61

61

Nuclear
Engineering and
and DesigJI
Design 68
68 (1981)
(1981) 61-70
61-70
N
uc1ear Engineering
North-Holland Publishing
Pubfishing Company
Company
North-Holland

F I N I T E ELEMENT
E L E M E N T PROGRAM
P R O G R A M FOR
F O R MOISTURE
M O I S T U R E AND
A N D HEAT
H E A T TRANSFER
T R A N S F E R IN
I N HEATED
HEATED
FINITE
CONCRETE
CONCRETE
Zden~k P. BAZANT,
B A Z A N T , Jenn-Chuan
J e n n - C h u a n CHERN
C H E R N and
a n d Werapol
W e r a p o l THONGUTHAI*
THONGUTHAI *
Zdenek
Center
Center for
for Concrete
Concrete and
and Geomaterials,
Geomaterials, Technological
TechnologicalInstitute,
Institute, Northwestern
Northwestern University,
University, Evanston,
Evanston, lL
[L 60201,
60201, USA
USA

Received 18
18 June 1981,
1981, revised
revised manuscript received
received 16
16 November
November 1981
1981
Received

A
A new
new axisymmetric
axisymmetric finite
finite element program for
for the
the analysis
analysis of
of pore
pore pressure, moisture content
content and temperature in
in heated
concrete is
is described. The program
program is
is based
based on the
the diffusion equations for
for coupled heat
heat and moisture transfer and
and uses
uses a
step-by-step time integration. The finite
finite element scheme
scheme is
is based
based on Galerkin
Galerkin method. For time integration a step-by-step
step-by-step
iterations is
is used.
used. The numerical analysis is
is complicated by the fact that the sorption
sorption isotherms exhibit a steep
solution with iterations
jump at saturation-nonsaturation
saturation-nonsaturation transitions, and that the permeability
permeability dependence on temperature exhibits a jump of two
two
orders
orders of magnitude at 100C.
100C. The mathematical model
model takes
takes into account the release
release of chemically
chemically bound water due to
dehydration
dehydration and the associated changes in the pore
pore space.
space. The program
program may
may also be used at normal
normal temperatures. Predictions
of the program
program are
are compared
compared with tests by HEDL as
as well
well as
as two
two other existing programs.

1. Introduction
I.

Concrete is a material which contains extremely fine

pores with a great amount
amount of water. Therefore, heating
of concrete produces significant pore pressure which
causes migration of moisture through concrete and
eventual drying. At the same time, the movement of
moisture through concrete may appreciably contribute
to the heat transfer and affect the temperatures. The
pore
pore pressures depend on
on the pore space available to
water, which is known
known to change in response to heating
and
and other
other factors. The
The material characteristics entering
the diffusion problem of moisture and
and heat transfer are
strongly variable. Therefore,
Therefore, analysis of
of pore
pore pressures,
moisture
moisture content
content and
and temperature
temperature in
in heated
heated concrete
necessitates a numerical approach,
approach, and
and the objective of
of
this paper
paper is to report on
on the development of
of a finite
element
element program
program to
to accomplish this task.
The
The movement
movement of
of moisture and
and the magnitude
magnitude of
of
pore
pore pressure
pressure is of
of concern
concern in
in predicting the
the behavior
behavior of
of
nuclear
nuclear reactor
reactor structures,
structures, particularly prestressed concrete
crete reactor
reactor vessels, in
in response
response to
to certain
certain hypothetical
core
core disruptive accidents. In
In one
one scenario, for example,
liquid
liquid sodium
sodium may
may come
come in
in contact
contact with
with the
the steel liner

Now
Now working
working as structural
structural engineer, Gibbs and Hill,
Hill. New
New
York.
York.

of the concrete wall and cause its sudden heating to

temperatures close to 6OOC.
600C. Moreover, in case of some
damage to the steel liner, the sodium might react with
the water present in the pores of concrete below the
liner. If the liner is not disrupted, the sudden heating
would produce significant pressure build-up in the pore
water under the liner. Predictions of water content'
content are
also of interest for radiation shielding capability of
concrete. Aside from nuclear technology, the high temperature behavior of
of concrete is also of acute interest in
perature
fire resistance predictions.
One phenomenon
phenomenon for which the calculations of pore
One
of great interest is the explosive spalling of
pressure are of
concrete which
which is sometimes caused
caused by
by a rapid heating
heating
concrete
during the fire. Although
Although the major
major factor in
in this pheduring
nomenon is no
no doubt
doubt the
the thermal
thermal stress produced
produced by
by
nomenon
heating in a restrained concrete, a significant
rapid heating
factor may
may also be the rise of
of the pore
pore pressure caused
caused
by heating. This
This is suggested by
by the
the fact that
that explosive
by
only in
in concrete
concrete of
of high
high moisture
moisture
spalling is observed only
content.
content.

2. Theoretical
'Theoretical model

The computer
computer program
program uses
uses the
the finite element
element
The
method to
to solve the
the following system
system of
of governing
governing
method
differential equations
equations for
for the
the coupled
coupled heat
heat and
and moisture
moisture
differential

00029-5493/81/0000-0000/$02.75
029-5493/81/0000-0000/$02.75
orth-Holland
1981
1981 NNorth-Holland

62
62

z.P. Badant
Bazant etetaal.
Moistureand
andheat
heat transfer
transfer inin heated
heatedconcrete
concrete
Z.P.
L / / Moisture

transfer in
in concrete
concrete [1,2]:
[1,2]:
transfer

aw
. 3wh
aWd
3w
at=
-- -dlVJ+
div Y + - - ,
Tt
at
at '
J=
-a
gradp,
J = --a grad p,

(1)
(1)

(n)

(2)
(2)

aT
ow = -dlv. q'+ CwJ' grad T,
pC T _- C.
at
PCot=_a
= - div q + CwJ . grad T,
at Ca awat

(3)
(3)

qq=
: - b g-b
r a grad
d T , T,

(4)
(4)

in which
which
in
time,
: time,
temperature in
in concrete,
concrete,
= temperature
water
content
=
mass of
of all
all free
free (not
(not chemically
chemically
water content ----mass
:
of concrete,
concrete,
bound) water
water per
per unit
unit volume
volume of
bound)
moisture flux,
flux,
JJ = moisture
heat flux,
flux,
qq : heat
Wd
total mass
mass of
of free (evaporable) water
water that
that has
has
w
d : total
been released into the pores
pores by
by dehydration of
of
hydrated cement paste,
paste,
the hydrated
pore water
water pressure,
pressure,
pp
=
pore
a
water permeability,
permeability,
water
(d
of concrete,
pp
= unit mass of
C = isobaric heat capacity of concrete per unit
C
of concrete,
concrete,
volume of
volume
heat adsoprtion of free water,
Ca
=
mass density and isobaric heat capacity of liquid
water,
water,
bb
heat conductivity.
conductivity.
= heat
tt
T
T
w
W

Note that eq. (3) includes the effect of heat convection

convection
due to the movement of water, which is however signifisignificant only at very rapid heating.
heating. Another characteristic
aspect of the foregoing
foregoing equations
equations is the effect of dehyWd'
Dehydration
dration,
given
by
dration, given
wd. Dehydration is
is the opposite of
hydration
hydration and is
is produced by heating concrete to temtemperatures overabout
over about 125C.
125C. At roo11)
room temperatures this
same
same term
term may
may be
be used
used to
to represent
represent the
the water
water lost
lost due
due
to
to hydration.
hydration.
The
The foregoing
foregoing equations
equations must
must be
be complemented
complemented by
by
the
the equation
equation of
of state,
state, which
which relates
relates w,
w, pp and
and T.
T. One
One
distinguishes
distinguishes the
the case
case of
of saturated
saturated and
and nonsaturated
nonsaturated
concrete.
concrete. For
For saturated
saturated concrete,
concrete, the equation
equation of
of state
state is
is
based
based on
o n the
the thermodynamic
thermodynamic properties
properties of
of water,
water, as
as
given
given by
by the
the ASTM
ASTM tables.
tables. The
The specific
specific volume
volume must
must be
be
determined
determined from
from the
the changes
changes in
in porosity
porosity of
of concrete.
concrete.
These
These are
are caused
caused by
by dehydration
dehydration and
and are
are related
related to
to Wd'
wd.
In
In the
the nonsaturated
nonsaturated region,
region, the
the capillary
capillary and
and,adsorption
adsorption
phenomena
phenomena in
in the
the pores
pores govern
govern the
the equation
equation of
of state,
state,
and
and aa semi-empirical
semi-empirical equation
equation of
o f state
state has
has been
been develdeveloped
oped for
for this
this region.
region. The
The temperature
temperature isis aa very
very signifisignificant
cant factor
factor in
in the
the sorption
sorption relation.
relation. The
The equation
equation of
of

0.3
0.3
. .s::.
c
c~n
C>
0J
~

'"

c
._c
v
cc
o~

'"

0.2
EE 0.2
L.)
U
......

'"

$
Concr.t. Density,

2300

kg/m'

Cement Contpnt.

0.1

300

U-

kg/m'

Free Water Contenl,

100

kg/m'

c0~~~~~-d~~---1~.0---L---L---L--~~20
o
i .o
2o
R
e l a t i v e Vapor
ressure P
/ P s ((Tl
T)
Relative
Vapor P
Pressure
PIPs

(( bb))
0o

~ioo
~IOO
0o

>..

.-

L6
.D
0o

h : PIPs
PIP s (T)
(T)
h=

0~

'"EE
~
'"_10,o
~

Q.

co

'"co

~0

C>
c

00

.ct -

u(.)
....:

'"

rta::

0.6

O.
0.1
_-..1.L_ _ _' -h -_ _- 'I -_ _- '
0.1 '---'-__-'-____-'-_
~
50
I O0
150
200
250
300
100
o0
50
200
250
300
150
T e m p e r a t u r e in
in C,
C, TT
Temperature
Fig. 1.1. (a)
(a) Sorption
Sorption isotherms;
isotherms; (b)
(b) dependence
dependence of
o f permeability
permeability
Fig.
on temperature
temperatureand
and humidity.
humidity.
on

Z.P. Bazant
Ba~antetetal.al.I / Moisture
Moistureand
andheat
heattransfer
transferininheated
heatedconcrete
concrete
z.P.

state isis described

described inin terms
terms of
of the
the sorption
sorption isotherms
isotherms
state
shown ininfig.
fig. I Ia.a.
shown
Another very
very important
important factor
factor isis the
the permeability,
permeability,
Another
which isis highly
highly dependent
dependent on
on temperature
temperature asas well
well asas
which
pore
pressure.
The
dependence
on
pore
pressure
pore pressure. The dependence on pore pressure isis
apparently due
due toto the
the effect
effect of
of adsorption
adsorption phenomena
phenomena
apparently
and disappears
disappears atat temperatures
temperatures welI
wellover
over 100C.
100C. As
As the
the
and
temperature of
of 100C
100C isis passed,
passed, permeability
permeability isis found
found
temperature
to exhibit
exhibit aa sharp
sharp upward
upward jump,
jump, approximately
approximately aa 200200to
times increase,
increase, which
which isis explained
explained by
by aa transition
transition to
to aa
times
flow that
that isis controlled
controlled by
by steam
steam viscosity
viscosity rather
rather than
than
flow
adsorption phenomena
phenomena (fig.
(fig. Ib).
lb). The
The sharp
sharp rise
rise of
of perperadsorption
meability isis aa well
well confirmed
confirmed fact,
fact, independently
independently found
found
meability
by several
several investigators
investigators [1,3-6).
[1,3-6].
by
The aforementioned
aforementioned theoretical
theoretical model,
model, which
which isis dedeThe
scribed in
in detail
detail in
in refs.
refs. [I)
[I] and
and [2),
[2], has
has been
been calibrated
calibrated
scribed
with the
the help
help of
of available
available test
test data
data published
published in
in literaliterawith
ture as
as well
well as
as some
some further
further drying
drying tests
tests conducted
conducted at
at
ture
Northwestern University.
University. Comparisons
Comparisons with
with test
test data
data
Northwestern
which support
support this
this model
model are
are given
given in
in refs.
refs. [I)
[1] and
and [2).
[2].
which

6363

of
ofCalifornia,
California,Berkeley,
Berkeley,CA
CA94720,
94720, USA)
USA)[7).
[7].The
Theavailaavailable
ble package
package consists
consists of
of the
the full
full FgRTRAN
F O R T R A N listing,
listing, aa
deck
deck of
of cards
cards or
or magnetic
magnetic tape,
tape, and
and aa complete
complete user's
user's
manual,
manual, which
which includes
includes description
description of
of the
the input,
input, dedescription
scriptionof
of the
the output
output and
and aa fully
fullydocumented
documented example
example
pFOblem.
problem. Numerous
Numerous comments
comments within
within the
the program
program listlisting
ing make
make itit possible
possible to
to carry
carry out
out various
various modifications
modifications
of
of the
the program.
program.
The
The example
example problem
problem isis that
that of
of aa hot
hot spot
spot on
on aa
reactor
reactor vessel
vessel wall.
wall. AA portion
portion of
of the
the interior
interior surface
surface of
of
the
the cylinder
cylinder isis subjected
subjected to
to aa rapid
rapid heating,
heating, such
such that
that
the
the temperature
temperature increases
increases 32C
32C per
per min
min and
and then
then stops
stops
at
at the
the constant
constant value
value of
of 800C.
800C. The
The element
dement mesh
mesh isis
shown
shown in
in figs.
figs. 2a
2a and
and 2b.
2b. The
The temperature
temperature distributions
distributions
and
and the
the pore
pore pressure
pressure distributions
distributions obtained
obtained with
with the
the
program
program are
are plotted
plotted in
in figs.
figs. 2c
2c and
and 2d.
2d.
As
As another
another example,
example, we
we show
show in
in figs.
figs. 3a-d
3 a - d the
the
temperature
distributions,
the
pore
pressure
temperature distributions, the pore pressure distribudistributions,
tions, the
the water
water release
release and
and the
the peak
peak value
value of
of pressure
pressure in
in
aa half-space
half-space subjected
subjected at
at its
its surface
surface to
to aa rapid
rapid temperatemperature
ture rise to
to 500C.
500C.

3. Capabilities
Capabilities of
of the
the program
program
3.
4. Discussion of numerical aspects
available: oneTwo versions of the program are available:
dimensional and two-dimensional, both of them axisymmetric. The one-dimensional axisymmetric program can
be used to analyze radial moisture diffusion and heat
conduction through a wall of
of a cylindrical vessel. The
two-dimensional version can be used to analyze arbitrary axisymmetric solids. The
The boundary
boundary conditions
available are those of
of perfect moisture transfer from the
surface
an environment
environment of
of prescribed, possibly timesurface to
to an
variable, relative vapor
vapor pressure,
pressure, perfect
perfect sealing of
of the
the
surface,
an environment
environment of
of
surface, perfect
perfect heat
heat exchange
exchange with
with an
prescribed
prescribed time-dependent
time-dependent temperature,
temperature, and
and perfect
perfect
thermal
thermal insulation.
insulation. The
The boundary
boundary conditions
conditions for
for imperimperfect
fect moisture
moisture or
or heat
heat transmission
transmission at
at the
the surface
surface can
can be
be
also
also implemented.
implemented. The
The two-dimensional
two-dimensional finite
finite element
element
program
program utilizes
utilizes triahgular
triangular three-node
three-node elements,
elements, the
the ununknowns
being
the
value
of
temperature
and
pore
knowns being the value of temperature and pore prespressure
in the
the nodes.
nodes. The
The finite
finite element
element formulation
formulation isis
sure in
based
based on
on the
the Galerkin
Galerkin approach
approach and
and utilizes
utilizes aa step-bystep-bystep
in time,
time, correspondcorrespondstep algorithm
algorithm for
for the
the integration
integration in
ing
ing to
to the
the central
central difference
difference Crank-Nicholson
Crank-Nicholson algoalgorithm
rithm for
for the
the diffusion
diffusion equation.
equation.
The
HJR TRAN IV
IV and
and
The program
program has
has been
been coded
coded inin FORTRAN
has
has been
been tested
tested and
and run
run on
on the
the CDC
CDC 170/730
170/730 Cyber
Cyber
computer
computer atat Northwestern
Northwestern University.
University. The
The program
program isis
made
made available
available through
through the
the NISEE
NISEE Center,
Center, University
University
of
of California,
California, Berkeley
Berkeley(Davis
(Davis Hall,
Hall, Division
Division ofof StructStructural
ural Engineering
Engineering and
and Structural
Structural Mechanics,
Mechanics, University
University

Although the program appears to work satisfactorily,

satisfactorily,
the user should not expect great accuracy in cases of
rapid heating, cases which involve an interface between
and dried concrete, and
and cases of
of very high
high
oversaturated and
temperatures. The numerical modeling is in these situaby the fact that
that the
tions tremendously complicated by
an almost
almost discontinuous
discontinuous jump
jump
sorption isotherms
isotherms exhibit an
sorption
[1,2)
(which
is
somewhat
smoothed
out
for
the
purpose
[1,2] (which somewhat smoothed out
the purpose
of numerical
numerical modeling,
modeling, see
see fig. la),
I a), and
and that
that permeabilpermeabilof
ity changes
changes by
by orders
orders of
of magnitude
magnitude as
as the
the temperature
temperature
ity
of 100C
100C is
is passed
passed (fig.
(fig. lb).
lb). Although
Although the
the iterative
iterative
of
scheme used
used in
in each
each time
time step
step of
of the
the program
program appears
appears
scheme
to
converge,
it
often
converges
slowly
in
these
situato converge, it often converges slowly in these situations. The
The spatial
spatial convergence
convergence as
as the
the size
size of
of the
the finite
finite
tions.
elements isis decreased
decreased appears
appears to
to be
be in
in these
these situations
situations
elements
also rather
rather slow.
slow. The
The output
output of
of pressure
pressure histories
histories and
and
also
distributions tends
tends to
to exhibit
exhibit in
in these
these situations
situations often
often
distributions
spurious oscillations
oscillations which
which are
are diminished
diminished only
only slowly
slowly
spurious
as the
the finite
finite element
element mesh
mesh isis refined.
refined. Decrease
Decrease of
of the
the
as
time-step does
does not
not reduce
reduce the
the spurious
spurious oscillations.
oscillations. The
The
time-step
reason for
for the
the oscillation
oscillation isis that
that the
the peaks
peaks of
of the
the pore
pore
reason
pressure distribution
distribution curves
curves tend
tend toto be
be very
very sharp
sharp and
and
pressure
cannot be
be accurately
accurately represented
represented by
by the
the simple
simple shape
shape
cannot
of finite
finite elements,
elements, considered
considered as
as linear
linear distridistrifunctions of
functions
butions within
within the
the element
element inin the
the present
present program.
program. The
The
butions
temperature
distribution,
on
the
other
hand,
never
extemperature distribution, on the other hand, never exhibits such
such aa sharp
sharp peak,
peak, and
and can
can be
be very
very closely
closely
hibits

z
Z

--

(0)

(b)

Temperat
isappl
ureatied

Free Surface

Temperature is applied at
nodes I, 6, II, 18,21 and 26

Free
Surface

FS:refacel

AXi~Of
Shsymmet
ated
E6,26214116116~~6'
ryOE]
IIt16,21and~R
E

on

ci

heated

R
Axis of
Symmetry

[sealed
in

LOOm
lOOm

Fig. 2b

IJ

F
80a
800

$.

0.

>':
w

f-

ul

252

600

'
20

'i
~i

TIME
TmE(MIN.)
(MIN.)

'""
0..
'"
~
'"o
0..

of

"

600

V>
V>

..~...'""
~

Axis

Axis of
symmetry
symmetry

a'-'
w

37J
,~

O
800C
(

'

',

,,

12 17 ~
0.11 m

800

ctEOO

(C)
(C)

400

4oo

f-F--

200

200

oll
__~~~=====?:~~---==~====~====~
0
i

o0

0.2
0,2

0.4
0,4

0.6
0.6

DISTANCE
FROM
HEATED
SURFACE
(FT.)
DISTANCE
FROM
HEATED
SURFACE
(FT,)

0.8
0,8

1.0
l.O

0.2
0.2

0.4
0.4

0,6
0.6

DISTANCE
FROM
HEATED
SURFACE
(FT,)
DISTANCE
FROM
HEATED
SURfAco
(FT.)

Fig.
Fig.2.2.(a),
(a),(b)
(b)Finite
Finiteelement
elementmesh
mesh(2-D
(2-Dprogram);
program):(e)(c)temperature
temperaturedistributions
distributionsininradial
radialdirection;
direction:(d)
(d)pore
porepressure
pressuredistributions
dislributionsininradial
radialdirection.
direction.

0,8
0.8

~.0
1.0

W'~

500

400

Ts~1

(0)

G~OOOC

'2..-

20 TIME (MIN.)
(MIN'.)

30.0

'3 ~

300

,:

t = 4.0

;L/!.i

I--

HR.

25'
0 0 2020TIME
(MIN.)
TiME
(MiN~

300

. : : . . : :

Y\
..--%

'"

0..

-: !

400

TS~~

(b)

200
200

I 0.35N

\ ~

/\

~N
~
~<

100I100

.........

os

~~

I // /

______

"'''

~,<

; f~

,....
,

0.2
0.2

0,4
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(HOURS)
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15
15

20
20

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25

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30

FouR LINES

FOUR LINES

:HANGEININ TTIME
SCALE
CHANGE
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AT 7~
7~ HOUR
HOUR
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=t - O,l, N = 19"i'- I'I,
g
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20

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6
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15

20
20

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25
25

30
30

TIME
TIME(HOURS)
(HOURS)

Fig.
Fig. 3.3. Rapid
Rapid heating
heatingof
of half-space
half-space to
to 500C
500C (I-D
(I-D program);
program); (a)
(a) temperature
temperature distributions;
distributions; (b)
(b) pore
pore water
water pressure
pressure distributions;
distributions; (c)
(c) water
water release;
release; (d)
(d) peak
peak value
value of
of pore
pore
water pressure
pressure using
using different
different time
time increment
increment and
and different'lllesh
different,~mesh subdivisions.
subdivisions.
water

'"

v.

HEDL TEST
TEST
HEDL
HEDl
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(HOURS)

Fig.
Fig.4.4.Comparisons
C o m p a r i s o n swith
withHEDL
H E D L test
testno.
no. J;l; (a)
(a)comparisons
c o m p a r i s o n sofoftemperature
t e m p e r a t u r e distributions
d i s t r i b u t i o n swith
wiIhTEMPOR2
T E M P O R 2 predictions;
predictions; (b)
(b)comparisons
c o m p a r i s o n sofoftemperature
temperaturedistribution>
distributionswith
with
USINT
U S I N T and
andCOWAR-2
C O W A R - 2 predictions;
p r e d i c t i o n s (c)
(c)comparisons
c o m p a r i s o n s ofofpore
pore pressure
pressure atatx~'O.035
:~ = 0 . 0 3 5 m;
m; (d)
(d)comparisons
c o m p a r i s o n s ofofpore
pore pressure
pressure atatx=
x =0.177
0.177m:
m: (e)
(e)comparisons
c o m p a r i s o n s ofofwater
w a t e rrelease.
release.

Z.P. Bazant
Ba~ant etet al.
aL /// Moisture
Moisture and
andheat
heat transfer
transfer inin heated
heated concrete
concrete
z.P.

40
40

67
67

(e)
(e)
.4'-

--* . . . . .
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32
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HEDLTEST
TESTNo.
No. 1i
HEDL
COWAR-2
COWAR-2
USINT
USINT
TEMPOR2
TEMPOR2

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HOUR
HOUR

~..~.~.. ........

.~:Y
o

. o~
4I" j r "

7,5 10
7.5

15

20

25

30

TIME (HOURS)
(HOURS)
TIME

Fig. 4e.
Fig.4e.

represented by the linear shape functions even for relatively large finite elements. Note that if the finite element
ment size is increased away from the heated face the
spurious oscillations of peak pore pressure increase with
the advance of pressure peak into the cruder elements.
Examples of
of the oscillations which are probably spurious
in nature,
nature, are seen in
in fig. 3d; these oscillations can
can
ous in
be
be eliminated, but
but only
only at
at the
the expense
expense of
of an
an extremely
fine element
element mesh. Refined
Refined meshes
meshes are required
required in
in the
the
following situations:
(a)
(a) Near
Near the
the boundary
boundary where
where temperature
temperature is
is preprescribed
scribed (hot
(hot face), very
very small
small elements
elements are
are required
required to
to
prevent
prevent the
the oscillation of
of the
the calculated spatial distributions.
few elements
elements
butions. Near
Near the
the surface,
surface, there
there should
should be
be few
at
at least
least of
of the
the size
size 1/100
1/100 of
of the
the thickness
thickness of
of specimen.
specimen.
(b)
(b) Likewise,
Likewise, the
the boundary
boundary condition
condition of
of prescribed
prescribed
environmental
environmental vapor
vapor pressure
pressure may
may cause
cause spurious
spurious osciloscillations
lations of
of the
the calculated
calculated spatial
spatial distributions
distributions near
near the
the
cold
cold face.
face. Small
Small elements
elements are
are then
then required
required near
near the
the
cold
cold face
face to
to get
get sufficiently
sufficiently accurate
accurate results
results for
for the
the
weight
weight loss
loss of
of concrete.
concrete.
(c)
(c) IfIf the
the rate
rate of
of heating
heating isis high,
high, e.g.,
e.g., 50C
50C per
per min,
min,
many
many small
small elements
elements are
are required
required near
near the
the heated
heated
surface.
surface.
(d)
(d) IfIf the
the solution
solution isis required
required for
for long
long times,
times, the
the

sharp high pressure peak travels a long distance into the

wall. Small finite elements must then be used through
the whole thickness from the hot face to the cold region
if accurate solution in the high pressure zone is desired.
This leads to a very large number
number of elements.
been tried to reduce the
Various approaches have been
aforementioned spurious oscillations and
and slow converaforementioned
For example, aa method
method analogous to
to that
that regence. For
used by
by Matthies
Matthies and
and Strang
Strang [8] for situations of
of
cently used
sudden change
change in
in stiffness in
in elastic-plastic programs
programs
aa sudden
has been
been tried.
tried. In
In this
this spirit, the
the iterations
iterations in
in each
each time
time
has
step have
have been
been based
based on
on an
an assumed
assumed slope
slope of
of the
the
step
sorption isotherm,
isotherm, which
which may
may differ
differ from
from the
the actual
actual
sorption
slope (fig.
(fig. la).
la). In
In particular,
particular, when
when the
the state
state point
point was
was in
in
slope
the vertical
vertical transition
transition in
in fig.
fig. 1la,
the much
much smaller
smaller slope
slope
the
a, the
of the
the sorption
sorption isotherm
isotherm on
on either
either left
left or
or right
right of
of this
this
of
transition region
region has
has been
been used
used in
in iterations
iterations (which
(which
transition
of stress
stress
corresponds to
to aa higher
higher stiffness
stiffness in
in the
the sense
sense of
corresponds
analysis). The
The correct
correct term
term resulting
resulting from
from the
the difference
difference
analysis).
between the
the actual
actual and
and assumed
assumed slope
slope has
has been
been treated
treated
between
in the
the equation.
equation. HowHowas aa prescribed
prescribed fixed
fixed force
force term
term in
as
ever, this
this approach
approach which
which corresponds
corresponds to
to the
the initial
initial
ever,
strain method
method in
in elastic-plastic
elastic-plastic analysis,
analysis, did
did not
not yield
yield
strain
any improvement.
improvement.
any
Even though
though the
the convergence
convergence atat saturationsaturationEven

IOOC
1000mIR~-----------------------------------------

(a)
(0)

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No,22
AT
ATXX= =0.02~M
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i

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1.0

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DIST~NCE
HEATED
BISTARCEFROM
FRO~
HEATE9SURFACE
SURFACE(FT.)
(FT,)

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~

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200
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tt:.

200
200

COWAR-2
C~AR-2
USlNT
USINT
TEMPOR2
TEHPOR2

'-.\ "\

600
600

<i...

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3232

4040

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T I R E (HOURS)
(HOURS)

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(c)
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!E~:2~~M 2

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800

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==

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--....

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3232
TIlt:
T I ~ (HOURS)
(MOURS)

4040

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.......COWAR-2
co,At-2
--. . . . USlNT
USINT
-'-'- - TEMPOR2

i f.;'~-"--f

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HEDl
HEI)LTEST
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.." 5sHOURS
.OURS
,.. 1515HOURS
tc,uRs
.. 2626HOURS
HOURS
- - - TEMPOR2

Ok

1616

242q
TIlt:
TIME(HOURS)
(HOURS)

3232

40q0

4aq8

Fig.
Fig.5.5.Comparisons
Comparisons with
withHEDL
HEDL test
test No.2;
No. 2;(a)
(a)Comparisons
Comparisonsofof temperature
temperature distributions;
distributions;(b)
(b)comparisons
comparisonsofof pore
pore pressure
pressure atatx==O.025
x : 0 . 0 2 5 m;
m; (c)
(c) comparisons
comparisonsofof pore
pore
pressure
pressureatatx=O.229
x=0.229m;
m;(d)
(d)comparisons
comparisonsofofwater
waterrelease
release with
withHEDL
HEDL test
testno.
no.2.2.

69
69

z.P.
Z.P. Bazant
Ba3ant et
et al.
al. // Moisture
Moisture and
and heat
heat transfer
transfer in
in heated
heated concrete
concrete
Table II
Table
S u m m a r y of
of features
features of
of concrete
concrete water
water release
release codes
codes
Summary
C O W A R - 2 (GE)
(GE)
COWAR-2

U S I N T (SANDIA)
(SANDIA)
USINT

TEMPOR2
T E M P O R 2 (Northwestern
(Northwestern Univ.)
Univ.)

Geometry
Geometry

I-D planar
planar
I-D

I-D
I-D and
and 2-D
2-D axisymmetric
axisymmetric

Species
Species

Water, water
water vapor,
vapor, air
air
Water,

Energy transport
transport
Energy
Mass transport
Permeability
and porosity
porosity
and

Diffusion and
and convection
convection
Diffusion
and Fick's Law
Darcy and
Constant parameters
Constant

I-D
I-D planar,
planar, cylindrical
cylindrical and
and
spherical
spherical
Water,
Water, water
water vapor,
vapor, CO
CO22 (not
(not
verified)
verified)
Diffusion
Diffusion and
and convection
convection
Darcy's Law
-- Porosity related linearly
linearly
to mass releases
--

Equation of state
and reaction
kinetics

Solution procedure
procedure

- Clausius-Clapeyron equation for wet-zone

- Dry zone; no liquid

phase

- Ideal gas law for vapor

and air (and steam table)

- Explicit finite difference

in time
Finite difference in space
-- Finite
Att controlled
controlled by stability
- A
criterion
criterion

Water,
Water, water
water vapor
vapor in
in air
air

Diffusion
Diffusion and
and convection
convection
Darcy's Law (extended)
(extended)
-- Permeability
Permeability depends
depends on
on temperatemperature (jump
(jump at
at 100C),
100C), and
and below
100C
100C on
on pressure as
as weB
well
-- Porosity related linearly
Permeability and
and porosity
to water released by deKozeny-Carmen
derelated by Kozeny-Carmen
hydration
equation
- Thermodynamic properties
Modified Clausius-Clapeyron
Clausius-Ciapeyron
of water (ASTM "Steam
equation for saturated wet
Tables") for saturated
zone
concrete
- Semiempirical sorption isoKinetic eqs.: release of
therms for non-saturated
CO 22 and of free and chemically
pores
bound water
- Hydration and dehydration
Ideal gas law for vapor and
of cement included in
CO 22
equation of state
- Cold concrete also covered
- Implicit finite difference
Implicit finite difference
in time
in time
- Finite
Finite
Finite difference in space
Finite elements in space
At arbitrary
arbitrary
- Equations linearized, iterated
Equations linearized
iterated

Table
Table 2
Material
Material parameters
parameters used
used in
in computations
computations

Age
Age of
of concrete
concrete (days)
Rel.
ReI. humidity
humidity of
of concrete
concrete
Rel.
of environment
environment before
before heating
heating
ReI. humidity
humidity of
Initial
Initial temperature
temperature (C)
Saturation
Saturation water
water content
content at
at 25C
25C (kg/rr~)
(kg/of)
Cement
k g / m 3)
Cement content
content ((kg/m3)
Unit
k g / m 3)
Unit weight
weight of
of concrete
concrete ((kg/m3)
Thermal
J/msC)
Thermal conductivity
conductivity ((J/msC)
Permeability
m/s)
Permeability ((m/s)
Thickness
Thickness of
of concrete
concrete wall
wall (m)
(m)
W
a t e r / c e m e n t ratio
Water/cement
ratio

eq

Fig. 22

Fig. 3

Fig. 44

Fig. 5

42
42
0.95
0.70
0.70
25
180
180
380
380
2200
2200
1.674
1.674
12
II xX 1100 - t2
1.0
1.0
0.50
0.50

42
0.95
0.70
0.70
25
1180
80
380
380
2400
2400
1.674
1.674
XI O
101I X
- t l11
0.30
0.30
0.50
0.50

42
0.95
0.70
0.70
25
1180
80
400
400
2400
2400
1.674
1.674
12
22x1O10
t2
0.30
0.30
0.50
0.50

42
42
0.95
0.70
0.70
25
1180
80
400
400
2400
2400
1.674
1.674
1I X1100 - I t11
0.30
0.30
0.50
0.50

70

z.P. BaYant
Bazant et al. / Moisture and heat transfer in heated concrete
Z.P.
com'rete

nonsaturation
permeability transitions
nonsaturation transition
transition and
and at permeability
transitions
is often
often very slow, it does appear
appear to take place. This is
demonstrated
by the numerical
demonstrated for example by
numerical results in
fig. 3d, in which the values of the peak
peak pore
pore water
water
pressure in the heated
pressure
heated wall at various times after the
start
plotted for various numbers
start of
of heating
heating are plotted
numbers of finite
elements
elements and
and for various time steps.

References
References
[I]
[1] Z.P. Bafant,
Ba~ant, and W. Thonguthai, Pore pressures and dry-

[2]

[3]

5. Comparisons
Comparisons with test
test data and other
other codes
codes

Comparisons
present mathematical
Comparisons of the present
mathematical model with
various test data
data available in the literature
literature were given in
preceding papers
papers [1,2]. To
preceding
To further
further check the capability
capability
of
predictions have been
been comof the TEMPOR2.
T E M P O R 2 code, its predictions
pared (figs. 4 and
pared
and 5) to the results
results of water
water release
by Hanford
demonstration
demonstration tests [5,9,101
[5,9,10] carried
carried out
out by
Hanford
Engineering
Engineering Development
Development Laboratory
Laboratory (HEDL)
( H E D L ) as well
as to the predictions
predictions of two other
other available codes,
namely
namely COWAR-2
C O W A R - 2 (General
(General Electric Co.) [111
[ l l ] and
and
USINT
principal charU S I N T (Sandia
(Sandia Laboratories)
Laboratories) [12]. The
The principal
acteristics of these codes are listed in table I.
1.
HEDL
H E D L tests No. Il and
and 2 were chosen
chosen for comparison
comparison
due
periods and
due to their long transient
transient periods
and well defined
boundary conditions.
properties were
boundary
conditions. Since the material
material properties
not
not available from the literature,
literature, typical values listed in
table
table 2 were assumed
assumed for the fitting of test data.
data.
Although
Although all of
of the codes give only rather
rather crude
crude
predictions, figs. 4 and
predictions,
and 5 show
show that
that the results obtained
obtained
with
be relatively best.
with TEMPOR2
T E M P O R 2 appear
appear to be

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

6. Conclusion
Conclusion

Prediction
pore pressure
pressure in
Prediction of mass
mass transport
transport and
and pore
heated
problem. The
heated concrete is a very complex problem.
The computer
puter program
program developed to solve this problem
problem realistically reflects the known
physics of
problem and
known physics
of the problem
and
appears
predictions that
appears to give predictions
that are in an acceptable,
acceptable,
albeit crude,
crude, agreement
agreement with
with measurements.
measurements.

[10]
[10]

[II]
[11]
[12]
[12]

Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment
Financial
Financial support by the
the US
U S National Science
Science
Foundation
under Grant
No. CME8009050
F o u n d a t i o n under
Grant No.
CME8009050 is gratefully
appreciated.
appreciated.

ing of concrete at high temperature, Proc. ASCE 104

(1978) 1059-1079.
1059-1079.
Z.P. BaZant,
B~ant, and W. Thonguthai, Pore pressure in heated
concrete walls: Theoretical prediction, Magazine of Concrete Research 31,
3 I, No. 107 (1979) 67-76.
Z.P. BaZant,
B~ant, Material problems in accident analysis
analysis of
prestressed concrete reactor vessels, Trans.
prestressed
Trans. 4th Internal.
Internat.
Conf. on SMiRT, San Francisco, August 1977,
1977, eds. T.A
Jaeger and B.A
B.A. Boley, Commission of European Community 1977, Paper E6/1.
E6/I.
D.A
D.A. Chapman, and G.L. England, Effects of moisture
migration on shrinkage,
shrinkage, pore pressure and other concrete
T, San
properties, Trans. 4th Internal.
Internat. Conf. on SMiR
SMiRT,
1977.
Francisco, August 1977.
J.D. McCormack, AK.
A.K. Postma,
Postma, and J.A
J.A. Schur, Water
evolution from heated concrete, Hanford Engineering
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concrete at elevated temperatures, Trans. 5th Internal.
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Z.P. BaZant,
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LC. Chern,
Cherh, and W. Thonguthai, TEMPOR2
- User's Manual .(Axisymmetric
(Axisymmetric finite element program
for calculating pore pressure,
pressure, moisture content and temperature in concrete at temperatures from OC
0C to 800C),
800C),
program available from NISEE Computer Applications,
Dept. of Civil
Civil Engineering, Davis Hall, University of
California, Berkeley, CA 94720 (July 1981).
1981).
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finite element equations, Internat. J. Numer. Meths. Engrg. 14
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1613-1626.
AK.
A.K. Postma, J.D. McCormack, and lA
J.A. Schur,
Schur, A study
of water and gas release from heated concrete, Hanford
Engineering Development Laboratory, TC-996 (December
1977).
[ 977).
K.H. Chen, E.L. Gluekler, S.T. Lam,
Lain, and V.S. Shippey,
Shippey,
Comparison of mechanistic codes for predicting water
release from heated concrete, GEFR-0052
I , General ElecGEFR-00521,
tric (April 1980).
1980).
A
A. Dayan, COWAR-2 User's Manual, General
Genera/ Electric
Company, GEFR-00090 (L) (May 1977).
1977).
R.L. Knight and J.V. Beck, Model and computer code for
transport in decomposing concrete and
energy and mass transport
related materials, Proc. of the Internat. M. on Fast Reactor Safety Technology, Seattle,
Seattle, WA, August 19-23, 1979.
1979.