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CHAPTER III

CASE STUDY

3.1

Introduction
A project site at Durian Tunggal, Melaka is used as a case study mainly to

highlight the importance of anticipating the presence of hard materials on site and the
associated problems if hard materials are detected during construction work. The study
was undertaken alongside the remained hilly terrain.
The original hills have been leveled down to the required reduced level and the
site is now bounded by half completed cut platform. Within the excavation site, the digable and rip-able material of the hills cover was seen to have been stripped off and
removed, leaving exposed the rock mass.
The project site is located about 8 km east of Alor Gajah. It is accessible from
the Pantai Belimbing/Durian Tunggal road and along an earth road over the NorthSouth Expressway. The site location plans and site photographs are attached as per Plate
1.
From visual observation, the project site contains many protruded coarsegrained granite stones. The protruded ground face formed an outcrop of boulders of

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grey color coarse-grained to medium biotite granite. Most of it is located along the hill
slopes. The surrounding earth is made up of reddish brown, sandy silt with some gravel.
With reference to past experience and information derived in the literature study,
the project site is believed to contain granite bedrock at depth.

3.2

Types of data obtained from field

This case study involved a number of field investigations and measurements as

mentioned below:
1. Total Station survey for existing ground profile and topography.
2. Mackintosh Probe is used to provide a profile of penetration resistance with
depth to give an assessment of the variability of in-situ materials on site.
3. Seismology instruments equipped with wave detection i.e. geophone, wave
recorder i.e. for displaying seismograph, a sledge hammer and steel plate for
beating. These instruments are meant for seismic refraction tests to detect the
presence of hard materials at depth below the ground surface.
4. A Percussion Rig Boring (Wash Boring) consists of a derrick, power-winch
and a set of drilling tools are used to drive through the overburden soil layers
and coring bits are being used during core-drilling to recover the rock cores.

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3.2.1

Total Station Instrument

Total Station instrument is being used to carry out the existing ground profile

and cross section survey. Total Station instrument consists of the prism, tripod and level
staff. Plate 2 indicates the Total Station instrument used for this case study.

3.2.2

Mackintosh Probe
One of the most common types of probing is Mackintosh Probe. The

Mackintosh prospecting tool consists of rods which can be threaded together with barrel
connectors and which are normally fitted with a driving point at their base, and a light
hand-operated driving hammer at their top. The tool provides a very economical method
of determining the thickness of soft deposits such as peat. Probing is carried out rapidly,
with simple equipment. It produces simple results, in terms of blows per unit depth of
penetration, which are generally plotted as blow-count/depth graphs.

3.2.3

Seismic Refraction Test Equipment

In order to detect the presence of hard materials at depth below ground surface,

seismic refraction tests are being adopted. Plate 3 depicts the seismograph equipments
for seismic wave test. Amongst the equipment used to carry out these tests are as
follows:
1. Seismograph set for the recording of seismic wave data.

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2. Geophone for detecting the seismic waves.

3. Sledge Hammer and metal plate for the beating to create shock waves.
4. Measurement tape for measuring distance.

3.2.4

Boring Tests
A Percussion Rig Boring (Wash Boring) consists of a derrick, power-winch and

a set of drilling tools are used to drive through the overburden soil layers and coring bits
are being used during core-drilling to recover the rock cores. Plate 4 depicts the pictures
taken for the recovered core samples, photographs taken during coring works and steel
casings used for the case study.

3.3

Surveying Works
The longitudinal profile and cross section for existing ground levels were taken

at project site. Survey work is carried out to determine the limit of case study. Besides
this, survey work is carried out to determine the datum for the whole area in preparing
contour mapping of area involved. This will make it easier to draw the cross section of
case study area. During surveying work, it is bound to come across obstacles and thus
shifting of alignment could not be avoided.

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The total station equipments are being used to carry out surveying work at
project site to determine the coordinates and reduced levels of each designated tests.
Plate 5 shows the surveying work being carried out at site.
In determining the horizontal profile, surveying work using trevass method has
been adopted to produce the bearing and distance of case study area. The reduced levels
are determined by use of trigonometry method. For this case study, total station
equipment used is TOPCON type where the data collected are using TOPCON FC5
Data Collector.

3.3.1

Determining the presence of Hard Material and Overburden

In order to determine the volume of sub-surface soil and presence of hard

material underneath, data from the measurement of cross section survey needs to be
analyzed and plotted first. To obtain a more accurate volume, a few cross section survey
needs to be carried out. The more cross section survey is taken, the more accurate will
be the volume.
The datum and coordinates for the respective bore holes carried out shall form
part of grid survey for more accuracy in determining the calculation of volume and
reduce having to resort to interpolation.
From the site investigation carried out i.e. using seismic reflection and wash
boring methods, the thickness of sub-surface soil and presence of hard material at
respective tests could be determined.

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For calculation in terms of volume for the sub-surface soil and hard material of
whole area, two methods being frequently used are Trapezoidal method and Simpson
method. Prior to calculating the volume, the area for each cross section profile must be
obtained first. Hence, each cross section survey shall be in uniform distance apart. This
is essential in order to apply the Trapezoidal or Simpson formulas to obtain the volume
directly. The calculation of respective cross section survey will determine the thickness
of sub-surface soil.
Simpsons Method
Area, A = a/3[Y1 + Y7 + 2(Y3+Y5) + 4(Y2+Y4+Y6)]
Trapezoidal Method
Area, A = (Y1+Y2) x a + 1/2(Y2+Y3) x a + 1/2(Y3+Y4) x a
++1/2(Y6+Y7) x a
Upon obtaining the area of respective cross section, the volume for the
designated compound could be determined. Take an example, if the place for
investigation has 5 cross sections and every section has area of A1 till A5. Distance in
between respective cross sections is d, then;
Volume,

V = d/3[A1 + A5 + 2 x A3 + 4 x (A2 + A4)] - Simpsons Method

Volume,

V = d [1/2(A1 + A5) + A2 + A3 + A4] - Trapezoidal Method

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Fig. 3.1

Typical Trapezium and Simpsons Method

By using these two equations, the answer obtained always varies slightly.
However, the difference is minor and it is frequently used to estimate the quantity of
earthwork in large scale and estimate of presence of hard materials underneath the earth.

3.4

Mackintosh Probing
During Mackintosh Probing, the driving point is streamlined in longitudinal

section with a maximum diameter of 27mm. The drive hammer has a total weight of
about 4kg. The rods are 1.2m long and 12mm dia. The device is often used to provide a
depth profile by driving the point and rods into the ground with equal blows of the full
drop height available from the hammer: the number of blows for each 150mm of
penetration is recorded. When small pockets of stiff clay are to be penetrated, an auger
or a core tube can be substituted for the driving point. The rods can be rotated clockwise
at ground level by using a box spanner and tommy bar. Tools can be pushed into or

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pulled out of the soil using a lifting/driving tool. Because of the light hammer weight
the Mackintosh probe is limited in the depths and materials it can penetrate.

3.5

Seismic Refraction Tests

Seismic Refraction tests are possibly the most important and commonly used

supplementary methods in site investigation. The purpose is to detect the presence of

hard materials at depth below the ground surface.

3.5.1

Preparation of Seismic Refraction Tests

Amongst the equipments used for seismic refraction tests are:

1. Seismograph for measuring seismic waves
2. Geophone for detecting seismic waves
3. Sledge Hammer and metal plate for knocking and producing source of energy.
Works to affix the geophone for the transmission of seismic waves were carried
out upon completion of surveying works. This is to ensure convenience in installing the
equipment in straight alignment and also the results obtained could be plotted in straight
line as well. During these periods when tests are being carrying out, the equipments are
required to be fixed at the designated locations determined earlier by the surveying

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works. For this purpose, the geophone is fixed at the designated locations at a distance
of 5.0m c/c along the alignment of case study area.
A total of 14 geophone equipments were used and placed alongside the
alignments mentioned above. All the geophones were connected to the seismograph
with wiring whereby the seismograph will read, measure and plot out the waves
detected by the geophones.
The geophones used in this case study are fixed vertically upright above firm
ground levels. However, at areas where the ground conditions are weak and when
strong wind is encountered, geophone equipments were planted a few center meters
below ground surface. This is to avoid unnecessary disturbance during the event of
testing being carrying out. The geophone equipment is also forbidden to be placed on
the surface containing roots. In surrounding the geophone equipments, ensure it is kept
clean from grass, soil and sand for reasons to avoid disturbance against the wave signals
received by the geophones as mentioned above. During the course of carrying out tests,
the seismograph equipments are to be placed as far as possible apart and away from the
geophone locations for effective results.
In order to produce seismic waves, a sledge hammer is used to generate energy.
The sledge hammer is to knock onto a piece of metal plate on the ground surface to
generate energy or wave noise. The wave will move through layers of soil beneath the
earth surface and subsequently refracted back to earth surface whereby it is detected via
geophones. The sledge hammer is connected to seismograph with wiring. The
maximum distance apart between sledge hammer and last geophone equipment (nearest
to the knocking metal plate) is between 3 to 5 times more than the depth of hard
materials beneath the location of knocking.

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A metal plate for knocking to produce energy or wave sound, measuring in size
of 180mm x 180mm and thickness of 15mm is suitable. A smaller plate size will not be
effective as it will sink into earth surface upon the impact of knocking to dissipate
energy distribution. Moreover, smaller late is difficult to carry out knocking.

3.5.2

Implementation of Seismic Refraction Tests

Upon fixing the geophone and seismograph, the metal plate for knocking is

placed on firm earth surface approximately 5.0m away from the nearest geophone no.1.
Weak ground surface and wild grass surrounding the plate for knocking must be
removed earlier to produce maximum energy impact when knocking by the sledge
hammer carried out.
Switch on the seismograph equipment and reset the readings to zero prior to
carrying out the test. It is utmost important to ensure no disturbance to the geophone
and no one else walking past or cause any movement adjacent to testing location except
the knocking sound produced by the sledge hammer only. This is due to geophone
equipment is very sensitive and it capture any reading of any kind be it produced by
human movement or whatever it is. The readings produced will be affected by the wind,
passing traffic and miscellaneous.
Thereafter, instruct the operator to carry out knocking with the sledge hammer
on the metal plate. During the process of carrying out knocking with the sledge hammer,
ensure that the operator knocks the metal plate accurately and also to make sure the
sledge hammer does not knock the metal plate more than once which is as required.

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In order to obtain a good result, the more test taken the better result will be.
However, time and cost is another contributing factor to limit the number of tests taken.
Therefore, a total number of 14 seismic refraction tests were conducted.

3.6

Boring
The equipment for Percussion Rig Boring (Wash Boring) consists of a derrick,

power-winch and a set of drilling tools. A percussion method is used, whereby the tool
assembly is raised by the winch to about 1 m above the bottom of the hole and then
allowed to fall under its own weight, thus driving the cutting tool into the soil. When the
tool becomes full of soil, it is raised to the surface, where disturbed samples may be
taken from its contents. The most usual borehole diameter is 150mm, but others up to
300mm can be drilled; the maximum depth of exploration, although dependent on soil
type to some extent, is around 50-60 m.
In compact cohesion-less soils, or where boulders or cobbles are encountered,
the chisel is used to break up hard materials; fragments and slurry are then removed
using the bailer. In wet conditions and in loose soils, and for very deep holes, a casing
must be installed near the surface. This usually consists of steel tubes, screwed together
in as many lengths as appropriate, and jacked or knocked into the drilled hole as drilling
proceeds. They can be hauled out after completion of drilling or left in place if further
observations are required.
In stiff soils and rocks power-operated core-drills are used, consisting of smalldiameter hollow tube, fitted at the lower end with a coring bit. The core barrel is rotated
at speeds ranging between 600 and 1200 rpm, a controlled pressure applied and water

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circulated through the bit. The fragments removed in the annular cut are brought to the
surface with the circulating water as the core fills the barrel. A drilling run of 1-3 m is
usually made before raising the barrel and removing the core. The more usual standard
sizes of core barrel used in site investigation range between 30 and 100 mm (hole
diameter), although larger-diameter equipment is available for special uses.

3.6.1

Recovered Core Samples

The presence of discontinuities reduces the overall strength of a rock mass and

their spacing and orientation govern the degree of such reduction. Hence, the spacing
and orientation of the discontinuities are of paramount importance as far as the stability
of structures in jointed rock masses is concerned i.e.
_______________________________________________________________
Description

Spacing of discontinuities

Rock mass grading

_______________________________________________________________
Very wide

Over 3 m

Solid

Wide

1 to 3 m

Massive

Moderately close

0.3 to 1 m

Blocky/seamy

Close

50 to 300 mm

Fractured

Very close

Under 50 mm

Crushed

_______________________________________________________________

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3.6.2

Samples Observations
a)

Fresher core samples with higher RQD values could be recovered at

depth, especially in zone where less fracture occurs.

b)

Fractures are caused partly due to the wobbling drilling rods and core
barrel alignment and in most cases the enormous pressure concentrated
on the drilling surfaces.

c)

Most of the fractured surfaces observed showed prominent secondary

infilling of joint, failures or minor faulted zones.

d)

The granite is homogeneous throughout the depth of boreholes.

e)

A deeper coring using a higher speed and bigger capacity drill plant
could penetrate and recover better RQD.