, c\ is
=
<opi
this cubic
#^w
VT/JI
=
gp + VApju
$
(f)p
=-
scalar,
cipi t
and
then
pi
A,
p,
^ any
real
and non-parallel
=-
a root of
(mo
and
must be
identical
- 87^7) + (w - 7 2 + w ^c 2 + c 3 = 0,
z
with m -f ;w +
+ c 3 = 0, as they have
)tf
<?
m"c
three roots
common.]
AET. 354.]
vectors
given
to
XXXI.
521
which form, indeed, we shall soon find that every selfo can be brought.
We have now (after some reductions),
oj
\f,p
XXXII.
Xp =
(\Sw +
+ 2gp
fjiSXp)
and
f
2 SA^u)^
XV), m = = - SA^u + 3g
m"
independent of g
is
may
XXXI Y.
=
and
<1>,
X(p$X/u +
changing g to
Y(AjO/^SAfi
SAjUjo)jU
X/LLSXp/j.)
= ^X(X/mp +
Xp/mSX/uL
=
pX/bLjfj.
-f
X(X$fjip
/zSAjo
Xpfj)in,
&G.
M\
X, Jf,
^P,
M."
g.
may
XXXY.
= - g +
XXXVI.
Thus ^p,
Vp =
and
c+ C = -g +
SX/i,
of
Vp
VX/zSXjip,
TXju,
+ ft = -
TX/i;
,/<>
= - (XT/i
and
^o/o
these are
XXXYII.
.
(Vp<j>p
= Y. pYA/o^u
=) VpXS/i/o
+ V/o/iSAp =
three right
(13.)
In
general, if
M=
and
0,
XXXVIII.
HAMILTON
.
,
if
we
$1 - $ +
XXXIX.
Ci, c 2 , c 3
dx +
write,
c l9
*I>
<
Cz,
<t>
c3 ,
Cx
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
= $ + c zX +
c2
2
,
= ^ +
c,
x+
c3
3
2
;
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
522
also
we have the
6.
relations,
XL.
whence
[III.n.
it is
XLI.
^=
Ca)-
(C,
$3 =
(3
CO
(C,
2 ),
1
(C*
<*>*
(2
1
Ci)"
(1
3),
~
1)
as binomials (conap.
which enable us to express the functions fyp,
3p
o,
351, &c.), when "^p, ^ 2 jo, ^? 3p have been expressed as monomes, and to assign
the planes (real or imaginary), which are the loci of the lines
$2/0, ^3/0.
3>
<&
2/
3>ip,
<J>,
4>i,
4>,,
which at
first
XLIL
a>9
where
Qp
z
"^i,
^P"
XXXVI., and
the
loci
XLIV.
<J>
$3,
= ^3^1,
*3 = Ol0 2
of
4>/o,
<Pi|0,
(8.)),
and
XLV.
whence
$!-*,
4>.^ 2
= ^3^3 = *i$ a * 3 =
0,
also,
XLVL
the symbols
(in
^i^
= ^2^3 - ^Y^i =
0,
=
at pleasure
if then the roots of
be real and unequal,
there arises a system of three real and distinct planes, which are connected
and grouped
= 0, exactly as the
with the interpretation of the symbolical equation,
3
= 0.
three planes in 353, (9.) were connected with the analogous equation
2
said
then
be
(16.) And when the cubic has two imaginary roots, it may
^>!^>
<I>3
00i<
that there
and
intersect
cited),
line
same equation
I.
355.
Some
additional light
may
I.
SX/x^ =
523
and
0,
II.
S\p =
0,
and investigating the condition of the reality of the two* directions, p and p z
by which they are generally satisfied, and for each of which the plane of p
l
and
<j)p
We
line
X in
I.,
or
normal
is
to the
plane
equation,
III.
V/o^ =
0,
rectangular directions,
which
whence
cubic
when
M=
is
(1.)
all respects
IY.
X,
fj,,
yfj.
zv,
and
is satisfied,
V.
$
0,
and
which
of the general
<
<.
\p = yv
therefore,
and
I.
= f$v$/j. +
k.
(Sv^v
Writing then,
z/n,
=
<j>p
y^ + z$v,
becomes,
yz(Sv(j>v
S/x0/z)
VI.
p =
reality of the
Let
- $p, being
fy
S/x^) +
4S^vSy^
if
>
*
Geometrically, the equation I. represents a cone of the second order, with A for one side, and with
the three lines p which satisfy III. for three other sides and II. represents a plane through the vertex,
;
The two directions sought are thus the two sides, in which this plane
perpendicular to the side A.
= 1 where the
cuts the cone.
[The general equation of a quadric mp,y be written in the form
function
is self -con jugate.
The cone, through its intersection with a concentric sphere, is
+ r~ 2 )p = if r is the radius of the sphere. If this touches the plane 8\p = 0, it is geometrically
S/j0/>
<$>
Sp((j>
evident that the edge of contact is a principal axis of the plane section of the quadric as it passes
through the points of contact of the concentric sections of the quadric and the sphere. The condition
for contact is A.
+ r~ z )p, or SA/J^/J = 0, coupled with SA/J = 0. The directions of the principal
||
(<
axes thus determined are always real whether the plane cuts the quadric in a real curve or not.]
3X2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
524
[III.
of p will be rectangular, if
is, if
VIII.
Sy0ju
the expression,
(2.)
conditions VI. and VIII. take the forms,
IX.
(Sv^ov
<j>p
v.
fap +
SufafiY + 4S(ju0
satisfied generally
and
=
/u
Introducing now
>
i>)*
4(Sy^v)
and
coefficients
X.
imaginary,
(3.)
when
On
condition
is
when y
line
identity, by all
VI. and IX.) can
is actual,
or
<j>
y happening
to
namely by
to
the only ex
thus self-conjugate.
X.
(to
Sy^uv
to say,
is
=
when y = 0, or =
to
become an
may happen
Vyp
6.
ir.
when
/u,
the scalar
or imaginary.
(4.)
When
directions of p, or
y=
0, or
(5.)
shall
And
if,
/m
two rectangular
the very simple form yz =
and
v for the
we must
XT.
we
take
may
we may
0,
at the
S<v
same time, X
Svu
satisfies
0.
0A
||
A,
XII.
whence
W*
VvA
II
||
p,
and
0v
||
VA/*
v,
||
or,
XIII.
ju,
(6.)
But
in general,
if
III. be satisfied
and
cubic equation
^/?rce
by even
real
tico
and rectangular
real
and
distinct
NEW PROOF
c zt
525
two directions give two unequal but real and scalar values,
p, then c\ and c z are two real roots of the cubic,
fyp
for if those
and
is also
and
real;
if,
^ and p z give one common real and scalar value, such as d, for
= - Ci/o, or ^p = ($ + CI)/Q = 0, for every line in the plane
that quotient, then
of pi, p z
so that $p must be of the form,
Cip + fl$p p2p, and the cubic will
have at least two equal roots, since it will take the form,
two directions
</o
xiv.
as is easily
shown from
o =
(c
Cl
y (c-
Cl
+ s^jS),
principles
if
/o
<pp
established.
has
(as
And we
at the
see,
351,
I.,
actual p
&c.,
M=
scalar cubic
I.,
namely by
and therefore
observing that
Mp
which
0, in
= -
if
cp,
<j>p
p,
by
then
<fp
supposition,
might
is
by any
= - c
p,
3
p,
<jpp
different
from
zero.
(9.) Finally, as regards the case* of inde termination, above alluded to, when
the quadratic V. fails to assign any definite values to y z, or any definite
directions in the given plane to p, this case is evidently distinguished by the
:
condition,
XV.
356.
The
XI.
is
pz p3
,
or
<fr
p, tfp, $*p,
any Line of
m pi,
mp,
m"
this Scries,
and
if,
by con
such as p 3 into
,
while the
<pp,
f This theorem was stated, nearly in the same way, in page 568 of the Lectures and the problem
and vector function was treated, in the few preceding pages (559, &c.), though
with somewhat less of completeness and perhaps of simplicity than in the present Section, and with a
;
of inversion of a linear
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
526
which precede
m"
p 3 bear
Mode
Three Preceding Lines of the Series, will depend only on the given
Law
of Derivation, and
icill
pi
= - V/3p7,
=
(f>p
pz
II.
may
in 354,
(2.)
= -
XXXI1L,
to 0,
when we suppose
that
m"p z ,
= -
j3y
m"
= Sj3y
by merely changing
calculation,
and
g, X,
/u,
7.
/3,
7 are unit
IV.
so that
new
and -
]3,
V/3/ory, &c.,
coefficients,
/3yS/3 7
first
assumed
let
&c.,
(1.),
m pi
= mp -
/o 3
= -
as
6.
or the Three Ratios which these three Components of the Fourth Line
to the
or
as here of p, pi, p z
it,
[III. n.
)3
7*
and
1,
S/3 7
lines,
= -
/,
be thus expressed
of such a function
(j)p
= 20 Sap + Vrp,
was found
to
ff
tyff
he (page 561),
now
= 2Vaa S#
denote by
<r
+ 2V.
\J>
was,
aV(Yj8<r.
4-
(VorSr
<j>op
Mo - 8(7 +
that
is,
into the
new
e)
(0o
c]
(y
and
M and
0-
e),
<r
(7
e)
8(7 +
e)<r
Vcr(<f>
when $p
c)
(7
takes the
e)
new value,
II.,
form,
YI.
p2
lp
pi
YII.
or
fa
we
was = -
And
(3.)
pp 3
lines of
pa
pi
LINES.
527
= -
--
I(p2
p)
if
= OP, &o.,
(347), or
the return from any one line pi of such a series to the line p which precedes
our general method gives, for the example I., by 354, (12.),
VIII.
to -
|J3(/3
it,
Pl j3y) y ,
and
a result which
it is
explained.
357.
"We
now prepared
are
to assign
simplest of
which forms
I.
$p
is
to
its
self-conjugation
one of the
the following,
Y,,p +
with
YApjii,
F.
q = g +
fj.
/LL
Sp^p
2
gp +
or thus,
II
.
Sp<j>p
= g
p~
-f
2SApS/ip,
if
* In
real vectors,
A.
and
/*,
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
528
supposing
(in virtue of
gular vector-units,
and
0i0 2
aia 2 a 3
[III. n.
are"
6.
0),
such that
III.
we may
(0o
0j.cti
0i)ai
0,
(0o
0.>ao
)a 2
0,
r<
(0
+ ^s)3 =
0,
write
IV.
p =
(oiSaijO
jO
0iaiSai/>
-f
+ a 3 Sa 3jo),
aoSao/o
and therefore
V.
a 2 Sa 2 p +
a 3 Sa3/o
so that
(03
VI.
-0 2 |0 =
C 2 )a 3 Sa 3/o
(03
(0i
-1-
(2.)
VII.
VIII.
p*
= Spfap =
+ 2 -
S/00/o
= ~
(0
(0 2
2f>
= -
03/o
(0 3
0!
<
<
+ (Sa
2
2
3/
o)
2
(Sa^) +
,)
0i) (Saj/))
)a 2 Sa 2/o,
(03
(Sa 2Jo)
(0 3
(03
3/ t>)*
0i)
(Sa 3jo)
2)
(Sa 3jo)
2)
(Sa 2 p)
2
:
assume that
X.
or that
3,
2
>)
Ci(8a,/t>)
(Sa
0i)
in general permitted to
it is
IX.
0,/a
which
)a 1 Sa, o,
= -
in
(0 2
2
3 being thus put in evidence.
have thus the general but scalar expressions
We
0i)a 3 Sa 3 p,
0i
= 20 2
= 20 /2
being real scalars, and the numerical coefficients being introduced for
a motive of convenience which will presently appear.
one of the expressions VIII. with IF., we
(3.) Comparing the last but
and
see that
XI.
X =
because SX/x =
(4.)
But in
0ai
a3
ju
to the
= -
J(0i
0ai
XII.
SoO
Sot
proposed form
a3 ,
II.,
by assuming,
g = SX/u
= - J(0 +
X
3 ),
3 ).
(4.))
we cannot
unless
XIII.
/o,
that
is,
<7p
AET. 357.]
(5.)
XIY.
fap
ffp
+ VAp/i = p(g -
?,
/z,
SAju)
S(e o 3
eajp +
(e
529
the expression,
ASju/o
,uSA/>,
becomes,
XV
oj
= -
C 2p
(e aa
eai)
fj.
c,, c 8 , c 3 of
three roots
SA/*,
the cubic J/ =
XVI.
we
are,
that of
is
by VI.,
A =
a3 ,
ai,
aa\
+ #
0,
az -
of
01,
a 2 , a3
if
eai)
a3
S(<?
= gp +
VA/o//, then
must be one of the
<
0]
gr
to the plane of A,
then we assume, on
trial,
a 3,
= ba\ + & a 3 ,
/a
2
j
adW which
ditions,
XVII.
2ab =
d -
c2 ,
2a
c3
c2 ,
aV +
ba =
XVIII.
(2abJ = (Zba f =
(c*
and
c3
words,
c 2 ) (c,
Cl ),
we must suppose
c2
we must
posing that
XIX.
a =
we
V=
a =
be
may
Adopting then
XVII. by sup
/,
cz
or in other
for A,
that
-b = e;
I.
and
II.
except
be interchanged, &c., as before.
see, however, that in an imaginary sense there exist two other
(7.)
for if we retain
solutions of the problem, to transform
as above
and
that A
/j.,
and
JJL
may
We
<j>p
$p<pp
the order IX., and equate cf in IF. to either - c or - c 3t we may in each case
conceive the corresponding sum of two squares in VIII. as being the product of
two imaginary but linear factors the planes of the two imaginary pairs of
t
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
to ai
and
3
a3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
530
(8,)
And
if
to pass
from
it
XX.
XXI.
d = -g ai
in which however
Tfi,
We
XXII.
XXIII.
be given, and
be required
it
cz
TA,u,
U(AT>
= - g +
SA/*,
<?
a 2 = UYX//,
M TA),
= - g + TA/u
a3
U(A
I>
= cz-
2e*
(9.)
/o
vector units.
TX =
for
6.
it is
XIV.
[III. n.
A -
c l9
2<?ai,
SXpup = P *T\n
SX/o/ip
= -
SX/u
= 2/ 2 =
cs
2^
<?
o2
SX/*
2,
A +
= g +
ji
cz
= 2/o 3
identical transformations,
8
-f
^TA/x
- 2ee a 3 ai = +
YA^u =
=
JUL
TX/i
{(SX/i/o)
+ (SApT^u +
S^TA)
2
)
(TX/i
2
{(SA^) + (SA/oTV S MjoTA)
three rectors. A,
/u, /o,
The
general linear
and
XLL,
and
vector function
and accordingly
(347, (1.))
the expression 357, 1. involves that number, namely four in the term Y^ /o, on
account of the constant quaternion q 0) and five in the other term YA/o^u, each of
to contain, at least implicitly, nine scalar constants
<p
FOCAL TRANSFORMATIONS.
531
= 2y =
(comp. 349, XXII. and 353,
of self-conjugation, 2V/3a
form VfiSap (347, XXXI.),
the
take
for
we
arises
when
which
$p
XXXVI.),
scalar
is equivalent to a system of three
equations, connecting the nine constants.
condition
And
for the
involves in like
manner only
scalar
function, 8/o^p,
only six such constants into the expressions 357, II., II ., V., VIII., XIV.
for instance, being three such, and the rectangular unit system
3
Ci, c zy
;
a2, a3
answering to three
others.
(j>op,
II.
in which a, b are
= -
fap
two real
and
scalars,
We
a, |3
shall
8pi>p
= ^(Sa^) 2 +
C 2 (Sa 2/
c 3 (Sa 3/o)
>)
357, VIII.
and
i/D
c 2 a 3 Sa 2 /o
C z aS>a 3 p,
357, V.,
new forms I. and II., it is found that, if the result is to be a real one,
- a must be that root of the scalar cubic
= 0, the reciprocal of which is
to these
It is
algebraically intermediate, between the reciprocals of the other two.
therefore convenient here to assume this new condition, respecting the order of
mn
the inequalities,
which
c\>
02>
Ca,
(2.)
all positive,
"I
V\
->
-1
(
t*
>!,
/>
>
IV.
V.
~l
t/3
in
be
(or even,
a, b, a, /3
may
a = -
c%,
a = xai + Sa 3
we
if
witli it in
if
every other
)3
case.
be thus expressed
c\
cz
= x
c3
a\
z a3
which
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
532
VII.
VIII.
dci
=>
Y = b(xx +zz
^7
csb
X.
XI.
ctf +
C3 *
XII.
And
(3.)
XIII.
XIV.
M^c* =
i |3
bxfz
ft-
*"
#s
0i
xz +
if
ft
(say)
6.
+ y
= 1
(Saj3)
c lC8
= - fy3Saj3 = c^ai +
C 3 sa 3
= &c.
^)
XV.
which
= - Sa|3 =
IX.
() 2
cV
tfx* +
[III. n.
last, if
XVI.
c^
.
"be
S/00/o
-01^3
and
a?
for a
XVIII.
= -
.
Sp<t>p
.
0o/f>
Cz
(VapY +
c 2 aVa>
+ (d -
(c,
of a
C2
x,
may
and thereby
to
be substituted
XVII.
and
b,
We
remaining unchanged.
c3 )
= -
(Sj3/>)
C2
If either of the
XIX.
Jlf
(c
+ a)
{c
(a
b)c
aJ(Sa/3/};
3,
ART. 358.]
XX.
1
.
(c-
^)
(c
a)~
(Saj3)
fl-
(c-
be thus written,
may
l
(a-
533
8.(ap)>
b~
a- (Va/3)
0,
XXI.
Cl
(b
c~
a~
a)
+ \ab
</(a-
-|
(c,
(b
a)
b~
2
.
(a/3)
GI~
c3
~l
The
(GI
c3 )
z
:
ab(Safi)
results,
roots c l9 c2
0.
>
= - a
+ b~
cz
<n,
c3
Sc a
3
XXII.
-f
6j3So)
XXir.
oi
U(c3 a +
may
^/3Sa^),
(7.)
XXIII.
c,a
bfiSafi
(c,
(2.)
give
Yaj3
Cl )xa l9
a3
UYaj3,
(if
(x &
= + U(c,a
we suppose
a 3ai
= + a 2 ),
and
as
whole theory,
XXIV.
it
ac^(c,a
=
As
2
-f
Z>j3Sj3)
c2 ) (c2
(c,
Cl )
Cl ),
(c,
we may
XXV.
(c,
^(Va/3)
+ ^]3Saj3) 2 =
c,),
l
ac{- (c ia
to prove that
this
may
(c*
(8.)
C3
( Cl
c3 ) (c,
write,
Cl )a
bftafi
aa,
(c3
c^
aa(3a
bfr
it is
c,).
easy
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
534
XXVII.
which
aVa
true for
is
expressions
XXVIII.
it is
made by
(c3
ci)o
(fy3a|3
(a*
any vector
XXY. may
p,
a,
and
(c 8
whence, by XXIII., we
(10.)
XXX.
( Cl
ca) (j3
j3
(11.)
and the
of the lines a, a
]3
And
j3
2( Cl /3
XXXI.
|3,
c3 ),
a - a = 2sa 3
a + a = 2#ai,
we have
made by
- a - d +
write,
ci)o
may
XXIX.
At
also of those
6.
equation,
+ b(8p*)
Accordingly
(9.)
of the angles
ctf
[III. n.
j3
2o/ ai ,
|3
coefficients
a?
j3
and
we
XXXII.
1
.
(cr
c^)
(cr
cs- )
>
0,
XXXIII.
a8
= (cf 1
cz
-1
(c,~
c3
~l
),
<
and
to ihe forms I.
real,
535
It
may
first
XXII. admits
equation
of being
the following,
replaced by
XXXIV.
= -
^p
bc{-
\^ 3
(c$
and that
S(d)3
tfaSa/3)
ffaSo/3)p,
thus, instead of
XXIF., we
are
XXXY.
= U(dj3 -
a:
359. If
we
call, as
I.
we
= UVa/3,
deduced from
I.
- U(c 3 j3 -
a3
ffaSa/3),
or II.
fap
a2
rtaSa/B),
CiOiSaijo
CtfijSazp
C 3 a 3 Sa 3 |0,
357, V.,
and
II.
of the
theory
<f>
and
SJO^/Q,
when we come
we may
of
then by
to
speak
call
the
expressions,
III.
p = gp + VA/o/i,
357,
XIV.,
and
IV.
=
Sp<j>p
gf
357, II.,
SA/ojup,
VI.
<
oj
= -
aaVap +
358, II.
flj3Sj3/o,
and
.
Spp
aVa
358
+ b(S3Y,
We
>
exchange rectangular forms with cyclic ones and also (358) how to pass
from rectangular expressions to focal ones, and reciprocally but it may be
worth while to consider briefly the mutual relations which exist, between
to
cyclic
to Art. 357.
a, a , of 358, are the tivo real focal lines of the real or
= const.
asymptotic to the surface of the second order, Sp^p
is
to the other.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
536
pass from IV. to VI., or from the cyclic to the focal form, we
accomplish the rectangular transformation II., with the values 357,
first
XX., and
assumed
XXL,
of
and of
c z , c3 ,
c-i,
a2, a3
01,
and then
Y1-L1.
c3
c2
>
VIII
{V. p(d
(UX + Up) +
IX.
(cs
c2 )
Sp^p = (V.
4
f>(c
it is
c/p
which
of
4
(- c 3 )
VXp +
3)
(UX
(UX -Up))j
c^ (XTp +
(-
pTX))
\^ ~\T\
C2 )
4
<?
YAp
fe-d
to be
XI.
(UX - Up)
(UX + Up) + (-
Cl )
CJ
//
+ (o
p((-
X.
c3
4
4Sp0p = {S.p((- d) (UX -Up) +
IX.
.L
+ {V.p((-
which
as in 357,
Ci,
>
4bp^)p
shall
T7TTT
and
to be
VII.
in
6.
To
(1.)
may
[III. n.
d =
all
T\fi
= - g +
cz
c3
SXju,
= - ^ + TX/z
if
g,
X,
/u,
And
p be rm/.
down
count as three
and r0J
of a given
cyclic
But
(2.)
if
we wish
four cases to be considered, in each of which some one of the four equations
VIII. VIII IX. X. is to be adopted, to the exclusion of the other three.
.
Thus,
if
XII.
XIII.
If
XIV.
cz
is
>
c2
>
>
0,
and therefore
c3
cz
>
>
c,
>
>
>
cz
>
cr
1
>
ci
l
>
ci
l
>
0,
If
c l9
ci
d,
ci
l
>
ci
l
>
>
1
>
>
>
Ct"
cr
ci
1
,
then X.
is
is
IX.
ART. 359.]
Finally
that
XV.
if
is, if
all
>
c3
>
c2
c l9
>
>
c,~
>
c2
~l
ci
>
in VI.
|3
with
0i
c2
-f
l
,
may
XVir.
so that
if
we
4S P 0p = N{(c s* +
48/0^0
4
j
is
the
3
(<j
cfy P .TJX +
d4 )
UA
(c 3
d4)
may
be written
TJ/i
XVIII.
we
the form
4$p<j>p
is
TJ/0 +
when VIII.
be thus expressed
(4.)
XVII.
537
- J (^ + ^)UA,
Ko
XIX.
and
= i (cf 4 +
shall then
which
Spfc,
= N(
+
ioJ
jO^)
- N(|0
+ K
0/
0).
Or we may make
(5.)
XX.
may
)UA,
i ( Cl
-*
4
cs"
which form, or
of its
two
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
how
XXIX.
vector constants,
of the ellipsoid,
i,
K, it is
and
necessary
HAMILTON
whence
)!!/!,
K -
(6.)
c3
lines, a,
to pass
its
]3
but
lines
a,
f3
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
538
shown how
to pass
[III.n.
6.
to a cyclic one,
passage has been recently discussed. Let us then now suppose that the/orm
YI. is real and given, or that the two scalar constants a, b, and the two unit
vectors
a,
]3,
and
let
We
(7.)
XXII.
or
1
>
as in 358, III.
ci\
>
which would give the expressions 358, XXI. and XXII., for c&c* and aia 2 a 3
and so would supply the rectangular transformation, from which we could pass,
But
(8.)
focal form
XXIII.
XXIV.
in each of
vary a
to
some one
is
Spfp =
(S/3 of
Spjp =
(SjSorf
which a and
(Va of
XXIir.
2
;
>)
>)
XXIV
+ (V
o)
oj
fact the
8p$p = (V
Bpjp =
2
OJ
(Va
o)
a)
(Sj3 0/o)
o]
(S/3 0/o)
and
cases
|3
now suppose
little
four
+ b($f3p) z according as the scalars a and b are positive
It will be sufficient to consider the two cases, XXIII. and
2
For the
XXIII. we
case
XXV.
(Sj3 oP )
Sp<t>p
(S oP )
+ a
where
XXVI.
X=
+a
]3
fl ,
n =
i(/3
fl
),
g = i(a
j3
(9.)
forms.
(10.)
For example,
XXVII.
if
Spfp = N(,
oj
pKo )
(S(i
Ko )pY
(V(*
/coV)
we may write
o
*o
/3
<
KO ,
X =
2t
n =
KO ,
g =
8
t
2
;
ART. 359.]
XXVIII.
To
(11.)
is
>
XL),
(comp. 336,
+ pBo )
N( (rf
(,
539
KO
+ 2
XXIV.
expressions,
XXIX.
.
<j>
= -
aVap +
in which, however,
now unit
not
it is
lines (8.).
the expressions
XXXI.
S^p
2
(Vap) +
(S/3/o)
= a 2 (Sa/3) 2
XXXII.
= a 2 (a 8 -
VajSS^ap
Va^Sa/3
/3
a\aVap +
-
-f
(Sa/3)
a(a
w"
- 2a 2
|3
j3V/3/>)
a>
)S af
/3
>,
and therefore
XXXIII.
M=
- a2
)
(c
(c
- a2 )c
(j3
(Sa/3)
),
and
XXXIV.
=
(a(a
j3
(12.)
()3
- aS
a/o)
(c/o
cfi)Sf3p
-f
^(aSo/Q
(c*
(a
a- (a
+ 4(Sa/3) 2 =
2 2
j3
(a/3)
3
(/3a)
2
jSaj^J
(a
4
j3
j3- (/3
)c
()3
)3
/3S/3/o)
= a4 +
in
- a2
)
Va/o/3Sa]3 +
XXXV.
r,
2
.
(a/3)
2
.
(a]3)
the roots of
M=
(Sa]3)
XXXVI. ..*
= i(a 2 -
j3
),
cz
= a2
XXXVII.
ci
>
>
c3
>
c2 ,
cf
c,
|3
j3
= *(a 2 -
|3
2
>*
inequalities,
-
1
>
>
c2
1
>
C3-
such that
+ aj3a) 2 = &o.,
+ 4(Va)3) 2
= a 4 + 2S
(SajS)
XXX.
and
jSSfto,
Z 2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
540
(13.)
[m. n.
6.
of
^ p = Vaj3S/3a/>,
2
XXXVIII...
j3Sa/3)
verified,
XXXIX.
01
in connexion with
which
T(a Cl +
We
]3Saj3)
- c^
-
c a )i (c s
Cl i(c3
c 2 )^
^^
(ci
= r
c 3 )i
(c,
(c,
c$
(- cz }\
^3)^
(c*
c^ c
XXXVII.
c 3 )i (ci
(d
/3Sa/3)
= TJ(ad +
a3
it is
J TYj3 =
= TJVaj3,
a2
|3Sa/3),
= (T(ac, + /3Sa]3)
XL.
= U(aC 3 +
XXX.,
formation,
XLI.
sp
= (VapY +
<t>p
Cl
(&(ac 3 + j3Saj3) o)
c 2 )r*
cz ) (c3
(G!
cz )
Ci(c s
- ^ V2
;
or briefly,
XLII.
S/00/o
= d(S .pU(aC 3 +
2
(Vap) +
(S/3/o)
+ a 8 (S pUVajS) 2 +
/3Sa/3)/t>)
is
positive,
C 3 (S
2
pUCaC! + j3S/3))
c i9
XLIII.
We
(15.)
- az }c
(|3
2
.
(Saj3)
XLIV.
ac,
+ ]3Saj3
||
j3c!
aC,
aSajS,
+ /3Saj3
||
j3c 3
aSaj3,
because
c,c3
XLV.
Sp^p =
= -
(Saj3)
write,
2
(Va/))
= d(S pUfjSc! .
(S/3/>)
+ o*(S /oUVa/3) 2 +
.
aSa/3))
6 3 (S
^Uf/Bcs
aSa/3))
ABT. 359.]
541
while
XLYI.
and r =
TQ3ci
c 3 )i,
(ci
= rcjfa -
aSajS)
cs )l,
T(j3c 3
XLYII.
new
.
c z ) (c
(c,
obtain this
C8 )*
(<?
C 8 )i,
2
2
Multiplying then by r (TYa/3) or by
(16.)
= r
(-
aSa/3)
c 3) (c3
we
c 2 ),
equation,
( Cl
C,]
(C3
(dSjS/o
2
- a2
(Saj3p)
{(TYa/3) ((Yap)
(SjSp)
2
SajSSap)
(c,
- a2
)
(cpp
oSajSj
which
is
we
new
obtain this
XLYIII.
transformation
(TVapyfytp = -
(Ya]3)
= a 2 (Saj3 o) 2 -
we have
in which
(Sap)
+ 2a 2 Saj3Sa oS/3 o
j
The expressions
C=
XXX YI.
L.
C=
2
dcs - a (c! +
cs ).
as
may
for
in
XLYIII., that
Admitting
(19.)
the equation
XLIX.
(18.)
2
((Ya^) +
(Sa]3)
XLYII.,
XLIII.
it is not-
particular quadratic
we
and
sufficient,
for
necessary that
It
is
c2
mere establishment of
should be roots of the
purpose, that they
this
LI.
between
+ Ac +
its
0,
LII.
Ac? +
coefficients.
B+a
+ (Ya/3) 2 =
0,
rectangularity, a 3 JL ai, or
LIIL
*
= S
( Cl )3
aSj3)
(c 3 /3
Sj3)
-4(Sa/3)
Bp
(Sa]3)
Many such proofs, or verifications, as the one here alluded to, are purposely left, at this stage,
as exercises, to the student.
ELEMENTS OE QUATERNIONS.
542
we
[III. n.
6.
obtain thus a second relation, which gives definitely, for the two coefficients,
the values,
LIV.
and
so conducts, in a
In
(20.)
this
new way,
manner, then,
- a2
]3
of
= a2
(Saj3)
XLVIL,
which
XXXIII.
B=-
rectangular transformation
of the
XLIII.
cubic
and
Ci
c3
root
is c 2
The values
(21.)
LV.
that
is,
LVI.
a^aa give
= (S P
U(j3 Cl
Cl c,( Cl
Saj3))
by XL. and
.
of
at.
2
+ (S pUVajS) 2 + (S pTJtfc, - aSa/3))
.
XL VI.,
2
C3 ) (p
(Vaj3)
(Safto)
C,(c,
- a2
) (c&fo
- a2
) (c 3
cfa
SajSSa/o)
SajSSa/o)
S/3/>
XXXVI.
member
(aS(3p
of
this
last
of
common
under the
equation
jSSap)
as in
357,
LVII.
-S
of the
is
((SajSj
p(cfi
2
.
&c.).
>
2
((Vap) +
aSa/3 + c^VajS) S
c2
(XXXVII.) with
c3 )
(S^)
be perpendicular to
is to
p(cfi
to
eliminate
which gives
((Sa/3)
it
c/3*}
will be
(C L
aSajS
- a2
)
2
(Saj3)>
C^VajS)
2
(Vap) +
(c
the
We are therefore
XLVIL and LVI.,
real transformation
Cl j3 )
>
kind required.
Accordingly
(23.)
(3.),
SajSSap)
(after a
LVIII.
c\c$(c\
(and not to a 2
which
form,
c
Comparing the recent inequalities c
that
we
arrangement 357, IX.,
see, by 357, (6.),
formation (6.) at present sought, the plane of X, ^
(c 3 Sj3/>
c3
Ci,
(22.)
a3
2
)
Saj3S a/
>)
vectors
|3,
543
identity, or that
an
is
AND IMAGINARY.
IDENTITIES, KEAL
ART. 359.]
it
and
c,
of the
takes this
it
LIX
8
.
so that if
Cij3
((Sa)3)
Ci
be
cfr) (Sap)
of the quadratic
e//7?er rootf
LYII.
the transformation
2
- a2
= (rSfto - S/3Sap) 2
) (S|3p)
c(c
XLIIL,
or
is
if
we
its
quadratic
XLIIL,
but
(Saj3)
we must
it
And
employs.
in
XXXIII.
we
Already, then,
(24.)
- a2 =
)
if Ci(d
see
how
two imaginary
cyclic
XXX., namely by
changing c\ to e s in
LYII. and the other imaginary transformation is had, on principles before
2
between XLVII. and LVL; a process
explained, by eliminating (Sa/3/))
transformations of the given focal form
;
which
LX.
2
2
(Yap) + (Sfto)
-f
aY
(Ci
C 3 )-
Cl -*(cSpp
"
SajSSap)
>
(<?i
0,
but
c2
<
replaced by
,
if
<?i,
CA
0),
c3 .
be the
LXL
2
.
.0x<%-.B-
(Sj3)
And
(25.)
member
of
XXXIII.
LX.
XXXVI.
of c lt
c-3
to the simple
LXII.
Sp<fto
2
(Ya o) +
(
(Sj3p)
= -
ay
+ 8 (a +
J^j3)p 8 (a
.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
544
where
d
r of
J-
1 is the
(26.)
LXIV.
in
which a and
(Va P
(S/3 P )
)>
+ a and
may
it
XXX.,
to a
= (Va
pf
j3
6.
XXXV. may
LXIII.
[III. n.
j3,
(8.)), to
but in the
down
write
LXV.
rV =
(a
|3a|3),
2
with the same real value of r as before
fi
= -
(]3
so that (by
a)3a),
XXXV.,
&c.)
we have
the relations,
LXVI.
(a
2
r (a
T/3
= a(r2 - a 2 +
)3
2 a) = a(r + a
)3
+ a
To = Ta,
)
2
Sa
T/3,
2/3Saj3
/3
= Sa/3
= - 2(aC 3 +
/3Saj3)
+ 2/3Sa]3 = 2 (ad +
j3Saj3)
+ 2Sa/3 = -
||
||
a3
LXVIII
2
1 r (/3
(27.)
We
LXIX.
with which
LXX.
/3
/3(r
- a2 +
3
(V(a +
jSajS)^)
(S(|3
(V(a
which enables us
2
/3aj%) +
its
(S(/3
to pass
2(j3c 3
aSa/3)
||
a3
ajSajp)
two new
lines
(a*
ajSa)?)
- 2S
2
.
(a/3)
)30
from the
form, with
]3
may
.
focal
from
LXIX.
to
LXX., by changing
545
which have been already considered, there are others, although perhaps of
but we shall here mention only two of them, as specimens,
less importance
whereof one may be called the Bifocal, and the other the Mixed Trans
:
formation.
The two
(1.)
lines
a, of 359,
lines* an
account a
bifocal transformation.
4
Eetaining then the value 359, XXXV. of r and introducing a new
auxiliary constant e, which shall satisfy the equation,
(2.)
- a 2 = rV,
I.
]3
and therefore
IT.
2
4(S/3) -
r*(l
<?),
so that
III.
the
first
z
r (ea - a
4e (Saj3)
LXY.
equation 359,
IV.
=
)
(1
=
=
in which a 2 = a
(e
=
e*)8p<t>p
(]3
- a2 2
)
r\e8ap
Sap) = 2Saj3S|3p
e*)
LXVL,
(V^) +
- Sa
(Vap) + (eSap
(Sap)
of S/o^/o,
(1
l)aV +
by 359,
XXX.
(1
(1
V.
2/3Sa/3,
gives,
(Sfto)
2e8ap8a p + (Sa pY
so that a
is
of the bifocal
to
kind
above mentioned.
(3.)
e,
Ta(= Ta
SpQp involves
and the four
),
In
all
the
We
VII.
.
Sp<j>p
HAMILTON
= g (p -
2
)
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
+ 2SA( /0 -
to Art.
359
[p. 535].
4
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
546
which g
in
new
[III.
X,
constants,
//
VIII.
6.
% are three
e, e,
and
z
IX.
c/e
X.
Spjp =
</y
may admit
+ 2S\p$fip,
IF.
as in 357,
Sp<f>p,
sense, a product of
XI.
XII.
in
Spjp = gf + 8\ pM p =
Spjp = gf + SXppp =
XIII.
XIV.
and
(2.)
g*p*
(SX 3f
(Sfi lp
Y
2
(S/is/O
>)
(8.)),
= g +
= T\fi
g,
+ (SX 1)0 ) 2 +
g^
(9.jj
c ly
g,
= g - TA/x = -
cs ,
Xa
= VA/.(TA^ -
SX/i)^,
Ml
= (XT^ +
^uTX) (TX/.
X 3 = VX/.(TX^u +
SXju)-*,
/i 3
and
XV.
/ii,
We have
XVI.
XVII.
and ^ 3 X 3
,
are rm/,
/z 3
if
g,\,
JJL
be such.
Sp^p =
new
g,( P
E ,)
(SX 3 ( P
&))
(8^,( P
&))* 4
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
0,6,
+ A.8&A, + (U.S^, =
0,
2
2
^ ll + (S&A,) + (SS 1JU1 ) +
*,
0,
and
XXI.
</
3 63
- A 3 S^ 3 X 3 -
g^ -
/u 3 S^3ju s
2
(S^A 3 ) -
(8,1,2,)
0,
0.
1 /ti, and As
A.I
\/
\/ 1 jits, may here be said to be two pairs of imaginary cyclic
= const.
normals, of that real surface of the second order, of which the equation is, as before,
Compare the Notes to pages 527, 534.
S/></>
RECIPROCITY OE FORMS.
ABTs.360, 361.]
361.
We
547
in general be expressed
may
I.
d/p
differential, Afp,
of a
= nSv&p,
where v
is
II.
still
<j)p
and
I.
which
of
=
Sp(j>p,
may
n =
v =
2,
$0/0
which are in
v,
we
coefficient of
We
is still
jo
(1.)
denoting the linear and vector function which has been considered
fp
is
this
way
between the
(6.)),
linear
form
of
the differential
typ,
IV.
d^p =
<dp
also
and
p),
hence,
V.
(2.)
of
00/0
let
(}>p,
.
<j>dp)
S(#
/o
dp)
as asserted,
As an example
from
S(/o
of the
employment
VI.
.
<}>p
= SjSSap,
347,
XXXI.,
which gives,
VII.
.fp
and therefore
VIII.
Comparing
this
dfp
IX.
idyo = Si dO = S
A2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
548
we
form VI.
X.
of
$p has
j2(/3Sap +
<j)(,p
and
we saw
in fact
(347,
expression,
.
aSjSjo)
XXXII.)
XI.
fp
we may
write
the
its conjugate,
2aSj3p.
is given,
(3.)
conjugate function,
6.
[III. n.
itself
and
instead of
>
and
or made,
its
own
simply,
XII.
v =
XIII.
0/>,
whence
= 8vp,
XIV.
dfp = 2Svd /0
XV.
..>
rv
XVI.
and
Writing, then,
(4.)
XVII.
we
.fp
shall
Fv =
8v<t>-
XVIII.
XIX.
Fv =fp,
dFv = SSpdv = 2S
tff
and generally, as
so that p may be deduced from Fv, as v teas deduced from fp
above stated, there exists a perfect reciprocity of relations, between the vectors
p and v, and also between their scalar functions, fp and Fv.
;
As regards
(5.)
Fv,
it
may
XX.
v =
dod
XXI.
d
*T~
.
da;
which
and
+JT- +
dy
"
d
K-dz
7
<,
x, y,
z are
More recently
<
^x
"
"
>
Comparing
this
with dfp
=
(dxT>
it is
nSvdp,
v. f(p) must be true.
particular set of coordinate axes.]
equation nv
+ &yn v +
dzl>
z )fp
it
Sdpv. fp.
evident, as dp
Hence
=-
IlECIPEOCITY OF FORMS.
ART. 361.]
in fact, these last
549
may
expressions,
XXII.
dFv = 2S(dv
v),
2S(d/>
d//>
/o),
as
/jo,
cyclic form
to
an
357, II.,
writing thus,
XXIII.
= SP
fp
we
(3.),
+ 8\pnp,
0t>
<i>p
have,
XXIY.
XXY.
XXYI.
T//V
v =
(g
$p = gp +
- SX
M)
(g*
~V\p/uL
= -
Ay)
and therefore
XXVII.
which
last,
a bifocal form
Us focal
what may be
lines a,
mFv =
360, VI.,
is
seen to be
is
and
As another example
former,
us
now
it
From
.fp
[Since
follows that
Kvp.
The
^u,
cyclic
from the
latter to the
XXVIII.
*
XXIII.
each other.
called
that
of
what we have
= g\pp + \V 2 P
this
"
= Spjp = (Yap) 3 +
=
gp
SA.V/*
+ \pp.
= (\V2 - 9 z )p +
A^SAp/x
XXVI. may
(g
(ff
(Sfto)
359,
A/i)Sty/i
XXX.,
gv.
SA,u)SA./tyi,
at once be found,
1
remembering that ^ssm^r
."]
t They are in fact (compare the Note to page 527) the cyclic normals, or the normals to the
= const. while they
cyclic planes, of that surface of the second order, which has for its equation fp
;
the equation
is
Fv =
const.
which v
is
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
550
in
which a and
by 359,
|3
XXIX.
have now,
= 0o = - a Yap +
jSSjSp,
= a 2 (Sa/3) 2
)Sov,
)3
therefore,
XXX.
mFv =
2
2
a (Sa/3) JFv =
Si^v
2 (a
= SayjSySajS +
2
- v2
(Saj3}
|3
(Say)
+ Sav((a 2 -
/3
- n
(Saj3j + SavS(a +
a
an expression which
focal line a of
3
(a
real
We
real vectors.
6.
(11.),
(
and
and
[III. n.
]3aj3),
and
of cyc&c
is
and the
/orm
/3a/3)i;,
Fv being
Fv
fp
and consequently (by 359, LXY.)
;
)Sav + 2Soj3Sj3i/)
of
the given
+a
where a
is
the second
different
inform,
to substitute in
it is sufficient
XXX.
is
-f(p>
With
this notation,
VI.
and
= f(p
p}
=
$p<t>p
8/
we have
II.
IV.
.f( p + p
f(p, p)
.. f(xp,
yp
= fp
)
=fp
+ 2f(p, p
V.
= xyf(p,
p
),
+ fp
dfp
= 2f( P dp)
if
NX
V/
=
;
as a verification,
VII. ..f(vp) =
v*fp,
new
ARTS. 361-3G3.]
551
although avowedly only as a temporary one, and adopted merely for con
venience of exposition of ihe principles of Quaternion Differentials.
(2.)
for the differentiation of the recent function/^ (361, II.), the formulae,
f(p,
d./f>
f(p>
V>)>
)>
%&p
;
<t>p
the numerical coefficient being thus transferred from one of them to the
But there is a
other, as compared with the recent equations, I. and V.
= 2f( P dp),
dfp
I.,
namely,
/fo/O-S^p;
coefficient 2.
(3.)
d 2 p as
VIII.
so that the
theorem 342,
IX.
typ
d 2/p = 2/(dp)
I. is
(1
d!/p
&c.
or briefly,
x.
yp=/(p
+ dp),
linear function
by
In
fact, if
w(p), or simply
we denote
for the
moment
such a
non
distributive property
has
where
<j>
all
dw(p)
=
<(dp),
or briefly,
dwp
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
552
There
is
function, wp,
exists,
self-conjugation
itself
[III. u.
however, as we
is,
case, in
<
6.
differentiated
of the variable
dimension,
it is
the coefficient of dp, under the sign S., in the differential (361,
I.)
of
that scalar function fp, whether it be multiplied or not by any scalar constant
And generally (cornp. 346),
(such as n, in the formula last referred to).
the equation I. or I
II.
be written under
may
dw^o- =
dv = m~
As
(1.)
manner
in such a
that
if
^d(j,
<t>~
in I. corresponds to the
<
w"
<r
up.
This gives,
if
dp
= p
IY.
Y.
(T
(t)(p)
= pap,
a is a constant vector.
= $dp
fyp
=S
SX0 o =2SX
j
VI.
where
fX
/ t>ap
/ >VX;
2V/oa|C/
0V = 2Vapp
so that fyp
is
not self-
con jugate.
(2.) To find its self-conjugate part fap
are to form the scalar expression,
VII.
of
which the
VIII.
differential,
WP
by the method
iS^V =
..///=
>S
do
j
On
S|o;
,
is
giving
2
i
= S
00/dp = 2S
of the
IX.
.
/>
2p 8aP
X.
we
of Art, 361,
d. v
dwp =
when
<}>dp,
dfp
= 28vd o = 2S
/
AKT. 363.]
even
if
fp
let
XI.
yjo
553
S0/o0
q,
/D0"p,
q"
q>
Here
XII.
XIII.
dv =
fydp
v =
wp = ^f(qpq
fyp
yV(qp
pq"
pq"
f>f(\qp
+ q pq pq +
pq"p
q"pqpq }
q)
and
XIV.
=
so that
([>
(4.)
SA0/ = JS
+ p q\) + &o. =
Sp>X
0, as asserted.
In general,
8 be
if
we may
differentiation,
XV.
8a/0 = a8/0,
fact,
each
member
is,
I.,
XVI.
lim. nn {f(q
W=
??
(5.)
first
n~
QO
z:a>
As another statement
of the
results of
the forms,
XVII.
and then the
assertion
is,
a/0 =/(0,
that
if
we
d0),
#0 = /(0,
differentiate the
80)
first
of these with 8,
and
xvni.
For example,
We may
.fq = qcq,
80)
= /(0,
80, a0)
as/0.
+ xdq +
where
c is
a constant quaternion,
development of f(q
is
if
XIX.
*
possible.
HAMILTON
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
554
common
the
XX.
6.
is,
Ufq
[III. n.
(6.)
XXI.
d/jb
and
XXII.
with
0fy>,
<$d)p
dw/o
0djo, as before,
XXIII.
S(d o
which dp and $p may represent r/y tivo vectors the linear and vector
function, $, which is thus derived ham a scalar function fp by differentiation, is
in
and exemplified)
(7.)
XXIY.
and
will be
it
three
known
found
is
[If n defined
DJ>
=
<^>dp
is
arbitrary,
is
of 6
when
is self- con
0(
Z I),
DjL.f
nSvdp
(361, I.)
For
2Jf(p)S/idp,
2Svd/>
/ndF
d/j..F
=
(<>(
(^(
some function
/u.$\dp
and
SAdp,
V\mF-
is
F is
the function
p,
d^ =
this case
system of
ftF(p).
df
D Dy
y T) z
d/p
dfp
arbitrary, v
again, as dp
T>
by the equation
if
Here
= D,,D,
example, comparing
is
Sd /0 8v = SS t)dv;
since dp
XXV.
*
always, self-conjugate*
briefly written,
d/t
SA(
_ A S u(
y
0dp
F,
0dp.
7
yli
-1
)J
J*- 1
)
or
of /(p), or a constant as
may
jugate.]
to
page 548,
it is
easy to see
that
5d/p
d5/p
= - 8Sdpv./=
= - dSSpv./= SdpvSSpv./-
v>
At
364.
commencement
the
(347) the
problem
we reduced
555
it
will
now
I...fq =
and
with
r,
..f(q +
II.
<f)
= fq +
/<?
III.
.q=f~ r,
with the aid of notations already employed, and of results already established.
(1.)
The
IV.
p and
in which
Spfq = Sqfp,
if
we
XXXI.)
Y.
which
in
which
is
6-,
more than
and
t,
fq =
,
tqs
qs
S.tqs,
sufficiently general,
we
shall
and
XXXII.)
VI.
fp
spt + s pt
Sispt
whence
VII.
./I =
and
Sfe,
VIII.
./I =
Ss*
then possible, for each given particular form of the linear function/^, to
assign one scalar constant e, and two vector constants, c, e such that
it is
IX.
f(ix
+jy +
kz)
v =
*Dj;
..!
+jD y + kD z may
<?
! =
Comparing
sa//
2SSp^d/j
= ^vS(
Dj,,
and
XXV.
Sd/aySSpV-/,
)v-/,
since dp and Sp are both arbitrary. Of course v operates onjT and not on the vector operated on by
- 2v, #( ) = - vS( )/,
This expression for
shows again that it is self -conjugate. Again, as
and in this v operates on v and not on the subject of
<p.
v/=
<f>
(/>.]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
556
and then we
[III. n.
shall
qfl =
X.
Sfq = S
XI.
V/0 = s$q +
e&q + Se
Y./Y?
6.
I.)
and
XII.
in which Sc ^ =
.fq =
Yg, and
0Y<?
(e
or
is
Y/Y<?
a /wear and
Y<?,
As
function of
we have
XIII.
(2.)
t?ecfor
ways be shown
in various
one
e is
to
be sixteen
it
may
the linear and vector function, 0Yg, counts as nine (comp. 347, (1.)).
(3.) Since we already know (347, &c.) how to invert a function of this
last
kind
XIY.
0,
we may
r =
in general write,
Sr +
Yr = Sr 4
0^,
XY.
where
and
or Sq
q,
and
t/
tfT
Yr =
gcfor function,
Y<?,
It
is
^/,
being
required
so as to satisfy
XYI.
the constants
e, c,
(e
+ f )S? + Se
0Y^ = Sr +
$f>
of 0, being given.
*
[By a method analogous to that of the Note on page 507, if any three diplanar vectors )3i, 2,
and #3 are chosen, any quaternion function fq may have its vector part resolved along these three
= fiix\ + faxi + /33#3 + #4, in which the coefficients x are scalar functions of q,
vectors, so that fq
and are moreover linear jlfq is linear in q. So for a linear function,
fq
and in
z,
= faSpiq + faSpzq +
p3
and
fq =
and
(/3iSai
4-
/8 2
Sa 2 4
/3 3
S^ 3 2 + Sptf,
Denoting Sp by
a,
and
\p by
a,
on rearrangement,
ART. 364.]
Assuming
(4.)
XVII.
in which q
is
557
new sought
XVIII.
= q +
p,
quaternion,
= Sr + ^p -fp = S(r -
fgf
equation,
p)
whence
XIX.
S(r-./- l,
l
and
XX.
in
it
p + S(r
./- !
- e
(by supposition) a known vector, and S(r
p) is a known scalar;
l
remains
to
determine
the
unknown
but
constant
only
quaternion, f~ l,
which p
so that
is
XXI.
c
fq =
in
1,
XXII.
which
+ y = f~
\,
being a new and sought scalar constant, and j being a new and sought vector
constant.
Taking scalar and vector parts, the quaternion equation XXI. breaks
up into the two following (comp. X. and XL)
(5.)
XXIII.
1 = Sf(c + y)
=ec + Sty
XXIY.
and
y,
V/(<?
+ y] =
tc
fy
namely,
XXVI.
and
whence
7 = c^e
-,
XXVIII.
(6.)
of
The problem
tracfor inversion,
/(I
0-
*)
and
sotai? thereby
but we can
<f/rec
ones.
SfiV* = V^O.
Thus,
if
we
observe that
<j>~
and in the
substitution for
them
abridgment,
XXIX. ..n
anew to that
= me Se^e = f(m
t//e),
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
558
so that n
is
we
[III. n.
shall have,
6.
by XV. XX.
XXVII. XXIX.,
XXX.
mp = ^Vr
XXXI.
nf
=m-fc;
and
XXXII.
Sc i/YV)
(m - ^e),
an expression from which all inverse operations have disappeared, but which
still admits of being simplified, through a division by m, as follows.
in the term n-jNr of XXXII., the value
(7.) Substituting (by XXIX.),
me - Se
T//e
for n 9
XXXIII.
by
.
XXX.)
terms which
-m,
nq = (m
- Se
)Sr + e$Vr
i/TW +
<r,
where
XXXIV.
But (by
(r
* -
+ rSc
Se
XXXV.
= V.
we have
the transformation,
XXXVI.
.nq =
nf
= (me SE^C) ./
=
(m ^e)Sr +
reduce, as the formula of solution of the linear equation L, with the form
of the quaternion function, fq*
is
possibly
fg=(e+
e$q + Se
are found.
e)S?
+ SeT? +
V? =
(e
direct.
Sr,
<f!q
and
given by
Novr
more
XII.
<p-\
= Sr + Vr,
eS# + tyVq
= Vr
- S^-^Sg- = Sr -
first,
S?
is
seen to be
ART. 364.]
559
(8.) Such having been the analysis of the problem, the synthesis, by which
an a posteriori proof of the correctness of the resulting formula is to be
given,
may be simplified by using the scalar value XXIX. off(m - fa) and it is
sufficient to show
(denoting Vr by w), that for every vector w the following
;
XXXVII.
f(e^
(9.)
employed
in
Sify w )
= (me - Se
/VeVVew
w.
XXXV.,
= -
A.A.A. V11I.
because
fa)
(e
8wiY =
Se ^w, &c.
XXXYI.
is
proved, by
As an
we take
if
example,
XXXIX.
in
r = fq =
which
XL.
we have
p =
pq +
<^,
+ a = a given quaternion,
then,
XLI.
=/
/I
XLII.
! =
linear
= 2a,
2y;,
and
= 2a,
$p -
2^
rccfor functions,
$ p = 2ap,
\fjp
4<r/o,
= 8
3
,
and therefore,
XLIII.
so that,
dividing
XLIY.
fa
by
= 8
<//
a )q
(^
XXXYI.
formula
8a, the
2a(a*
8fl a,
= a (a - a)Sr + a
n =
a),
16rt
2
(
2a(a + a]q =
Vr -
flS
tfr
(a
)_(s
by m- ^ in order
1
Bc
-s e y.y,.)
^*
1
to recover
+ a)Vr - Sor,
Sy just found,
(iIt
Sr +
becomes,
or
XLY.
2
a"
XXXVI.]
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
560
[III. n.
6.
or
XLYI.
.Vr),
or
XLYII.
rp)
= pr +
rKp
or finally,
XLVIII.
rr =
-1
Accordingly,
XLIX.
In
(11.)
rKp) +
(pr +
so simple
(rp
Kp
an example as the
r)
last,
= 2r(p +
Kp) = 4rSp.
was employed in 332, (6.), to differentiate the square root of a quaternion, and
which conducted there more rapidly to a formula (332, XIX.) agreeing with
the recent
(12.)
L.
XLVIII.
We
.pr-
also
might
rp =
= 2V(V(jo 2 )
qp*
= 4Sp
.V<?)
XXXIX.,
.~V(~Vp .V?)
that
whence pq - qp, and therefore pq and qp, can be at once deduced, with the
and generally it is possible
same resulting value for q, or for/
as before
th
root of a quaternion.
to differentiate, on a similar plan, the n
1
We
which is thus satisfied by the Symbol (/) of Linear and Quaternion Operation
on a Quaternion, as the Symbolic and Cubic Equation,
I
+
4>
was
satisfied
coefficients, n,
by the symbol
n
n",
ri",
(0) of linear
and
m"tf
350,
f,
vector operation
on a vector
I.,
ike four
And
f
,
m"
at the
O,
H,
functions,
-^
of the Linear
and
like
function/, by
other,
and useful
several simple
561
relations.*
(1.) The formula of solution, 364, XXXVI., of the linear and quaternion
equation/*? = r being denoted briefly as follows,
>
II.
.)
l
nq = nf~ r = Fr,
we may
III.
it
may
write, briefly
and symbolically,
.fF=Ff=n,
next be proposed to examine the changes which the scalar n and the
Fr undergo, when/r is changed to fr + cr or / to /+ c where c is
function
scalar constant
any
to
that
by 364,
is,
and
(2.)
e is
changed
to e
at the
being
^,
laws of the earlier theory.
;
XII., when
c,
and
to the
Writing, then,
IY. ..fc
=f+c,
ec
c,
tf,
(j>
c,
<j>
and
Y.
we may
= 4 + C +
X
1
\f,
new form
represent the
VI.
nlc
*>
VII.
or
? +
f(
XXXVI.
F r,
n e fi r =
l
./C FC = n e
as follows
where
VIII.
*
Fr =
(m c
fa}8r + e^Jfr Se
i/,
Vr -
Wf VeVr,
c
[That a linear quaternion function satisfies a symbolic quartic may be established as follows
it is possible to determine a scalar c and a
quaternion q o ihatfq t eg = 0, the
:
On inquiry whether
two equations
(e
are found
Vg =
+c-
($
by equating
c)~
Se
(4>
c)Sq
+ Se Vj =
to zero
the
0,
scalar
and
and vector
c)
0.
It
may
eS#
it
first,
(0
c)Yq
0,
quartic equation in c.
If c n is any root of this quartic, and if a = + cn }- ] e, the quaternion qn = 1 -f a will satisfy
(/+ cn }qn = 0. Corresponding to the four values of cn are four quaternions, and in terms of these
(<J>
in general be expressed.
x\q\
Yq =
2#nctn,
and
Sq
2,xn ,
V<?
HAMILTON
aiSq = #2(02
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
01)
a; 3
(o 3
01)
-f
0-4(04
01),
ELEMENTS OF QUATEBNIONS.
562
[III. n.
6.
and
IX.
(3.)
In
this
manner
it is
nc =
ec
- Sg
we may
seen that
X.
i// c
6.
write,
and
XT.
where F, G,
9i,
n",
&+
"&
4
;
ri"
- S Vr (e x + ^)Vr
x
)Sr +
(m"
(e
SetyYr
+ x )Vr - SeV
em - S
n =
n =
given,
Wf WW
Gr = (m - X )Sr +
XIII.
is
ri
c^r -
the scalar #4
Fr = (m - ^ )Sr +
llTr =
and
nc = n + n
H>
XII.
(as in
i//
+ em - St vc
+
on operating by SV(oa
em"
--
- S
01) (a 3
364,
XXIX.)
r
;
ai),
by
040102
and the values of the other scalavs may be written down from symmetry (comp. p. 48). In general
and #4 are uniquely determinate provided the four vectors ct n do not terminate on a common
l
As c varies, the curve traced out by p =
-f c)~ e is a twisted cubic and upon this curve
plane.
the vectors a terminate, and consequently their four extremities do not lie on a plane.
(<f>
To
verify that p
1
-(((/>
e is
<?)~
SA(<|>
c)- 6
=1,
or
SAi|/ c e
=m
found determining the values of c for the points in which the curve cuts the arbitrary plane
SAp +1 = 0. As this is a cubic equation in c, the curve cuts the plane in but three points.
In general then
is
Operating on
from which
which
is
this
q\
by/+
c\,
has disappeared.
equivalent to I.]
xiqi
and
Similarly operating
by/+
cz
ART. 365.]
(4.)
obtain these
XIV.
"
-fH =
- n
ri
F= n -fG = ri and
563
"f+f*
a
n"f+
-/>
"/
finally,
XV.
which
n =
Ff = rif-
n"f*
+ *
-/S
"f*
is
(5.)
operation, which
and
to develop
we may remark
but
XVI.
XVIII.
XVII.
=pq-qp;
[pj]
[>r]
that,
(pqr)
= (pqr) +
(rqlfr + [pr]8j +
q, r, s,
= S
we
the equations,
.jp|>]
|>]Sr
if
and
XIX.
so that [pq]
ternion,
we
(pqrs)
S.jp[gr],
is
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
(pqr)
[_pq]
= -
(qpr)
= -
[pqr]
= - [qp],
[qpr]
=
=
(qrp)
\_qrp]
[pp]
=
=
is
a qua
=
;
&c.,
(ppr)
&c.,
[ppr]
=
;
and
XXIII.
(7.)
(pqrs)
In the next
XXIV.
= -
(qprs)
place, if
(qrps)
= -
(qrsp)
&c.,
(pprs)
0.
= p(qrst) +
q(rstp)
4C2
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
564
which
may
is
q(prst)
= p(qrst] +
r(pqst)
+ s(prqt) + t(prsq)*
XXYI.
aSjSyS
/3S 7 3a
-ySSa/3
SSaj3 7 ,
XXVII.
Saj3 7
because
is satisfied generally,
XXVIII.
= aSS/3 7 +
it is satisfied
= p,
XXIX.
is
q(prst)
7 + 7 Sj3S,
r,
s,
t.
\_rst]$pq
\_stp~\$rq
[tpt
^Ssq
[prs^Stq,
XXX.
SSaj3 7
XXIX.
when
it is
operated on by the
(comp. 312),
XXXI. ..S.p,
*
/3Ser
XIV.),
(8.)
which
6.
XX Y.
and which
[III. n.
S.*.
S.,
S.r,
Xl
XZ
#3
#4
X$
y\
y*
2/3
2/4
2/5
o,
if
p = w\ + ixi +jyi + fai, &c.]
t The equations XXVII. and XXX., which had been proved under slightly different forms in the
sub-articles to 294, have been in fact freely employed as transformations in the course of the present
Chapter, and are supposed to
familiar to the student. Compare the Note to page 485.
\>e
ART. 365.]
(9.)
r, s,
565
t,
the relation,
by
XXX.II.
and deducing from them four
others,
pf(pr8t}
xxxin
(prsf)
/,
by the equations,
=/M
0,
r (prst] = ~
which /is
now
still
otherwise used)
XXXIY.
and
involved in
(10.)
= /? = p Spq + /Sr? +
constants
(comp. 364,
Ssq +
Stq
now
are
(2.))
XXXY.
we
..<?
S [rW],
S OT/],
S [_fpY],
.
[>W],
xxxvi
and when the values thus found
XXXYII.
are substituted in the formula
quaternion inversion
Irst] (q r
S^?,
Sr?,
Ssq,
XXIX., we have
&tq,
XXXVIII.
=
s f)
(pVT)
[stp~] (q s
(prst)q
)
= (p
[ipr] (q
f)
(prst)f->q
pY) +
[>]
(//rV)
XXXIV.
m. n.
ELEMENTS OP QUATEKNIONS.
566
6.
equation
XXXIX.
(p r
)fq =
s t
rs
(q
- r
(q s t
p +
)
tft p r
(q
} ;
whence
fq = g
(12.)
It has
been remarked
by
XXV.
that p,
(9.),
r, s,
in recent formulae,
t,
XXXII.
may
he
we may
therefore assume,
XL.
p =
r =
1,
i,
XLI.
and then
it
will be
i t j, k,
(lijk)
= - 2
/-/,
XLIL ../=/!,
so that the standard quadrinomial
form
= /,
k,
XXXIII.
*--/*.;
=-//,
XXXIY.
give simply,
of prst,
XLIII.
fq
=/l Sq -fi.&iq - fj
.
Conversely,
if
verification, because
we
Skq,
any quaternion,
q,
may
be
set out
XLY.
which
-fk
Sjq
the quadrinomial,
XLIY.
(13.)
.q =
w+
ix
+jy +
221, III.,
kz,
gives,
XLYI.
zfk,
or briefly,
XLYII.
= aw + bx + cy + dz
ART. 365.]
567
the letters abcde being here used to denote five known quaternions, while icxyz
are/owr sought scalars, the problem of quaternion inversion comes to be that of
the separate determination (comp. 312) of these four scalars, so as to
satisfy
the one equation XLYII.
and it is resolved (comp. XXY.) by the
of
system
(w(abcd)
XL V 111.
(ebcd)
x(dbcd)
(aecd)
= (abed)
(y(abcd)
z(abcd)
(abce)
being retained.
(14.) Finally it may be shown, as follows, that the biquadratic equation I.,
for linear functions of quaternions, includes* the cubic I ., or 350, 1., for vectors.
the notations
(6.)
Suppose, for this purpose, that the linear and quaternion function,/*?, reduces
itself to the last term of the general expression 364, XII., or becomes,
..fq = jVq,
XLIX.
the coefficients n,
?/,
LI.
n",
I.
is
operation
now
is
a vector, by
now
* In like manner
it
n = m,
n"
= (-
XLIX., and
be
/I
=0,
=/
=
;
"
m"
for
ty
m =
which case
= M,
m=
0,
and
m"<{>
when we
also
\]/p
the
the
confine
0, if
p be
or
0,
(<J>
m"<J>
In
it
<f>
)/
<,
<f>x
this
0,
m f- my- +/
with
equivalent to that
may
becomes,
LII.
But fq
n"
n = 0,
L.
so that
=
)<t)p
m=
0),
Q;
and therefore
3
(</>
a- be
already the result of an operation with
a line in the given plane.
m"$
if
(f),
+m
}<r
on any vector p
that
is if it be,
as above supposed,
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
568
operation
is
a vector
we may
LIIL
which agrees with 351,
\q~
= (-
iri
tf
<t>
<t>*)p,
I.,
cubic,
when
the
solutions of
"Vq^fq
0,
and of
fq=
It is easy to see,
dratic.
If, for
3
"/
I.,
satisfy the
ri
instance, q
4
by
6.
symbol
[III. n.
"/
- n
= Sj (/ 4 -
n}q
-f
"/
f* - n f + n)q =
~ n
3
"f
+ n
T~
"
/ +
n)q
0.
Se (0
same
^ = 14
= Se(0 +
c)~ f
and q
#3,
Vq~ fq
0,
for
;
c)~
and
it is
01,
and
q\
i,
&c.,
Sqiq
Saia
0.
corresponding vertices.
may
and
Sqq
may
Sqq
Sqg
It is easy to see
V(o3d4
4-
0402
-f
23)
being the negative of the reciprocal of the vector perpendicular on the plane through the extremities
2, a sj and 0*4.]
of a
INDEX TO VOLUME
(
to the
I.
Pages.
to sections
Academy, Royal
communication on quater
Anharmonic
equation of curves,
is
as
of,
133, 224,
253, 258,
289, 316.
use of signs
in,
5, 6,
5,
277.
Amo,
32
on
of surfaces, I.
130,
165,
191
i.
9,
cyclic
II. n.
Area, sign
of, 18.
directed, 482.
Amplitude of quaternion,
S
6,
of parallelogram, 246.
HAMILTON
n.
extended,
263
I.
representative, 143.
149.
in,
6, 87.
304.
Z.n,
in space, 294
cone, 181.
Am,, or
in.
spherical, 406.
Am, symbol
304, 408.
paradox
in space, 55.
sociative,
of amplitudes, 264.
is
111.
a circle, 297.
of vector-arcs,
coordinates, 23
6.
is
5, 120,
Euclidean, 120.
110.
of quaternions,
i.
II.
representative, 151.
230.
Addition of vectors,
264.
of,
Angle of quaternion,
Actual vector,
3,
262
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
note, 120.
of,
ELEMENTS OP QUATERNIONS.
570
of homology, 60.
note, 207.
quater
of ruled hyperboloid, 92
vector-arcs, 304.
for multiplication of
2,
i,
308
/,
;
159
k,
of involution, 16.
quaternions,
vector
1,
301.
308, 340.
Circle, equation of, square of right radial, 134.
At wood
machine, 100.
quaternion,
560.
quaternion equation
IUV,
replaced
Axes
203.
by UV,
touching
of quadric, 536.
of,
small
three
circles
on
sphere,
427.
334.
of, 133.
96.
to,
See Symbol.
vectors, 337.
Characteristic of operation.
i.
5,
119; differential
458.
parabola, 34.
Barycentres, 85.
Barycentric calculus, notes, 22, 50, 61, 62, 85.
Bicouple, 289.
Bifocal form of linear vector function, 545.
surface, 88.
Coefficients of vectors, 9.
differential, 444, 99.
52
quaternions, 210.
Commutative law
of qua
Bivector, 225.
147, 159.
proportion
of,
250, 256.
Complanarity, sign
condition
of, 117.
of, of
quaternions, 148.
45, 52.
lines, 18.
149.
INDEX TO VOLUME
Condition of contact of line and sphere, 224, 427,
Construction, points
of, for
428.
of parallelism of
two
of ellipsoid 234.
of fourth proportional to three diplanar vectors,
362.
of series of spherical parallelograms, 390.
of versors, 148.
on a
\ 2,
256, 251.
in
of volume, 48.
lie
in
Convergency of
anharmonic, 23, 55
14, 343.
of a plane, 60.
45, 344.
Cartesian, 248.
expressed by S, 181.
Couple, 254.
of revolution, 183.
expressed by L, 121
95
ellipsoid, 95.
of, 94.
harmonic, 16.
point of cubic, 41.
of vector, 346.
K, 124.
and
of, 38.
cone, 95.
538.
Conjugate diameters,
S, 180.
and
571
I.
i,j, k, 159.
by TV, 195
by V,
199.
spheroid, 201
ellipsoid,
202.
530
Sq +
193.
4
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
572
Definite integral, 368, 482.
Differentiation, partial,
101
Definition of vector, 3.
sum
of vectors, 7
of quaternions, 109.
a vector, formula
for,
35
of a vector,
4,
451.
of, 98.
symbol
of a quaternion, 446.
5,
422.
of surface, 87.
of curve, 93.
DeMoivre
De Morgan,
by
coefficients, 9.
theorem, 264.
note, 278.
Division of vector
mon, 116.
Depressed equation of linear vector functions, 501,
505.
K, 176, 207
S, 185
V, 204.
of differential, 441.
by
homographic, 16.
Effective vector, 3.
Diameters, conjugate of
of
two quaternions,
finite,
ellipse,
II.
of
i.
95
of ellipsoid, 95.
two
537
vectors, 5.
bifocal, 545
homologies
of,
vector-constants
of
U0, 456.
finite, 99,
432.
quotient, 444.
Differentials
simultaneous, 431.
to,
202.
Equality of points,
;
of,
7, 96, 98.
476.
439
cyclic,
differentials, 434.
0-i,
102.
successive, 479.
of
531
527.
12, 176.
and
of
Tq and
3, 13.
vectors, 3.
121
Equation of loci involving signs Ax. and Z,
T, 165,
V, 195, 199
K, 127 S, 180, 190
of surface, 87.
INDEX TO VOLUME
Equation, vector-, of curve, 94
See Sphere, Ellipsoid, &c.
Formula
of surface, 94.
(A), 160.
of congruence, 51.
of relation between
573
I.
w 4 roots
+ and
-, 5.
of commutation, 7.
of association, 7.
292.
of conjugation
and
(poles
229
polars),
(linear
two
of perpendicularity of
parallelism of
two
vectors, 325.
vectors, 325.
Equi-difference of points, 4.
of, linear, 15
circular, 297.
points,
S,
K, 296;
group
K, 127
V, 195, 199.
See
transformation of Taylor
Exponents,
s series,
473.
scalar, 264.
linear.
algebraic
notation,
5,
Functions, calculus
6,
108,
123,
of,
205, 202.
256.
Gauche
Factor, or operator, 108, 135.
quadrilateral, 82.
of ellipsoid, 241.
Z, 121;
535, 538.
I.
in.
illustration
of
space,
531,
S,
180
Ax. and
nets, plane, I.
of, 118.
vectors, 47.
n.
3,
20
I.
n.
5,
29
in
4, 61.
differential,
436
of
ratio
of
of,
525.
of Chasles,
referred to in
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
574
"Geometrie
de
of Carnot, referred to in
position,"
Gravitation,
344,
375,
Group
337,
426.
note, 335.
Grammarithm,
three vectors,
Identity connecting
notes, 377.
Newton
law
of, 99.
See Anharmonic.
Illustration of differential
Guide-points, 239.
a quaternion, 113.
Harmonic
a,
336
note, 345.
mean
of
two
of
300.
of algebra, 224.
roots
and
515.
Helix, 419.
Imponential, 274.
Indeterminateness of interpretation of
Hexagon,
Higher Plane
Salmon
Curves,"
to,
Hodograph, 99.
Homographic
symbol
sum
ellipsoid
centre of, 60
Homosphericity, equation
i.
of,
product
122.
i.
4,
331
of,
of,
329.
354,
Hyperbola, 33.
scalar
of, 88.
of, 212.
III.
of
distributive, 206.
of
242.
of,
of a right
4,
planes, 338.
quaternion, with
331
two
i.
index, III.
1,
133, 253.
real, 220.
quaternion in terms
Identification
i.
V^T,
= IUV, 203.
IV = V, 335.
Ax.
of, II. i.
Integration, 482.
laws
note, 193.
206.
Hydrostatics, 483.
i,j, k,
175.
5,
Homologies of
II.
of, 187.
division, 16.
is
133.
I,
1,
vector-arcs, 145.
s,
42.
Homology,
V -
of versor, 139.
spherical, 303.
5,
289.
section, 16.
note, 193.
a quaternion, 122
its
own
7,
293.
of circle, 296.
INDEX TO VOLUME
575
I.
form
geometrical, 293.
of,
of,
485.
binomial,
498
cyclic,
520,
Inversoi , 135.
conjugate, 485.
semi-, 135.
Involution, 16.
double, 72.
in space, 295, 300.
derived, 561.
symbolic cubic
introduced, 124.
differential of
of,
494.
unequal real
K?, 455.
imaginary
roots, 509.
roots, 515.
number
Law
"
of the
Lectures"
powers
Left-handed, 111.
of,
491.
number
Lemniscata, 286.
Length, 163.
symbolic biquadratic
of
two
Limiting
ratios,
note 311.
Quaternions,"
Loci,
equations
L and
Line,* expressed by
142 V, 195.
Ax., 121
K, 127
of,
K, 127;
167; U, 142;
V, 194, 199.
U,
anharmonic equation
symbol of ternary, 56
of,
26
coordinates
anharmonic, 57
of, 27.
quinary,
62.
Logarithm of quaternion,
Logarithmic
335
II.
IT.
spiral, 418.
Mean
point, 5.
at infinity, 27.
complex, 85.
of partial systems, 83.
rational, 29.
proportional between
565.
of,
560.
469.
number added
of,
on
512.
tion.
"Letters
to,
and plane, 47
223,
of intersection of
two
of
n vectors, simple, 81
of n, 300.
complex, 85.
The word
vectors, 251.
Monomial form
two
Mixed transformation
planes, 338.
two
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
576
coefficients, 9.
by
Ohm,
note, 276.
is
is associative,
2,
308.
by
vector-arcs, 147.
337.
of i,j, k, 159.
of vectors
See Symbol.
vectors, 3.
is associative,
See Degree.
when one
of factors, indifferent
is scalar,
119.
N, symbol
Ng,
for
norm, 130.
Oval, 279.
of,
Parallelepiped,
addition, 156.
Non- conjugate
Parallelogram, area
246.
of,
Normal,
247, 338.
of,
spherical, 388.
Norms, law of
volume
Non-scalar, 110.
Norm,
of, 93.
of a quaternion, 446.
successive, 479.
butive addition
of,
204.
planes, 57.
of factorials, 476,
350; of i,j,
See Symbol.
k, 159.
vector, 3.
vector-arc, 146.
Number
added to
line, 335.
note, 130.
"Norm"
anharmonic equation
Numbers, name
of,
325,
345.
of,
quinary symbol
of,
for, 53.
56.
Ax.,
S, 180.
121
K,
INDEX TO VOLUME
577
I.
cuhe-root, 257.
rational, 54.
amplitude,
of quaternion, 111.
and
system
Point, symbol of
a,
quinary, 51
ternary, 25
qua
of
conjugate
of, 173.
ternary, 55.
mean, of
263.
of ellipsoid, 232.
am
triangle, 19.
tensor, 171.
in general, 81.
versor, 171.
of
of
two
of
on a sphere, 354.
first
types, 75
group of
diagram
linear, 15
62
tahle of
circular, 297.
in space, 54, 79
types
of, 55.
mean
point, 19.
of closed figure, 8.
of line, 179.
commutative, of addition,
207, 304
6,
176, 207.
268.
Provector,
3,
146.
Pyramid, volume
note, 111.
differential of a, 451.
HAMILTON
sum
7,
Power of a
Projection of
spherical
vectors, 333.
stereographic, 311.
in space, 294
;
321.
space,
of, 78.
rational, in a plane, 29
1,
of second construction in
two rectangular
i.
of indices, 329.
of
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
578
and
cyclic equations of
a,
535.
a,
imponential, 274.
inverse, 122.
525.
ponential, 268.
gauche, 82.
harmonic property
reciprocal, 122.
of, 20.
root, 259.
product of sides
347.
of,
square, II.
i.
7,
565.
transcendental, functions of
division, 116.
power
as quotient of
two
is a,
subtraction, 116.
number added
vectors, 110.
a,
sum, 176.
Quaternions, two
to line, 335.
+ V?, 193.
TqUg, 169.
S^
radial, 131.
development, 473.
equations, 243.
scalar, 120.
vector, 335.
evolutionary, 295.
null, 125.
versor, 143.
Quaternions, parts of
amplitude, 262.
integration, 482.
angle, 119.
axis, 119.
inversion, 557.
quadrinomial, 242.
Quaternion, functions of a single
plane, 111.
conjugate, 123.
scalar, 177.
tensor, 167.
vector, 192.
421, 453.
INDEX TO VOLUME
Quaternions, parts
137.
of, versor,
addition, 207.
collinear, 210.
cyclical permutation
under
S, 248.
function, 528.
Quaternions, calculus of
common
denominator, 116.
of quaternion multiplication, 171.
208.
of a quaternion to a
power of a
vector, 399.
See History.
history of.
successive, 361.
Regression, edge
s series
adopted
to,
473.
types, 55.
Remainder of a
right, 121.
quotient
sum
of,
index
100.
of, 93,
See Lectures.
Lectures on.
of,
206.
of,
arc, 143.
122, 331.
point, 143.
radial, 131.
line, 193.
geometric, 109.
two, with
474.
series,
175.
common denominator,
109, 116.
of quaternion.
See Decomposition.
Revector, 3.
Re versor,
139.
Right-hand
Right
of,
201.
rotation, 119.
part, 193.
right, 132.
index
Ray
vectors, 333.
diplanar, 116.
of
system of
Taylor
579
I.
i.
4,
331
own
index, III.
note, 193.
index of
sum
of,
206
radial, 132.
of, 122.
7,
293.
1)
real, 259.
imaginary, 290.
4
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
580
Eoot, principal, 259.
Series,
224.
of zero, 316.
5,
277.
of
volume of a pyramid,
369.
conical, 154, 359, 398.
a,
170, 111.
Similitude, 115.
of solid, 361.
Rotations, composition of
Simultaneous
differentials,
431.
in, 415.
theorem
18.
48, 342.
95.
of a quaternion, 424.
Solution of the exponential equation, 409.
symbol
S,
for scalar,
examples on
177.
S, 180, 190.
V, 199
distributive, 185.
cyclical permutation under, 248, 350.
i(l
=
S- 1
+ K), 177.
-V, 193.
W.
Sadleir, Rev.
Scalar,
in terms of,
of,
N, T,
165, 167
S2
K, 130; S, 180;
- V a 200.
,
394.
of,
monomial, 355.
202.
Salmon
symmetry
Sphere, equation
why
so called,
1 1
201.
tangent cylinder
to,
tangent cone
225.
to,
of a product, 245.
of a sum, 185.
integration, 482.
addition, 406.
Screw
surface, 419.
cap, 482.
homographic, 16.
excess, 364.
hexagon, 303.
opening, 366.
of ellipsoid, 238.
polygon, 414.
of ellipsoid, 232.
Segments, equation of
tetragonometry, 417.
See Triangle.
trigonometry, 209, 216, 325, 358, 400.
triangle.
Semi-inversor, 135.
Spiral, 418.
Sense of rotation.
Taylor
s,
102, 473.
187.
i.
7,
132,
141, 170,
INDEX TO VOLUME
Symbol of inverse
of-
similarity
for vector-arc
1,
581
I.
(r\),
<x
),
115.
144.
v/
;
quad-
rinomial, 242.
extended use
and
4-
Subtraction of vectors,
5.
256.
5.
of quaternions, 116.
of amplitudes, 264.
Symmetry
Sum
Syn typical
of vectors, 7.
System of
tensor and
norm
lines
of a, 189, 219.
Supplementary
focal
Tg, differential
developable, 100.
L, 120;
u>
I,
Am Am n
,
263.
263.
replaced
334.
by UV,
K,
535.
cylinders, 201.
;
260.
Ax. 120
of,
Taylor
s series,
102, 473.
160.
124.
of vector, 163.
of a scalar, 168.
276.
P, 268.
development
R, 141.
Term,
S-
O,
UO, 140.
of complanarity
|||
of intersection
V^O, 202.
117.
),
(OA BC),
of focal relation
of similarity
oc),
202.
of, 476.
3.
U, 136
of, 456.
screw, 419.
of, 94.
of second order.
t,
10, 157.
i.
triangle, 217.
vector equations
I,
5.
cts,
points, 55.
512.
Summand,
of space, 394.
),
393.
115.
17.
types, 76.
i.
6,
337.
ELEMENTS OF QUATERNIONS.
582
of
See Ellipsoid,
= Sq +
Vg, differential
of quaternions, 356.
exponential, 473.
Vection,
197.
-K),
455.
of,
470, 483.
3.
Transvector, 3, 147.
difference of points, 3.
of,
5.
Transport, 4.
as a factor, 335.
relations, 21.
arc, 3.
determination
of, 144.
of angles, 406.
is associative,
303.
sum
S and V, 209.
angles,
expression of curve, 94
of,
156, 406.
;
of surface, 94.
of developable, 100.
tensor
of,
163.
55.
conjugate
of, 346.
plus scalar
is
is
469.
\/~l,
224, 289.
Unit-vector, 120.
327, 345.
square
of,
power
sphere, 120.
trinomial form
291.
th
geometrically real n roots of, 259.
th
geometrically imaginary n roots
344.
for,
420, 476.
9, 143.
Uninterpreted symbol,
i.
angle, 3.
S and V, 208.
ratio,
335.
Vg, 193.
V= -S = |(l
Ultimate
= IV.
U, 141.
of equation of ellipsoid.
sum
of,
of conjugate, 197.
290.
is
commutative,
coefficients of, 9.
6.
INDEX TO VOLUME
Vectors, complanar, 340.
Version, 164.
by
11.
by numbers,
by any
of scalar, 139.
of null quaternion, 139.
vector, 107.
of conjugate, 138.
fourth proportional
diplanar, 357
to three,
complanar,
250
function, linear.
of,
139.
any
any
four, 44
of sum, 476.
five, 47.
of product, 171.
251.
development
multiplication, 323.
is associative,
of,
476.
337.
3.
325
power
See Identity,
parallel, 10,
conjugate
is
integrals, 482.
null,
of reciprocal, 138.
rectangular, 377.
583
I.
"Warren,
note, 278.
Bum
of, defined, 7.
null quaternion
versor
Zone, area
END OF VOLUME
I.
of, 139.
of,
482.
is,
125.
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