PART 5

STRUCTURAL LOADS AND DESIGN

TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION
5.1

Scope

5.2

Definitions

5.3 Design Requirements

5.4 Design Loads and effects
5.5 Working Stress Design
5.6 Limit State Design
5.7 Dead Loads
5.8 Live Loads due to Use and Occupancy
5.9 Dynamic Loading
5.10 Effects of Wind
5.11 Effects of Earthquake
Appendix A

.7
.9
.11
.12
..19
...22
.63
. 93 - 99

PART 5

STRUCTURAL LOADS AND PROCEDURES

5.1 SCOPE
5.1.1 This section covers all dead loads and imposed loads which shall be
sustained and transmitted by a building and certain structures without exceeding
the stress limitations specified elsewhere in the Code. It applies to:

(1) new buildings and new structures;

(2) alterations and additions to existing buildings and structures;
(3) existing constructions on change of use.

5.1.2 This part of the code does not cover

(1) loads on roads and rail bridges;
(2) loads on structures subject to internal pressure from contents,(e.g. bunkers
silos and water tanks) which should be calculated individually;
(3) loads due to machinery vibration, except those due to some gantry cranes;
(4) loads due to lifts;
(5) loads incidental to construction;
(6) test loads.

5.2 DEFINITIONS
5.2.1 Unless otherwise specified the following definitions shall apply for the
purposes of the Code of this part.

Dead Loads: The force due to the static weight of all permanent structural and
non-structural components of a building, such as walls, partitions, floors,

roofs, fixed service equipment and all other permanent construction.

Live(Imposed) Loads: The load assumed to be produced by the intended

occupancy or use including distributed, concentrated, impact, inertia forces but
excluding wind and earthquake loads.
Wind Loads: All loads due to the effect of wind, pressure or suction.
2

Earthquake Loads: All loads due to the effect of earthquake.

5.3 DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

5.3.1 (1)

Buildings and their structural members including formwork and

falsework shall be designed to have sufficient structural capacity to resist safely

and

effectively all loads and effects of loads and influences that may

reasonably be expected, having regard to the expected service life of buildings.

5.3.1(2) All permanent and temporary structural members, including formwork

and falsework of a building, shall

be protected against loads exceeding the

design loads during the construction period except when, as verified by analysis
or test, temporary overloading of a structural member would result in no
impairment of that member or any other member. In addition, precautions shall
be taken during all stages of

construction to ensure that the building is not

damaged or distorted due to loads applied during construction.

5.3.2 Design Basis

Buildings and their structural members shall be designed by one of the following
methods:
(1)

analysis based on well-established principles of mechanics ;

(2) evaluation of a given full-scale structure or a prototype

by a loading test;
(3) Studies of model analogues (modeling).

5.3.3 Deflections
(1) Structural members shall be designed so that their deflections under
expected service loads will be acceptable with regard to:
(a)

the intended use of building or member;

(b)

possible damage to non-structural members and materials;

(c)

possible damage to the structure itself and, where significant, the

additional effects of loads acting on the deformed structure.

(2) Deflections listed in clause 5.3.3(1) shall be taken into account in all structures
and structural members made of material susceptible to deflections,
3

deformations or changes in load distribution due to creep, shrinkage or other

effects in the materials of which they are composed.

(3) The lateral deflection of buildings due to design wind and gravity loads shall
be checked to ensure that non-structural elements, whose nature is known
at the time the structural design is carried out, will not be damaged. Except
as provided in Clause 5.3.3(4) and unless otherwise approved, the total drift
per storey under design wind and gravity loads shall not exceed 1/500 of the
storey height.

(4) The deflection limits required in Clause 5.3.3(3) does not apply to industrial
buildings or sheds if it is known by experience that greater movement is
acceptable.

5.3.4 Vibrations of Floors

(1) Special considerations shall be given to floor systems susceptible to
vibration to ensure that such vibration is acceptable for the intended
occupancy of the building.

(2) Lateral Deflections of Tall Buildings: Unusually flexible buildings and

buildings whose ratio of height to minimum effective width exceeds 4 to 1
shall be investigated for lateral vibrations under dynamic wind loading.
Lateral accelerations of the building shall be checked to ensure that such
accelerations are acceptable to the intended occupancy of the building.

(3) Stability under Compressive stress: Provision shall be made to ensure

adequate stability of a structure as a whole, and adequate lateral, torsional
and local stability of all structural parts which may be subject to
compressive stress.

5.3.5 Design drawings and Calculations

4

(1) Structural drawings submitted with the application to build shall bear the
signature of the designer.
(2) Drawings submitted with the application to build shall indicate in addition to
those items specified elsewhere in other sections of Part 5 applicable to a specific
material.

(a) the name and address of persons responsible for the structural
design;
(b) the code or standard to which the design conforms;
(c) the dimensions, location and size of all structural members in

sufficient

detail to enable the design to be checked;

(d) sufficient detail to enable the loads due to materials of
construction incorporated in the building to be determined;
(e) all intended uses and occupancies;
(f)

all effects and loads, other than dead loads used in the design of
structural members.

(3) The calculations and analysis made in the design of the structural members, including parts and
components of a building shall be available upon request for inspection by the authority having
jurisdiction.

(4) Structural integrity: Buildings and structural systems shall provide such structural integrity,
strength or other defences that the hazards associated with progressive collapse due to local
failure caused by severe overloads or abnormal events not specifically covered in this section
are reduced to a level commensurate with good engineering practice.

5.3.6 Inspection of Construction

(1)

Inspection of the construction of any building or part thereof shall be carried out by the
designer, or by another suitably qualified person responsible to the designer, to ensure that
the construction conforms with the design.

(2)

The designer or another suitably qualified person familiar with the design concept and
responsible to the designer, shall review all shop drawings and other drawings relevant to
the design to ensure conformance to the design.

(3)

Workmanship and Materials: Workmanship and materials shall be inspected and all reports
5

of material tests shall be reviewed by the designer or another suitably qualified person
responsible to the designer during the process of construction.
(4)

Off-site inspections: Where a building or a component of a building is assembled off the

building site, in a manner that it cannot be inspected on site, approved off-site inspection
shall be provided when required by the authority having jurisdiction to ensure compliance
with this Code.

(5)

Inspection Reports: Copies of all inspection reports shall be made available by the designer
upon request to the authority having jurisdiction.

5.4 DESIGN LOADS AND EFFECTS

5.4.1 (1) Except as provided for in Clause 5.4.2, the following characteristic loads, forces and effects
shall be considered in the design of a building and its structural members and
connections:
GK

Dead load: Is the self-weight of the structure and the weight of finishes, ceilings, services
and partitions (see BS 6399: Part 1, 1996. Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for dead
and imposed loads).

QK

Live (or Imposed or Variable) load: Due to intended use and occupancy (include loads due
to movable partitions and vertical loads due to cranes) and rain (see BS 6399:Part1, 1996).

WK

Wind load: Depends on the location, shape and dimension of the buildings (see BS 6399:
Part 2, 1997. Loadings for buildings. Code of practice for wind loads).

En -

Nominal earth loads: Earth and hydrostatic pressure, surcharge, horizontal components of
static or inertia forces (see BS 8004: 1986: Code of practice for Foundations).

E
T

Earthquake load
Contraction or expansion due to temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture
changes, creep in component materials, movement due to differential
settlement or combination thereof.

5.4.2 (1) Where a building or structural member can be expected to be

subjected to loads, forces or other effects not listed in Clause 5.4.1(1);
such effects shall be taken into account in the design based on the most
appropriate information available.
(2) If it can be shown by engineering principles or if it is known from
experience, that neglect of some or all the effects due to T do not
affect the structural safety and serviceability, they need not be
considered in the calculations.
5.4.3 Structural design shall be carried out in accordance with Section 5.5 Limit State
Design.

5.5 LIMIT STATE DESIGN

5.6.1 (1) In this section the term Limit State means those conditions of a building structure
in which the building ceases to fulfill the function or to satisfy the conditions for which
it was designed.
Limit State Design admits that a structure can become unsatisfactory in various ways,
all of which need to be considered against defined limits of acceptability.
By providing sufficient margins of safety against inherent variability in loading (actions),
material properties, environmental conditions, design methods and construction
practices, limit state design aims at giving an acceptable probability that the structure
will perform satisfactorily during its intended working life.

The limit states can be placed in two categories:

(a) Ultimate limit states, which are those corresponding to maximum load-carrying
capacity and safety of people and the structure e.g.
(i)

Loss of equilibrium (overturning) of part or the whole of the structure when

considered as a rigid body.

(ii)

Rupture of critical sections of the structure.

(iii)

Transformation of structure into a mechanism.

(iv)

Failure through excessive deformation.

7

(v)

Deterioration arising out of fatigue effects.

(b) Serviceability limit states, which are related to the criteria governing normal use or durability
e.g.
(i) Excessive deformations with respect to normal use of structure.
(ii) Premature or excessive cracking.
(iii) Undesirable damage (corrosion).
(iv) Excessive displacement without loss of equilibrium.
(v) Excessive vibrations.
(vi) The comfort of people.
(vii) The appearance of the structure.
(2) Characteristic loads (GK, QK, WK, En, E, T ) means those loads defined in Clause 5.4.1.
(3) Partial safety factors to the value of loads (f), used in design in section 5.5.2 that takes account
of the possibility of unfavourable deviations of the action values, uncertainties in modeling the
effects of actions, and the significance of the particular limit state.
(4) Partial safety factors to the values of material properties (m) used in design. This makes
allowances for sub-standard materials or for the deterioration of materials during the life of the
structure.
(5) Action combination factor, , which for imposed (variable) loads, are used in multiplying
characteristic values to obtain representative values. The use of factors reduce the design values
of more than one variable load when they act together (see Table 5.3).
(6) For imposed (variable) loads, under Eurocode (see 5.3):
representative values = characteristic value x
(7) In most cases, the design value of an action ( load combination) can be expressed as:
design value = representative value x f

5.5.2

Methods of Limit State Design

5.5.2.1

Ghana, British System ( BS 8110: Part 1)

5.5.2.1.1

Required Strength for Ultimate Limit State

8

(1) The required strength R provided to resist dead load GK and imposed load QK shall be at least equal
to
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK

(5-1)

(2) In the design of a structure or member, if resistance to the structural effects of a specified wind load
WK, must be included in the design the following combinations of GK, QK and WK shall be
investigated in determining the greatest required strength R.
R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2WK

(5-2)

where the cases of QK having its full value or being completely absent shall both be checked to
determine the most severe condition using
R = 0.9GK + 1.4WK

(5-3)

In any case, the strength of the member or structure shall not be less than required by Eq. (5-1).

(3) If resistance to specified earthquake loads or forces E must be included in the design the
requirements of 5.5.2.1.1(2) shall apply except that 1.1E shall be substituted for WK.

(4) If lateral earth pressure H must be included in design the strength R shall be at least equal to 1.4GK +
1.6QK + 1.6H but where GK or QK reduce the effect of H (i.e. favourable), the corresponding
coefficients shall be taken as 0.90 for GK and zero for QK i.e. the governing equations are:
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK + 1.6H
R = 0.9GK + 1.6H
R = 1.4GK + 1.6QK
(6) For lateral loads F due to liquids, the provisions for Clause 5.5.2.1.1(4) shall apply, except
that 1.4F shall be substituted for 1.6H. The vertical pressure of liquids shall be considered as dead
load, with due regard to variation in liquid depth.

(6) Where the structural effects of differential settlement, creep, shrinkage or temperature T may be
significant the governing equation shall be
R = 1.2GK + 1.2QK + 1.2T
The above actions are summarized in Table 5.1
9

Table 5.1 Load combinations for Ultimate Limit State

Load

Load Type

Combination

Dead Load

Imposed Load

Adverse

Adverse

Beneficial

Earth and

Beneficial

Wind

Water
pressure

1.Dead and Imposed

(and earth and water

1.4

1.0

1.6

1.4

1.4

1.0

1.4

1.4

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

1.2

pressure)
2.Dead and Wind
(and earth and water
pressure)
3. Dead, Wind and
Imposed (and earth
and water pressure)

5.5.2.1.2 Values for a Serviceability Limit State

A building and its structural components shall be checked for serviceability limit states
as defined in Clause 5.5.1(b). Where more than one load contributes to the stress in
the member the combination of loads shall be assumed to be:

GK + ((QK + (E or WK) + T))

Where shall be equal to:

(a) 1.0 when only one of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act;
(b) 0.70 when two of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act;
10

(c) 0.60 when all of the loads QK, (E or WK) and T act.

5.5.2.2 Eurocode System (BS EN 1990, 1991, 1992)

One of the main differences between the Eurocodes and the British/Ghanaian system is the use of
different partial safety factors and the option to refine/reduce load factors when different load cases
are combined.
5.5.2.2.1 Required strength for Ultimate Limit State
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the appropriate partial safety
factor, f, from Table 5.2.
When more than one imposed load (variable action) is present, the secondary imposed load may be
reduced by the application of a combination factor, 0 (see Table 5.4).
The basic load combination for the required strength at ultimate limit state for a typical building is:

R = GGK + QQK1 + Q0QKi

where:
QK1, QK2, QK3 etc. are the actions due to vertical imposed loads, wind load, snow etc., QK1 being the
leading action for the situation considered.
The unfavourable and favourable factors should be used so as to produce the most onerous
condition. Generally, permanent actions from a single load source may be multiplied by either the
unfavourable or the favourable factor.

Table 5.2 Action Combinations for Ultimate Limit States ( BS EN 1990: Table NA.A1.2 (B))
Option

Permanent Actions

Variable Actions

Earth and

(Dead Loads)

( Imposed, Wind Loads)

Water*

Unfavourable

Favourable

Leading

Others( i > 1)

1.35GK

1.0GK

1.5QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK

2a

1.35GK

1.0GK

1.50,1QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK

2b

1.25GK

1.0GK

1.5QK,1

1.50,iQK,i

1.35QK,i

*Note: If the water pressure calculated is the most unfavourable value that could occur during the life of the structure, a partial
factor of 1.0 may be used.

11

Based on Table 5.2, a summary of Eurocode Partial Load Factors is given in Table 5.3 for the
ultimate limit state.

Table 5.3 Partial safety factors for loads at the ultimate limit state
Variable Actions
Permanent Actions

Leading variable action

Accompanying variable

(GK)

(Q K,1)

actions

Limit State

(a)Static
equilibrium
(b)Structural
strength

(Q K,I)
Unfavourable

Favourable

Unfavourable

Favourable

Unfavourable

Favourable

1.10

0.90

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

1.00

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

1.15

1.50

0.00

1.50

0.00

1.35

0.00

1.35

0.00

1.35

0.00

(c)As an

alternative
to (a) and (b)
above to
design for
both
situations
with one set
of
calculations
(d)Geotechni
cal strength

5.5.2.2.2 Values for Serviceability Limit State

The action (load) combination for checking the requirement at the serviceability limit state
is generally of the form:
GK + QK,1 + 0,iQK,i

Where, GK, QK,1 and QK,i are permanent action (dead load), leading variable action (imposed
12

load) and other secondary variable actions ( where more than one imposed load
contributes to the stresses) respectively. In the case of the secondary variable load(s), their
effect(s) may be reduced by the application of the combination factors as given in Table
5.4. The corresponding load cases for the serviceability limit states are given in Table 5.5.

Table 5.4 Combination reduction factors, , for buildings

Action

Domestic, residential area

0.7

0.5

0.3

Office area

0.7

0.5

0.3

Congregation areas

0.7

0.7

0.6

Shopping areas

0.7

0.7

0.6

Storage areas

1.0

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.7

0.6

0.7

0.5

0.3

Roofs

0.7

0.0

0.0

Wind loads

0.5

0.2

0.0

Temperature (non-fire)

0.6

0.5

0.0

Traffic area
Vehicle30kN
Traffic area
30kNVehicle160kN

Table 5.5 Serviceability Load cases

Design requirement

Action

Permanent(Dead

Variable (Imposed load)

Combinations

load) Actions

Actions

GK
Function and

Leading QK,1

Others QK,i

Characteristic

1.0

1.0

Frequent

1.0

Quasi-

1.0

damage to elements,
including partitions
and finishes
User comfort, use of
machinery, avoiding
ponding of water
Appearance of the

13

structure or element

permanent

5.6 DEAD LOADS

5.6.1 (1) Dead loads shall be calculated from unit weight given in Appendix A to this part or from
materials not provided for in that Appendix as specified or agreed upon with the
Administering Authority.

(2) When partitions are shown in plans, their actual weights shall be included in the dead load.
For all floors in which partition walls are or may be intended but are not located on the
plans, the beams and the floor slabs where these are capable of effective lateral
distribution of the load, shall be designed to carry in addition to other loads, a uniformly
distributed load per square metre of not less than one third of the weight per metre run
of the finished partitions, but not less than 1kN/m2 if the floor is used for office purposes.

5.7 IMPOSED (LIVE) LOADS DUE TO USE AND OCCUPANCY

5.7.1 The minimum live load to be provided for shall be as set out in the Clauses of this Part, or,
where not covered by these Clauses, as specified or agreed upon with the
Administering Authority. In all cases the live load or loads shall be so placed
that in combination with dead load the maximum stresses are produced in the
member or members being designed.

5.7.2 Floor Live Loads

(1) The minimum floor live loads to be provided for shall be taken as being equal to
an equivalent uniform static Load or concentrated load whichever produces
greater stresses and shall be based on the intended use and occupancy as set
out in Table 5.6 of this Clause. The concentrated loads applied over a specified
area of a square with a 300mm side shall be located so as to cause maximum
effects.
Table 5.6 provides for normal effects of ordinary impact and acceleration but
14

does not include any allowance for special concentrated loads. Special
provision shall be made for moving loads other than those in garages for
machinery and other concentrated loads as set out in Clause 5.8.

(2) The concentrated imposed load need not be considered where the floor slab
is capable of effective lateral distribution of this load.
(3) All beams shall be designed to carry the distribution load appropriate to the
uses to which they are to be put as given in Table 5.6.
(4) Beams, ribs and joists spaced at not more than 1metre centres may be
designed as floor slabs.

(5) Where in Table 5.6 no values are given for concentrated load, it may be
assumed that the tabulated distributed load is adequate for design purposes.
(6) Where an area of floor is intended for 2 or more occupancies at different
times, the value to be used from Table 5.6 shall be the greatest value for any
of the occupancies concerned.
(7) When the occupancy of a building is changed the building shall conform to the
requirements of this part of the Code for the new occupancy.

5.7.3 Reduction in Total Imposed Floor Loads

(1) Except as provided for in 5.7.3(2) and 5.7.3(3), the reduction in assumed total
imposed floor loads defined below may be taken in designing columns, piers,
walls, their support and foundations. For purposes of 5.7.2(1) to 5.7.3(3), a roof
may be regarded as a floor.
Let, Le be the imposed load upon the roof and let L1, L2, L3 --- Ln be the respective
imposed loads upon the floors numbered 1, 2, 3 --- n starting from the top of the
building.
For the design of the points of support the following imposed loads may be
adopted:
Supports under roof

LO

Supports under top floor (floor 1)

LO + L1
15

Supports under floor 2

LO + 0.95(L1+L2)

Supports under floor 3

LO + 0.9 (L1+L2 + L3)

Supports under floor 4

LO + 0.85 (L1+L2 + L3 + L4)

Supports under floor n

LO +

(L1+L2 + L3 --- Ln)

The coefficient (3+n)/2n is valid fro n > 5

For factories and workshops designed for 5kN/m2 or more, the reductions
shown above may be taken provided the loading assumed is not less than it
would have been if all floors had been designed for 5kN/m2 with no reductions.

(2) Where a single span of a beam or girder supports not less than 46m2 of floor at
one general level, the imposed load may, in the design of beam or girder, be
reduced by 5% for each 46m2 supported, subject to a maximum reduction of
25%. This reduction or that given in 5.7.3(1), whichever is greater, may be
taken into account in the design of columns or other type member supporting
such a beam.

(3) No reduction shall be made for any plant or machinery which is specifically
allowed for or for buildings for storage purposes, warehouses, garages and
those office areas which are used for storage and filing purposes.

5.7.4 Roof Live Loads other than Wind Loads or Rain Loads.
(1) Flat Roofs
Flat roofs to which there is no direct access (except only such cases as is
necessary for cleaning and repairs) shall withstand an imposed load of

0.25kN/m2 measured on plan or a load of 0.9kN concentrated on a square with

300mm side whichever produces the greater stress.
16

(2) On flat floors where access (in addition to that necessary for cleaning and
repair) is provided to the roof, allowance shall be made for an imposed load of
1.5kN/m2 measured on plan or a load of 1.8kN concentrated on a square with a
300mm side.

Table 5.6 - Uses and Loads

Occupancy or Use

Residential
Multifamily house
Private apartments
Public rooms
Corridors
2. Dwellings
Not exceeding 2 storeys
Exceeding 2 storeys
3. Hotels
Guest rooms
Public rooms
Corridors serving public rooms
Corridors above first floor

Intensity of Distributed Loads

(kN/m2)

Concentrated Load to be applied

unless otherwise stated over any
square with a 300-mm side
(kN/m2)

4.0
2.0
5.0
4.0

4.5
1.8
4.5

1.5
2.0

1.4
1.8

2.0
5.0
5.0
4.0

1.8
4.5
4.5
4.5

5.0
5.0
2.5

4.5
4.5
2.7

3.5
2.0

4.5
-

4.0

1.

4.

Office buildings
Areas (not including computer rooms) located in basement and
first floor
File, rooms in offices
Floors above first floor
Area with computing data processing and similar equipment
Toilet rooms

5.

tr

enas

Assembly areas with fixed seats

including :
Auditoria
Churches
Courtrooms
Lecture halls
Theatres and other areas
with similar uses

6.

Assembly areas without fixed seats including :

Arenas
Balconies

17

Dance floors
Dining areas
Foyers and entrance hall
Grandstands
Reviewing stands
Gymnasia
Museums
Stadia
Stages and other areas with
similar uses

5.0

3.6

7.

Drill rooms and Drill halls

5.0

9.0

8.

Garage for passenger cars unloaded buses and light trucks not
exceeding 2500kg including driveways and ramps
All repair workshops for all types of vehicle and parking for
vehicles exceeding 2500kg gross weight including driveways
and ramps

2.5

9.0

To be determined but not less

than 5.0

To be determined but not less than

9.0

9.

Libraries
Reading and study rooms without book storage
Rooms with book storage (eg. Public lending libraries)
Stack Rooms

2.5
4.0
2.4 For each metre stack
height with a minimum of 6.5

10. Schools and Colleges

Classrooms
Dormitories
Gymnasia
Kitchens
Laboraties including equipment

4.5
4.5
7.0

3.0
1.5
5.0

2.7
1.8
3.6

To be determined but not less

than 3.0
To be determined but not less
than 3.0

4.5

2.0
3.0
2.0
2.0

1.8
4.5
4.5

2.0

4.5

5.0
7.5
10.0

4.5
6.7
9.0

10.0

9.0

11. Hospitals
Bedrooms and Wards
Laundries
Toilet rooms
Utility rooms
X-ray room and Operating
theatres
12. Factories
Light
Medium
Heavy

4.5

13. Warehouses
General storage space in industrial and commercial buildings

(Note: For concentrated loads Pigeauds or Westergaards theory may be used)

18

(3) Sloping Roofs up to angle of 65o to the horizontal shall withstand an imposed
load of 0.25kN/m2 measured on plan or a vertical load of 0.9kN concentrated on a
square with 300mm side whichever produces the greater stress.

(4) Curved Roofs

The imposed load on a curved roof shall be calculated by dividing the roof into
not less than five equal segments and then by calculating the load on each,
appropriate to its mean slope in accordance with 5.7.4(1) to 5.7.4(3).

(5) Roof coverings and purlins at a slope of less than 450 shall be capable of carrying
a load of 0.9kN concentrated on any square with 125mm side.

5.8 DYNAMIC LOADING

5.8.1

Where loads arising from machinery, runways, cranes and other plant
producing dynamic effects are supported by or communicated to the
framework, allowance

shall be made for these dynamic effects, including

impact, by increasing the dead-weight values by an adequate amount. In

order to ensure economy in design, the appropriate dynamic increase for all
members affected shall be ascertained as accurately as possible.

5.8.2 The minimum design load due to equipment, machinery on other objects or
persons that may produce impact, is the total weight of equipment or
machinery plus its maximum lifting capacity, or appropriate live load,
multiplied by an appropriate factor listed in Table 5.7; except in cases where
19

the actual multiplying factor has been supplied by the manufacturer or

supplier of the equipment in which case this factor shall be used in lieu of
those listed in Table 5.7. Where dynamic effects such as resonance and fatigue
are likely to be important as a result of vibration of equipment or machinery, a
dynamic analysis shall be carried out.

Table 5.7 - Impact Loads

Impact due to

Factor

Operation of motor driven cranes

1.25

Operation of hand driven cranes

1.10

Live loads on hanger supported floors and stairs

1.33

Supports for light machinery, shaft or motor driven

1.20

Supports for reciprocating machinery or power driven units

1.50

5.8.3 The minimum horizontal design loads on cranes runway rails are:
(a) Lateral force which shall be:
(i)

for power operated crane trolleys, 20% and for hand operated trolleys, 10% of the sum
of the weights of the lifted loads and of the crane trolley excluding other parts of the
crane;

(b)

(ii)

applied at the top of the rail, one-half in each side of the runway, and

(iii)

considered acting in either direction normal to the runway rail.

Longitudinal force which shall be:

(i) 10 percent of the maximum wheel loads of the crane, and
(ii) applied at the top of the rail.

5.8.4 (1) Loads on Railings

The minimum design load applied horizontally at the top of a railing which guards a drop of more
than 460mm shall be:
(a) 5.8kN/m for exterior balconies of individual residential units and a concentrated load of
0.89kN applied concurrently;
(b) 1.5kN/m for exits and stairs;
(c) 2.2kN/m for assembly occupancies, except for grandstands and stadia;
20

(d) 3.6kN/m for grandstands and stadia including ramps;

(e) 4.4kN/m for vehicle guard rails for parking garages applied 530mm above
the roadway and minimum total load of (11kN) uniformly distributed over
each vehicle space applied 530mm above the roadway, and
(f) O.56kN concentrated load applied at any point for industrial catwalks and
other areas where crowding by many people is very improbable.

(2) The minimum design load applied horizontally to panels under railings which guard
a drop of more than 460mm shall be 0.96KN/m2.
(3) The minimum design load applied vertically at the top of a railing which guards a drop
of more than 460mm shall be 1.5kN/m acting separately from the horizontal load
provided in Clause 5.8.4(1).

(4) Grandstands and any building used for assembly purposes to accommodate large
numbers of people at one time shall be designed to resist all inertia sway forces
produced by use and occupancy of the building or structure. The inertia force shall
be not less than 0.30kN/m of seat parallel to each row of seats or 0.15kN/m of
seat perpendicular to each row of seats.

5.9 EFFECTS OF WIND

5.9.1 Scope
This Subsection deals with methods for calculating wind loads that should be taken
into account when designing buildings, structures and components of buildings and
structures.
It does not apply to building or structures whose light weight, low frequency and 1ow
damping properties make them susceptible to vibration.

5.9.2 Definitions
Unless otherwise specified, the following definitions shall apply for the purposes of
this Subsection.
1. Breadth: The dimension of the building normal to the direction of the wind.
21

2. Depth: The dimension of the building measured in the direction of wind.

3. Height: The height of a building above the ground adjoining that building.
4. Length: The greater horizontal dimension of a building above, the ground
adjoining that building; or the length, between supports, of an individual
structural member.
5. Width: The lesser horizontal dimension, of a building above the ground
adjacent to that building, or the width of a structural member across the
direction of the wind.
6. Height above ground: The dimension above general level of the ground to
windward.
7. Element of Surface Area: The area of surface over which the pressure
coefficient is taken to be constant.
8. Effective Frontal Area: The area normal to the direction of the wind or
shadow area.
9. Dynamic Pressure of Wind: The free dynamic pressure resultant from
the design wind speed.

10. Pressure Coefficient: The ratio of the pressure acting at a point on a surface
to the dynamic pressure of the incident wind.
11. Force Coefficient: A non-dimensional coefficient such that
the total wind force on a body is the product of the force
co-efficient multiplied by the dynamic pressure of the
Incident wind and the appropriate area as defined in
text.
12.

Topography: The nature of the earths surface as

influenced by the hill and valley configurations.

13. Ground Roughness: The nature of the earths surface as influenced by

small-scale obstruction such as trees and buildings (as distinct from
topography)

Note: Breadth and Depth of a building are to the direction of

22

wind. Length and Width are dimensions related to the plan form.

5.9.3 Momenclature
A

element of surface

Ae

effective frontal area

breadth

Cf

force coefficient

Cfn

normal force coefficient

Cft

transverse force coefficient

Cf 1

frictional drag coefficient

Cp

pressure coefficient

Cpe

external pressure coefficient

Cpi

internal pressure coefficient

depth

diameter

force

Fn

normal force

Ft

transverse force

F1

frictional force

height

height above ground

width of member as indicated in diagram

ja

width of member across direction of wind

a constant

reduction factor

length

pressure on surface

Pe

external pressure

Pi

internal pressure

total load intensity

dynamic pressure of wind (stagnation pressure)

23

Re

Reynolds number

S1

topography factor

S2

ground roughness, building size and height above ground

factor

S3

a statistical factor

basic wind speed

Vs

design wind speed

width of building

w1

bay width in multi-bay buildings

wind angle (from a given axis)

aerodynamic solidity ratio

shielding factor

kinematic viscosity

geometric solidity ratio

5.9.4

Procedure for calculating Wind Loads on Structures

(1) The wind load on a structure should be calculated for:

a) the structure as a whole;
b) individual structural elements such as roofs and walls;
c) individual cladding units and their fixings.
(2) In the case of partially completed structures, the wind load will depend on the
method and sequence of construction and may be critical. In calculating the
temporary higher wind loads, the maximum design wind speed Vs may be
assumed not to occur during the short construction period and a reduced factor
S3 used. It is recommended that the graphs of Fig.5.6 should not be extrapolated for
periods less than two years.
(3) The assessment of wind load should be made as follows:
a)

The basic wind speed V appropriate to the area where the structure is
to be erected is determined as specified in 5.9.5(2)

b)

The basic wind speed is multiplied by factors S1, S2 and S3 to give the
design wind speed Vs (see 5.9.5(3)).
24

Vs = VS1 S2 S3

c)

The design wind speed is converted to dynamic pressure q = kVS.2

Table 5.11 gives corresponding values of q and Vs

d)

The design external pressure or suction at any point on the surface of

the building is given by:
p = Cpq
A negative value of Cp indicates suction. The resultant load on an
element or cladding depends on the algebraic difference of the external
pressure or suction and the internal pressure or suction may be
calculated from:
F = (Cpe Cpi)qA
A negative value of F indicates that the resultant force is outwards.
The total wind load on a structure may be obtained by a vectorial
summation of the loads on all the surfaces.

e)

Where a value of force coefficient, Cf, is available, the total wind load
on the building as a whole is more conveniently obtained from:
F = CfqAe
Pressure coefficients are given in Tables 5.14 and 5.20 for a range of
building shapes. Force coefficients are given in Tables 5.21 to 5.25 for
unclad structures.

5.9.5

Design Wind Speed, VS

(1) General: The design wind speed Vs should be calculated from

Vs = VS1 S2 S3
The basic wind speed table is specified in 5.9.5(2) and the factors S1, S2, S3 in
5.9.5(3).

(2) Basic Wind Speed:

25

a) The basic wind velocity is the maximum 3-second gust speed at a height
of 10m above ground likely to be exceeded on the average not more
than once in 50years, in open country. The values are shown by
isophleths (line of equal wind speed) on the map in Fig. 5.1. Table 5.8
gives basic wind speeds to be used in some major towns in Ghana.
b) It should be assumed the wind may blow from any direction.

Table 5.8 - Basic Wind Speed (in metres per second)

for some major towns
m/s
1. Accra

29

2. Takoradi

29

3. Kumasi

36

4. Tamale

34

5. Ada

34

6. Saltpond

29

7. Axim

29

8. Ho

29

9. Akuse

34

10. Kete Krachi

38

11. Wenchi

38

12. Yendi

45

13. Wa

44

14. Navrongo

35

15. Bole

36

26

27

28

(3) Wind Speed Factors

(a)Topography Factor, S1: The basic wind speed, V, takes account of the general
level

of

site

above

sea

level.

This

does

not

allow

for

local

topographic(orographic) features such as hills, valleys, cliff escarpments or

ridges, which can significantly affect the wind speed in their vicinity.
The factor S1 is a measure of the enhancement that occurs in wind speeds
over hills, cliffs and escarpments.
The effect of topography is to accelerate wind near the summit of hills or
crests of cliffs, escarpments or ridges and decelerate the wind in valleys or
near the foot of cliffs, steep escarpments or ridges.
Table 5.9 gives recommended values of S1

Table 5.9 - Topography Factor S1

Topography

Description

Value of S1

category
1
2

All cases except in 2 and 3 below

1.0

Very exposed hillslopes and crests

where acceleration of wind is
known to occur.

Valleys shaped so that funneling

of wind may occur.

Sites

that

are

known

to

be

1.1

abnormally windy due to some

local influence.
3

Steep sided enclosed valleys, sheltered

0.9

from all winds.

29

(i)Effect of a Cliff or Escarpment on the Equivalent Height above ground.

The value of S1 in Table 5.9 can be explicitly calculated for the effect of a cliff or
escarpment at a site.
The effect of topography will be significant at a site when the upward slope () is
greater than 3( or 0.05 slope), and below that, the value of S 1 may be taken to be
equal to 1.0. The value of S1 varies between 1.0 and 1.36 for slopes greater than
3.

The influence of the topographic feature is considered to extend 1.5L e upwind and
2.5L e downwind of the summit or crest of the feature, where Le is the effective
horizontal length of the hill depending on the slope as indicated in Fig. 5.2. The
values of L e for the various slopes are given in Table 5.10.
If the zone downwind from the crest of the feature is relatively flat ( < 3) for a
distance exceeding L e, then the feature should be treated as an escarpment.
Otherwise, the feature must be treated as a hill or ridge.
The topography factor is given by:
S1 = 1+ C .s
where C has values appropriate to the height H above mean ground level and the
distance x from the summit or crest relative to the effective length L e as given in
Table 5.11.
The factor, s, is determined from Fig. 5.3 for cliffs and escarpments and Fig.5.4 for
ridges and hills.

Table 5.11 Variation of effective horizontal length of hill Le and factor C,

with slope,
Slope,

Effective horizontal length,

Factor, C

Le
3< 17
>17

1.2(Z/L)

Z/0.3

0.36

Note: L is the actual length of the upwind slope in the wind direction, and Z is the effective height of
the feature.

30

31

32

(b) Ground Roughness, Building Size and Height above ground, Factor S2
The effect of wind on a building, structure or part thereof depends on
ground roughness variation of wind with height above ground and size of
building or component under consideration. The factor S 2 takes account of the
influences on wind effect listed above.

(i) Ground Roughness

The ground roughness has been divided into three categories and buildings
and their elements into three classes as follows:
Ground Roughness 1: Open, level or nearly level country with no obstructions.
Examples are most of the coastal region outside major urban and sub-urban areas,
air fields and areas surrounding the Volta Lake.
Ground Roughness 2: Open country with few trees and houses. Examples are farmland and
most of the areas of the North and Upper Regions outside major urban centres.
Ground Roughness 3: Areas covered by large obstructions. Examples are forest areas, towns
and their suburbs. Fig. 5.5 shows areas of the country outside major towns and suburbs where
the different categories should be generally applicable.

(ii)Cladding and Building size

Natural winds are turbulent and continually fluctuating. There is evidence available that for
buildings and components of buildings more susceptible to the action of wind, the 3-second gust
speed should be used in design while for other buildings a longer averaging time could be used. As a
consequence of this, 3 classes have been selected.
Class A: All units of cladding, glazing and roofing and their immediate fixings and individual
members of unclad structures.
Class B: All buildings and structures where neither the greatest horizontal dimension nor the
greatest vertical dimension exceeds 50m.

33

Class C: All buildings and structures whose greatest horizontal dimension or greatest vertical
dimension exceeds 50m.
The value of S2 for variation for wind speed with height above ground for various ground roughness
categories and building size classes are given in Table 5.12. The height to be used for the determination
of S2 should be taken as the height from the mean ground level adjoining the building to the top of the
building. Alternatively, the structure may be divided into convenient parts and wind load on each part
calculated, using S2 factor that corresponds to the height above ground of the top of the part. The
dynamic pressure should be assumed to act uniformly over the structure or part respectively.
(c) Factor for building life, S3
The factor S3 takes into account the intended life-span of the building or structure and the acceptable
calculated risk. There is always an element of risk that a given design wind speed may be exceeded in a
storm of exceptional violence. The greater the life-span of the structure, the greater the risk. Fig. 5.6
shows values of S3 equivalent to a period of exposure of 50 years plotted against intended life span or
design life in years.
Normally, wind loads on completed structures and buildings should be calculated at S3 = 1 except for:
(i)

temporary structures;

(ii)

structures where a longer period of exposure to wind may be required;

(iii)

structures where greater than normal safety is required.

The period of exposure should never be taken as less than 2 years.

Example: Calculate the design speed for a tower 20m high, situated in a well wooded area ( roughness
category 3) and for 100-year probable life near an abrupt escarpment of height 35m. The tower is
located around Ho. The crest of the escarpment is 10m effective distance from the plains. The tower is
located on the downwind side, 5m from the crest.
Tan = 10/35 = 0.2857, = 15.74
X = +5

Le = 10m H = 20m X/Le = +5/10 = +0.5

H/Le = 20/10 = 2

Basic wind speed for Ho, V = 29m/s ( Fig. 5.1, Table 5.8)
S3 factor for 100 yr probable life with probability level of 0.63 = 1.05 (Fig. 5.6)
34

S2 factor for 20m for a well wooded area (ground roughness category 3)(Class B) = 0.90 (Fig. 5.5,Table
5.12)
S1 factor for topography:
For X/Le = +0.5 and H/Le = 2 ( Fig. 5.2); s factor from Fig. 5.3 is = 0.05
From Table 5.11, factor C = 1.2Z/Le = 1.2x20/10 = 2.4
S1 = 1 + C x s = 1+ 0.05 x 2.4 = 1.12
Design wind speed = Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3
= 29 (1.12)(0.9)(1.05) = 30.7m/s

Note on Fig. 5.6

For example, using the graph for probability level 0.63 for a period of exposure equal to 100 years say, S3 = 1.05 i.e. there is
the probability level of 0.63 that a speed which is 1.05 times the once in 50 years wind speed obtained from Fig. 5.1 will be
exceeded at least once in 100 years.

35

36

5.9.6 Dynamic Pressure of the Wind

37

Using the value of the design speed Vs obtained from section 5.9.5, the dynamic pressure of the wind q
above atmospheric pressure may be calculated from

where: k = 0.613 in SI units( N/m and m/s)

Table 5.13 gives corresponding values of Vs and q.

Table 5.12 - Ground Roughness, Building size and Height above ground, Factor S2
1. Open Country with no
obstructions
Class
A
B
C

2. Open Country with few

trees and houses
Class
A
B
C

3. Towns, Suburbs, Forest

areas
Class
A
B
C

H
(m)
3 or less

0.83

0.78

0.73

0.72

0.67

0.63

0.64

0.60

0.55

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.79

0.74

0.70

0.70

0.65

0.60

10

1.00

0.95

0.90

0.93

0.88

0.83

0.78

0.74

0.69

15

1.03

0.99

0.94

1.00

0.95

0.91

0.88

0.83

0.78

20

1.06

1.01

0.96

1.03

0.98

0.94

0.95

0.90

0.85

30

1.09

1.05

1.00

1.07

1.03

0.98

1.01

0.97

0.92

40

1.12

1.08

1.03

1.10

1.06

1.01

1.05

1.01

0.96

50

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.12

1.08

1.04

1.08

1.04

1.00

60

1.15

1.12

1.08

1.14

1.10

1.06

1.10

1.06

1.02

80

1.18

1.15

1.11

1.17

1.13

1.09

1.13

1.10

1.06

100

1.20

1.17

1.13

1.19

1.16

1.12

1.16

1.12

1.09

120

1.22

1.19

1.15

1.21

1.18

1.14

1.18

1.15

1.11

140

1.24

1.20

1.17

1.22

1.19

1.16

1.20

1.17

1.13

160

1.25

1.22

1.19

1.24

1.21

1.18

1.21

1.18

1.15

180

1.26

1.23

1.20

1.25

1.22

1.19

1.23

1.20

1.17

200

1.27

1.24

1.21

1.26

1.24

1.21

1.24

1.21

1.18

Table 5.13 - Values of q in SI Units (N/m2)

38

Vs
(m/s)

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10

61

74

88

104

120

138

157

177

199

221

20

245

270

297

324

353

383

414

447

481

516

30

552

589

628

668

709

751

794

839

885

932

40

981

1030

1080

1130

1190

1240

1300

1350

1410

1470

50

1530

1590

1660

1720

1790

1850

1920

1990

2060

2130

60

2210

2280

2360

2430

2510

2590

2670

2750

2830

2920

70

3000

(Note: To determine q for a speed of say 33 m/s look under 3 along the row corresponding to 30 which gives q = 668 N/m2).

5.9.7 Pressure Coefficients and Force Coefficients

(1) General: The force on a building or structure or part thereof is obtained by multiplying the
dynamic pressure by a coefficient that is dependent on the shape of the building or structure and by
the area of the building or structure or part thereof.
The two types of coefficients are:
(a) pressure coefficient Cp which refers to a particular surface or part of building;
(b) force coefficient Cf which refers to the building as a whole. The values of these coefficients
are given in Tables 5.14 to 5.24. These tables may be used for other buildings of generally
similar shape.

(2) Pressure Coefficients: The average values given in the tables are for critical wind directions in one or
more quadrants. In order to determine the maximum wind load on a building the total load should
be calculated from each of the surfaces or parts of the surfaces of the building.
Coefficients of local effects are also given. These are to be used in calculating loads for local areas but
not for calculating the load on entire structural elements such as roof and walls. In such locations,
the construction must be adequate to resist the local forces (additional nailing, anchoring etc.).

Furthermore, it should be noted that these local forces can act in a shaking manner and
result in fatigue failures.

The net design load due to wind on individual cladding and their fixings, roofs and walls should be the
39

algebraic difference of the external pressure or suction and the design internal pressure or suction
from:

F = ( Cpe Cpi ) qA

Values of Cpe are given in Tables 5.14, 5.15, 5.16 and values of Cpi in section 5.9.7(3).

(3) Internal Pressure Coefficient: It is normally difficult to estimate the internal pressure coefficient for
a building as the coefficient depends on permeability through windows, ventilation louvres, leakage
gaps around doors and windows and cladding. It is recommended that for wall and roof loading the
internal pressure coefficient should be determined as follows:

(a) Where there is only negligible probability of dominant opening occurring during a severe storm,
should be taken as +0.2 or -0.3 whichever produces the greater effect on the building or
member concerned.
(b) Where a dominant opening is likely to occur,

should be taken as 7.5% of the value of

outside the opening.

(4) Force Coefficients: Force coefficients vary for the wind acting on different faces of a building or
structure. In determining the critical load, the total wind load should be calculated for each wind
direction . The total wind load on a particular building or structure is given by:

F = Cf q A e

The direction of the force is specific in the table.

Where the wind load is calculated by dividing the area into parts, the value of Cf applied to each part
should be that for the building as a whole.

(6) Frictional Drag: For certain types of buildings it is necessary to take into account a frictional
drag in addition to the wind load calculated from 5.9.7(2) and 5.9.7(4). The frictional drag may
40

be neglected for rectangular clad buildings where the ratio d/h or d/b is greater than 4. The
frictional drag in the direction of the wind is given by the following:

if h b, F = Cfq b(d-4h) + Cfq 2h (d 4h)

or
if h b, F = Cfq b(d 4b) + Cfq 2h (d 4h)

The first term in each formula represents the drag on the roof and the second the drag on the
walls.
= 0.01 for smooth surfaces without corrugations or ribs across the wind direction.
= 0.02 for surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.
0.

= 0.04 surfaces with ribs across the wind direction.

For other buildings the frictional drag will be indicated, where necessary, in tables of pressure
coefficients and force coefficients.

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

For the purpose of calculating the wind forces that act in a way as to deform a cylindrical structure the
values of Cpe in Table 5.22 may be used. They apply only in supercritical flow (i.e. they should only be
used where D > 0.3m). They may be used for wind blowing normal to the axis of cylinders having their
axis normal to the ground plane (i.e. chimneys, silos) and to cylinders having their axis parallel with the
ground plane (i.e. horizontal tanks) provided the clearance between the tank and the ground is not less
than D.
h is the height of a vertical cylinder or length of a horizontal cylinder. Where there is a free flow of air
around both ends, h is to be taken as half the length when calculating h/D. Interpolation may be used
for intermediate values of h/D.
In the calculation of the load on the periphery of the cylinder, the value Cpi shall be taken into account.
For open ended cylinders where h/D

0.3;

For open ended cylinders where h/D

0.3; Cpi may be taken as -0.5

5.9.8
(1)

Cpi may be taken as -0.8.

Force Coefficients for Unclad Structures

General: This section applies to permanently unclad structures and structural frameworks
while temporarily unclad.
Structures that because of their size and the design wind velocity, are in the supercritical flow
regime may need further calculation to ensure that the greatest loads do not occur at some
wind speed below the maximum when the flow will be subcritical.

(2)

Force coefficients of individual members: The coefficients refer to members of infinite length.
For members of finite length, the coefficients should be multiplied by a factor K that depends
on the ratio l/ja, where l is the length of the member and ja is the width across the direction
of the wind. Values of K are given in Table 5.23.
Where any member abuts onto a plate or wall in such a way that free flow of air around that
end of the member is prevented, the ratio l/ja should be doubled for the purpose of
determining K. When both ends of a member are so obstructed, the ratio should be taken as
infinity.
54

Table 5.23 - Values of Reduction Factor K for members of finite length and slenderness
l/ja or l/D

10

20

40

50

100

Circular cylinder, subcritical flow

0.58

0.62

0.68

0.74

0.82

0.87

0.98

1.0

Circular cylinder, supercritical flow

0.80

0.80

0.82

0.90

0.98

0.99

1.0

1.0

Flat plate perpendicular to wind

0.62

0.68

0.69

0.81

0.87

0.90

0.95

1.0

5.9.8(3)(a) Flatsided members: The force coefficient in Table 5.24 are given for two mutuallyperpendicular directions relative to a reference axis on the structural member. They are designated Cfn
and Cft and give the forces normal and transverse, respectively, to the reference plane as will be
apparent from the diagrams.
Force coefficients are for wind normal to the longitudinal axis of the member.
Normal force:

F = Cfn qklj

Transverse force: F = Cft qklj

(b) Circular sections: For circular sections, the force coefficients Cf, which are dependent upon values of
DVs, are given in Table 5.25. The values of Cf given in this table are suitable for all surfaces of evenly
distributed roughness of height less than 1/100 diameter i.e. for all normal surface finishes and for
members of infinite length.

Force, F = CfqKlD

55

56

57

Table 5.25 - Force Coefficients Cf for individual structural members of

Circular Section and Infinte Length
Flow regime

Force coefficient Cf

Subcritical flow

DVs

6m2/s

Re

4.1 x 105

DVs

4.1 x 105
12

Supercritical flow

DVs

8.2 x 105

1.2

12m2/s
Re

0.6

8.2 x 105

33m2/s
Re

DVs

33m2/s

Re

22.6 x 105

0.7

22.6 x 105

0.8

Reynolds number, Re > =

where: D is the diameter of the member
Vs is the design wind speed, and
v is the Kinematic viscosity of the air, which is 1.6 x 10-5 m2/s at 15oC and standard
atmospheric pressure.

(c) Wires and cables: The force coefficients for wires and cables given in Table 5.26 are dependent upon
values of DVs.

Table 5.26 - Force Coefficients Cf for Wires and Cables (1/D >100)
Flow Regime

Smooth

Moderately

surface wire

(galvanized

wire Fine

stranded Thick

or cables

stranded

cables

painted)
DVs

0.6m2/s

1.2

1.3

DVs

0.6m2/

0.9

1.1

DVs

6m2/s

1.2

1.2

DVs

6m2/s

0.5

0.7

58

(4) Single frames: In general, the most unfavourable wind load on a single frame occurs when the
wind is at right angles to the frame.
The wind load acting on a single frame should be taken as
F = Cf q Ae
where; Ae is the effective area of frame normal to the wind direction.
The force coefficients for a single frame consisting of (a) flat-sided members or (b) circular
section members in which all the members of the frame have DVs value less or greater than
6m2/s are given in Table 5.27.

Table 5.27 - Effective Force Coefficients Cf for Single Frames

Solidity ratio

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.75
1.0

Flat sided members

1.9
1.8
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.6
2.0

Force coefficient Cf for:

Circular Sections
Subcritical flow
Supercritical flow
DVs 6m2/s
DVs 6m2/s
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.5
2.0

0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.4
1.4
2.0

The solidity ratio is equal to the effective area of a frame normal to the wind direction divided by the
area enclosed by the boundary of the frame normal to the wind direction.
(5) Multiple frame structures: This section applies to structures having two or more parallel frames
where the windward frame may have a shielding effect upon the frames to leeward. The wind load
on the windward frame and any unsheltered parts of other frames should be calculated as in
5.9.8(3), but wind load on the parts of frames that are sheltered should be multiplied by a shielding
factor n, which is dependent upon the solidity ratio of the windward frame, the type of member
comprising the frame and the spacing ratio of the frames. The values of the shielding factor are
given in Table 5.28.
Where there are more than two frames of similar geometry and spacing, the wind load on the third
and subsequent frames should be taken as equal to that on the second frame.
59

Table 5.28 - Shielding Factor, n

Value of n for an aerodynamic solidity ratio of:
Spacing
Ratio

0.1

Up to 1.0

1.0

0.96

0.90

0.80

0.68

0.54

0.44

0.37

2.0

1.0

0.97

0.91

0.82

0.71

0.58

0.49

0.43

3.0

1.0

0.97

0.92

0.84

0.74

0.63

0.54

0.48

4.0

1.0

0.98

0.93

0.86

0.77

0.67

0.59

0.54

5.0

1.0

0.98

0.94

0.88

0.80

0.71

0.64

0.60

6.0 and over

1.0

0.99

0.95

0.90

0.83

0.75

0.69

0.66

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8 &
over

The spacing ratio is equal to the distance, centre to centre, of the frames, beams or girders divided by
the least overall dimension of the frame, beam or girder measured at right angles to the direction of the
wind.
Aerodynamic solidity ratio,

= solidity ratio () x a constant

where the constant is:

1.6 for flat-sided members;
1.2 for circular sections in the subcritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunctions with
such circular sections;
0.5 for circular sections in the supercritical range and for flat-sided members in conjunction with
circular sections.
(6) Lattice Towers:
(a) Lattice towers of square and equilateral triangular sections constitute special cases for which
it is convenient to use overall force coefficient in the calculation of wind load. The wind load
should be calculated for the condition when the wind blows against any face.
60

The wind load acting in the direction of the wind should be taken as:
F = Cf qAe
The overall force coefficient Cf is given in Tables 5.29, 5.30 and 5.31.

Table 5.29 - Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Towers composed of

Flat-sided members
Solidity ratio

Force coefficient of for:

0.1

Square towers
3.8

Equilateral triangular towers

3.1

0.2

3.3

2.7

0.3

2.8

2.3

0.4

2.3

1.9

0.5

2.1

1.5

For square lattice towers the maximum load occurs when the wind blows on to a corner.
It may be taken as 1.2 times the load for the faceon wind.
For triangular lattice towers the wind load may be assumed to be constant for any inclination of
the wind to face.
(b) Since it is only in very few cases with lattice towers composed of members of circular section
that all the members of a lattice tower are entirely in either subcritical or supercritical flow,
wind force calculations should be carried out as described in 5.9.8(4) for single frames, due
account being taken of the shielding factors in 5.9.8(5).
When it can be shown that all the members of the tower are wholly in the same flow regime
the overall force coefficients Cf given in Tables 5.29 and 5.30 may be used.

61

Table 5.30 - Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Square Towers composed of

Rounded Members

Solidity ratio of front

face,

0.05

Force coefficient Cf for:

Subcritical flow
Supercritical flow
DVs < 6m2/s (45ft mile/h)
DVs 62/s (45ft mile/h)
onto face
onto corner
onto face
onto corner
2.4
2.5
1.1
1.2

0.1

2.2

2.3

1.2

1.3

0.2

1.9

2.1

1.3

1.6

0.3

1.7

1.9

1.4

1.6

0.4

1.6

1.9

1.4

1.6

0.5

0.4

1.9

1.4

1.6

Table 5.31 - Overall Force Coefficient Cf for Equilateral Triangular Towers

composed of Rounded members

Solidity ratio of front

face,

Force coefficient of for:

Subcritical flow
Supercritical flow
2
DV < 6m /s(45ft mile/h)
DV 62/s (45ft mile/h)
all wind directions
all wind directions

62

0.05

1.8

0.8

0.1

1.7

0.8

0.2

1.6

1.1

0.3

1.5

1.1

0.4

1.5

1.1

0.5

1.4

1.2

3.11 EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES

3.11.1 (1) Types of Analysis: The design loading due to earthquake motion shall be determined
by
(a) The analysis in this subsection or
(b) A dynamic analysis provided that the assigned horizontal design ground
acceleration is not less than that given in Table 3.11 (D) of this part of the
code.
(2) Nomenclature: The following nomenclature apply only to the provisions of this
subsection
A= assigned horizontal design ground accelerations
D = the dimension of the building in meters in a detection parallel to the applied
force
Dn = plan dimension of the building in the direction of the computed eccentricity
Ds = the dimension of the lateral force resisting system in metres in a direction
parallel to the applied forces

63

e = computed eccentricity between the centre of mass and centre of rigidity

at the level being considered
ex = design eccentricity at level x
F

= foundation factor as given in clause 3.11.11 (a)

Ft = portion of V to be concentrated at the top of the structure as defined in

clause 3.11.1(11)
Fx = lateral applied force to level x
hi, hn, hx = the height in meters above the base (i = 0) to level I, n or x respectively
I = importance factors of the structure as described in
clause 3.11.1(8)
J

= numerical reduction co-efficient or base overturning moment as defined

in clause 3.11.1 (14)

Jx = numerical reduction co-efficient for moment at level z as defined in

clause 3.11.1 (15)
K = numerical co-efficient that reflects the material and type of construction,
damping, ductility and/or energy absorptive capacity of the structure as
given in clause 3.11.1 (7)
Level I = any level in the building, I = 1 first level above base
level n = that level which is uppermost in the main portion of the structure
level x = that level which is under design consideration
mtx = tensional moment at level x

64

n = the total number of storey above exterior grade to level n (N is usually

numerically equal to n)
S = seismic response factor for the structure as defined in clause 3.11.1(5)
Sp = Horizontal force factor for part or portion of a structure as given in Table
3.11 (c)
T = fundamental period of vibration of the building or structure in seconds in
the direction under consideration
V = minimum lateral seismic force at the base of the structure
Vp = Lateral force or a part of the structure
W = dead load including the following: for areas used for storage, the full
design live load modified according to clause 3.82(2); the full contents
of any tanks
Wi, wx = the portion of w which is located at or is assigned to level I or x
respectively
Wp = the weight of a part or portion of structure e.g. cladding, partitions and
appendages.

(3) Direction of force: Earthquake forces shall be assumed to act in any horizontal direction.
Accept where required otherwise by the authority having
jurisdiction, independent design adequate resistance in the
structure for earthquake forces applied in any direction.
(4)

Lateral seismic force:

The minimum lateral seismic force V assumed to act nonconcurrently in any direction on the building shall be equal to
the production of where A is the assigned horizontal design
65

ground acceleration given in Table 3.11(D) of this part of the

code, and the value of this ground accelerations assumed
constant within each seismic zone.
(5) Seismic response factor: The seismic response factor, S shall be equal to 0.5 (T)-1/3 but need
not exceed 1.00.
(6) Fundamental period: Except where technical data proves otherwise, the fundamental
period, T, in clauses 3.11. (5) shall be equal to 0.09hn/D,
except that where the lateral resisting system consist of a
moment-resisting space frame which resists 100 percent of
the required lateral forces and the frame is not enclosed by or
adjoined by more rigid elements that would tend to prevent
the frame from resisting lateral forces, the fundamental
period, T, shall equal 0.1.N
(7) Types of construction: Values of the numerical coefficient, K, shall conform to Table
3.11(A).
(8) Importance factor: The importance factor, I, shall equal 1.3 for all buildings designed for
post disaster services and schools, and 1.0 for all other buildings.
(9) Foundation factor: The foundation factor, f, shall conform to Table 3.11(B)
Table 3.11 (A):
HORIZONTAL FORCE FACTOR K FOR BUILDINGS OR OTHER STRUCTURES

Case

Type or arrangement of Resisting Element

1.

Buildings with a ductile moment-resisting space rams (1), (2) with

capacity to resist the total required force

2.

Value of K

0.7

Building with a due structural system consisting of a complete ductile

66

monet resisting space frame and cuticle flexural walls (3) designed in
accordance with the following criteria:

0.7

The frames and ductile flexural walls shall resist the total lateral
force in accordance with their relative rigidities considering the
interaction of the flexural walls and frames. In this analysis the
maximum share in the frame must be least 25 percent of the
total base shear.
3.

Building with a dual structural system consisting of a complete ductile

0.8

resisting space frame and share walls or steel bracing designed in

accordance with the following criteria:
(a) The share walls or steel bracing acting independently of the
ductile moment-resisting space frame shall resist the total
required lateral force.
(b) The ductile moment-resisting space frame shall have the
capacity to resist not less than 25 per cent of the required
lateral force, but in case shall the ductile moment resisting
space frame have a lower capacity than that required in
accordance with the relative rigidities.
4.

Building with ductile flexural walls (3) and buildings with ductile framing

1.0

systems not otherwise classified in this Table as cases 1, 2, 3, or 5

5.

Buildings with a dual structural system consisting of a complete ductile

1.3

moment resisting space frame with masonry in filling designed in

accordance either the following criteria:
(a)

The wall system comprising the infilling and the confining

elements acting independently of the ductile momentresisting space frame shall resist the total required lateral
force.

(b)

The ductile moment-resisting space frame shall have the

67

capacity to resist not less than 25 per cent of required

lateral force.
6

Buildings (other than cases 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) of (a) continuously

1.3

reinforced concrete (b) structural steel and (c) reinforced masonry shear
wails.
7.

Buildings of unreinforced masonry and all other structural systems

2.0

except cases 1 to 6 inclusive

8.

Elevated tanks plus full consents or 4 or more cross braced legs and not

3.0

supported by a building designed in accordance with the following

criteria:
(a) The minimum and maximum value of the product SKI shall be
taken as 1.2 and 2.5 respectively
(b) For overusing, the factor J as set forth in clause 3.11.1 (14) shall
be 1.0
(c) The tensional requirements of clauses 3/11.1(15) shall apply.

Notes to Table 3.11(A)

(1) A space frame is a 3-dimensional structural system composed of
interconnected members laterally supported so as to function as a
complete self-contained unit with or without horizontal diaphragms.
(2) A ductile moment-resisting space frame that is designed to resist the specified seismic
forces and that in addition has adequate ductility or energy-absorptive capacity.
(3) A ductile flexural wall is a ductile flexural member cantilevering from the foundation
consisting of a ductile reinforced concrete wall designed.
(4) Shears walls are walls designed to resist lateral forces parallel to the wall.
68

TABLE 3.11 (A): FOUNDATION FACTOR F

Type of depth of soil (1)

F
1.0

Rock, dense and very dense coarse grained soils very stiff and hard fine- grained
soils; compact coarse-grained oils from 0 to 15m deep
Compact coarse grained soils, firm and stiff fine-grained soils with a depth greater

1.3

than 15m; very loose and loose coarse grained soils and very soft and soft fine grained
soils for 0 to 15m deep
Very loose and loose coarse grained soils and very soft and soft fine grained soils

1.5(2)

with depths greater than 15m

Notes to Table 3. 11 (B)
(1). Soil depth shall be measured form foundation or pile cap level.
(2) When sol deposits are of the order of 92m or more, amplification factors greater than those
given in the Table may arise in the case of tall buildings.

(10) Weight of structure: The weight, w of the structure shall be calculated in accordance with
the following formula:
W = w1
69

i=1
(11) Distribution of lateral seismic force: the total seismic force, V, shall be distributed as
follows:
(a) A portion Ft shall be assumed to be concentrated at the top of the structure and equal to
0.004v (hn/Ds)2 except that Ft need to exceed 0.15v and may be considered a zero for
(hn/Ds3.
(b) The remainder, V-Ft, shall be distributed along the height of the building including the top
level in accordance with the following formula:
Fz = (V-Ft) wx hx/( wi hi) and
(c)

I=1

The total shear in any horizontal plane shall be distributed to the serious elements of
the lateral force resisting system in proportion to their rigidities with due regard to the
capacities and stiffness of the non structural elements.

(12) Parts of buildings and their anchorage shall be designed for a lateral force, Vp equal to
ASpWp distributed according to the distribution of mass of the element under
consideration.
(13) The values of Sp in clause 3.11.12 shall conform to Table 3.11 (c).
TABLE3.11(C): HORIZONTAL FORCE FACTOR FOR PART OR PORTION OF A STRUCTURE
Category
1
2
3
4

Part or portion of building

All exterior and interior walls

Direction of fore
Normal to flat
surface
Cantilever parapet and other oantilever walls Normal to flat
except retaining walls
surface
Exterior and interior ornamentations and Any direction
appendages
Towers, chimeys and smoke-stacks more than
3mm high above the building, machinery
fixtures and equipment, pies, tanks plus Any direction

Value of sp
2
10
10

2(1), (2)
70

contents and pent houses, al when concerted to

or forming part of a building.
5
Towers, chmeys and smoke stacks more than
3m high above the building
6
Thanks plus contents when resting on the
ground
7
Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms
8
Connections for exterior and interior and
interior walls and elements except those
forming part of main structural system
Notes on Table 3.11(c)

Any direction

3(3)

Any direction

1(2)

Any direction

1(4)

Any direction

25

(1) When h/D of any building is equal or greater than 5 to 1, increase value by 50 percent.
(2) The value shall be increased 50 percent for pipes and containers for toxic or explosive
materials, for materials having a flash point below 37.8C or for firefighting fluids.
(3) Lower values of Sp may be used if they can be proven by analysis.
(4) Floors and roofs acting as diaphragms shall be

designed for a minimum force

corresponding to a value of Sp =1 applied to loads tributary from that storey, unless a

greater force F is assigned to the level under consideration as in clause 3.11.1(5).

(14) Overturning: The overturning moment, M, at the base of the structure shall be multiplied
by the reduction coefficient J, where
(a) J = 1 where T is less than 0.5
(b) J= (1.1 0.2T) Where T is at least 0.5 but not more than 1.5 and
(c) J = 0.8 where T is greater than 1.5

(15) The overturning moment Mx at any level shall be multiplied

by Jx where
Jx = J + (1-J) (hx/hn)3

71

The incremental changes in the design overturning moments, in the storey under
consideration, shall be distributed to the various resisting elements in the same
proportion as the distribution of shears in the resisting system. Where other vertical
members are provided which are capable of partially resisting the overturning
members, a redistribution may be made to these members if framing members of
sufficient strength and stiffness to transmit the required loads are provided. Where a
vertical-resisting element is discontinuous, the overturning moment carried by the
lowest storey of that element shall be carried down as loads to the foundation.

16) Torsional moments: Torsional moments in the horizontal plans of the building shall be
computed in each storey using the formula:
Mtx = (V-xFi)ex
i=1
(Severe modal coupling may occur in symmetrical or nearly symmetrical structures
where the fundamental lateral and torsional periods are nearly equal).

17) Design eccentricity: The design eccentricity, ex in clause 3.11(16) shall be computed
by one of the following equations, whichever provides the greater stresses:
(a) ex = 1. 5e + 0.05Dn or
(b) ex = 0.5e 0.05 Dn

(18) When the maximum design eccentricity exceeds 0.25Dn

(a) A dynamic analysis shall be made or
(b) The adverse effects of torsion as computed in clause 3.11(16) shall be
doubled.

(19) Setbacks:
72

(a) Buildings having setbacks wherein the plan dimension of the tower in each
direction is at least 75 percent of the corresponding plan dimensions of the
lower part may be considered as a uniform building without setbacks for the
purpose of determining seismic forces.

(b) For other conditions of setbacks, the tower shall be designed as

separate building using the larger of the seismic co-efficient at the base of the
tower determined by considering the tower as either a separate building for its
own height or as part of the overall structure. The resulting total shear from the
tower shall be applied at the top of the lower part of the building which shall be
otherwise considered separately for its own height.

3. 12 GENERAL PROVISIONS
(1) Lateral deflections of a storey relative to its adjacent storeys shall be
considered in accordance with accepted practice.
(2) Lateral deflections of a storey relative to its adjacent storeys obtained from an
elastic analysis using the loads given in clause 3.11.11 shall be multiplied by 3
to give realistic values of anticipated deflection.
(3) All portions of the structure shall be designed to ac as integral units in resisting
horizontal forces, unless separated by adequate clearances which permit
horizontal deflections of the structure consistent with values of deflections
calculated in accordance with clause 3.13.2
(4) The nonstructural components shall be designed so as not to transfer to the
structural system any forces unaccounted for in the design and any
interaction of rigid elements such as walls and structural system shall be
designed so that the capacity of the structural system is not impaired by the
action or failure of the rigid elements.
73

(5) To prevent collision of buildings in an earthquake, adjacent structures shall

either be separated by twice the sum of their individual deflections obtained
from an elastic analysis using the loads given in clause 3.11.11 or shall be
connected to each other.
(6) The method of connection clause 3.12.5 shall take into account the mass,
stiffness, strength, ductility and anticipated motion of the connected buildings
and the character of the connection.
(7) The connected buildings in clause 3.12.5 shall be assumed to have a K value
equal to that of the least ductile of the buildings connected, unless a lower
value can be can be justified by rational analysis.
(8) Pile footings of every building or structure shall be interconnected continuously
by ties in at least 2 directions designed to carry by tension or compression a
horizontal force equal to 10 percent of the larger pile cap loading unless it can
be demonstrated that equivalent restrains can provided by other means.

TABLE 3.3.11(D)
DEFINITION OF SEISMIC ZONES

Seismic
zone
0

Range of Horizontal Ground

Acceleration, A, g ( units of
gravity)
Less than 0.01

Equal to or greater than 0.01

Assigned Horizontal Design

Ground Acceleration A. g
(units of gravity)
0
0.02

to less than 0.03

2

Equal to or greater than 0.03

0.04

to less than 0.06

3

Equal to or greater than 0.06

0.08

Notes on Table 3.11(D)

74

The assigned acceleration due to earthquake is expressed as a factor of gravity acceleration

g (9.8m per sec2).

75

76

APPENDIX A
SCHEDULE OF UNIT WEIGHT OF BUILDING MATERIALS
Weights of concrete

Lightweights concrete

L i g h t w e ig h ts c o n c r e t e

Non-reinforced plain or mass concrete

Reinforced concrete

Table 1A
Nominal weight Aggregate:
limestone
gravel
broken brick
other crushed
stone
Nominal weight
Reinforcement: 1%
2%
4%

Aggregate or type

Solidslabs Thickness (floors,

walls, 75mm etc.)
100mm
150mm
250mm
300mm
Ribbed slabs 125mm
150mm
225mm
300mm
Compressive strength N/mm2

Expanded clay or shale

-ditto - structural
Vermiculite (expanded mica)
No-fines (gravel)
Cellular (aerated or gas concrete)
Cellular structural

5.6 to 8.4
13.8 to 34.5
0.5 to 3.5
1.4
10.3 to 15.5

con struction with con crete products

Concrete block and brick walls

Sandcrete block: solid
Lightweight aggregates: solid
Brickwork (nominal)
Other products

kN/m3
22.6
21.2 to 23.6
22.0 to 23.6
19.6(av)
22.8 to 24.4
23.6
22.6 to 24.2
23.1 to 24.7
24.0 to 25.6
KN/m2
1.80
2.40
3.60
6.00
7.20
2.00
2.15
2.75
3.35
kN/ m3
9.4 to 11.8
13.4 to 18.1
3.9 to 11.0
15.7 to 18.9
3.9 (min.)
14.1 to 15.7
kN/ m3
17.3
13.2
21.7
kN/m2

Paving slabs (flags)

50mm thick
Roofing tiles: plain
inter-locking

1.15
0.6 to 0.9
0.6

77

To convert values in kN to values in kg. multiply by 102

Weights of constructional materials

Miscellaneous Materials

Concrete Brickwork etc

Clay floor tiles

N/m2

Damp-proof course

575

Tarmacadam

KN/m3

48

Macadam (waterbound)

22.6

N/m2 mm per

Vermiculite3 (aggregate)

25.1

thickness

Terracotta

0.8

Felt (insulating)

1.9

Glass

20.8

Paving slabs. (stone)

26.4

Cork: granular

26.7

Granite sets

28.3

1.2

Asphalt

22.6

3.8

Rubber paving

15.1

Polyvinylchloride

19(av)

Glass-fibre (forms)

1.9

Chipboard
Plywood
Fibreboard
Wood-wool
Plasterboard
Water boarding

N/m2 per mm
7.5
6.1
2.8
5.7
9.4
3.8

:compressed

Timber

See
TABLE 1A

Table 2A

Abura
Afara or limba
African walnut
Afromosia
Afzelia
Agba
Albizzia (A.ferruginea)
Alstonia
Antiaris
Avodire
Ayan
Canarium, African
Celtis
Dahoma
Danta
Ekki
Esia

density at
12% moisture
content
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
7.9 to 10.2
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
3.1
3.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7

Gedu nohor
Guarea (cedrata)
Guarea (thomsonii)
Idigbo
Ilomba
Iroko
Mahogany, African
Makore
Okwen

Density at 12%
moisture constant
KN/m3
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
78

Mansonia
Mubura
Miangori
Obeche
Odoko
Ogea
okan

6.3 to 7.7
10.2
7.9 to 10.2
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
3.1 to 4.6
4.7 to 6.1
4.7 to 6.1
7.9 to 10.2

Opepe
Ptergygota
Sapele
Stervulia, Brown
Sterculia, yellow
Utile

4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
4.7 to 6.1
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7
6.3 to 7.7

Granite

25.1 to 28.7

Stone rubble (packed)

22.0

Sandstone

22.0 to 23.6

Quarry waste

14.1

slate

28.3

Hardcore (consolidated)

18.9

All-in aggregate

19.6

70.7

Structural steel work

Net weight of member +

wrought

75.4

Riveted

steel (see also below)

77.0

copper: cast

85.6

Natural stone (solid)

iron: cast

: wrought

10% for cleats, rivets

bolts etc

87.7

Brass

83.3

Bronze

87.7

Aluminum

27.2

Lead

111.0

Zinc (rolled)

70.0
g/mm2

1
4

Welded

Rolled sections: beams

:stanchions

Plate-web girders

per metre
Steel bars

1
2

+1 % to 2 %

1
2

for welds etc + 2 %

for caps and bases)
+ 10% for rivets or
welds, stiffeners etc.

7.85

See Table 3A
Roof trusses
Steel stairs: industrial
Type in wide

N/m
820

Steel tube:
50mm in bore
Gas piping: 20mm

45 to 60
18
79

Weight of roofs

Table 3A
Weight per m2 of slope of roof
(N/m2)

Material

claddning

Net
Aluminum sheet corrugated 18. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, corrugated 20 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet corrugated 22. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet corrugated 24. S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 18 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 20 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 22 S.W.G
Aluminum sheet, flat 24 S.W.G
Asbestos cement sheets, corrugated 6mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 5mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 6mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 10mm thick
Asbestos cement sheets, flat 12mm thick
Copper sheeting 16 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 18 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 20 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 22 S.W.G
Copper sheeting 24 S.W.G
Roofing felt, 3-ply
Roofing felt, 2-ply
Roofing felt, 1.ply
Shingles (excluding battens)
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 18GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 20GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 22GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 24GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 26GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, corrugated 28GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 18GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 20GB

37.8
28.7
22.0
17.2
33.5
24.9
19.6
15.3
135
80
110
170
220
145
110
80
65
50
25
20
15

including normal laps and fastenings

47.9
38.3
28.7
23.9

160

120
110
90
70
55
45
35
100
80

135
105
90
70
55
45
80

Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 22GB

Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 24GB
Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 26GB

60
50
40
Table 3A (contd)

Steel sheet, galvanized, flat 28BG

Thatching, 300mm nominal thickness

30

Cladding

:dry
:wet

410

Roofing, burnt clay Marseilles type

530

(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay Etruscna type

430

(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Broseley type

570

(excluding battens)
Tiles, roofing, burnt clay, Italian type

670

(excluding battens)
Reinforced concrete slabs, concrete tiles

720

etc.

See Table 1A

Roof trusses

Spacing of trusses

3.0m

4.5m

Approximate weights of steel roof trusses in N/m2

Span of

7.5m

95

72

of plan area of roof

trusses

9m

120

72

12m

132

84

15m

144

108

18m

203

144

25m

239

168

81

Solid and packed m aterials

Li quids and semi -liquids

Weights of stored materials

Acids: acetic

Tables 4A
KN/m3

KN/m3

nitric

10.4

Mineral oils: naptha

7.4

sulphuric

15.1

Paraffin (kerosene)

7.9

alcohol (commercial)

18.1

Petrol(gasoline)

6.9

ammonia

7.9

Petroleum oil

8.6

beer: in bulk

8.8

Pulp (wood)

7.1

bottled (in cases)

10.0

Slurry: cement

14.1

in barrels

4.6

benzene, benzol

5.5

Sewage

9.7 to 11.8

bitumen (prepared)

8.6

Tar, pitch

11.8

methylated spirit

13.7

Turpentine

8.5

linseed oil milk

8.2

Water: fresh

9.81

8.8

Sea water

10.05

10.2

Wine: in bulk

9.7

Bottled (in cases)

5.8

Lime (slated) dry

wet
Paper (packed)
Waste(pressed)
Salt: dry
Loose
Sawdust
Slag: basic
Crushed
Foamed
Sugar (loose)
Tea (in chests)

5.5
14.9
9.4
5.5
9.4
14.1
2.4
17.3
9.4 to 14.1
6.3
7.9
4.4

Brewerys grains (wet)

Bricks (stacked)
Clinker
Cotton (in bales)
Flour: in bulk
In sacks
Hops (in sacks)
Ice
Bottled goods (in cases)
Eggs in bulk
Meat
Tinned goods (in cases)

5.5
17.3
9.4 to 10.2
2.4 to 5.5
7.1
6.3
1.7
9.0
8.8
10.7
7.1
9.4

Clay

11.9

To convert values in kN to values in kg. multiply by 102

82

83