Chapter 3

Triangulation
3.1 Introduction
To prevent accumulation of errors, it is necessary to provide a number of control points all over
the area, which will form a control frame work on which entire survey is to be based. Provision
of such control points can be made either by one or a combination of both the following
methods:
1) Theodolite Traverse
2) Triangulation
Methods of triangulation is more accurate than that by the theodolite traverse, as accumulation
of error in triangulation is less as compared to that of theodolite traversing

3.2 Triangulation
The process of measuring the angles of a chain network of triangles formed by a number of
stations marked on the surface of the earth, is called triangulation.

3.3 Principle of Triangulation

If all the three angles and the length of one of its sides of a triangle are known, the lengths of
the remaining sides of the triangle can be calculated trigonometrically. Again, if the coordinates
of any vertex of the triangle and azimuth of any side, are also known, then, the co-ordinates of
the remaining vertices may be commuted. The side of the first triangle, whose length is
predetermined is called the Base line and the vertices of the individual triangles are known
as Triangulation Stations. To minimize accumulation of errors in lengths, subsidiary bases
at suitable intervals, are usually measured. To control the error in azimuth of stations,
astronomical observations are made at intermediate stations. The triangulation stations at which
astronomical observations for azimuth are made, are called Laplace Stations.

3.4 Purpose of Triangulation Surveys

Triangulation surveys are carried out for the following purposes:
1) Establishment of accurate control points for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas,
by ground method.
2) Establishment of accurate control points for photogrammetric surveys of large areas.
3) Accurate location of engineering works i.e.
a) Fixing the centre line, terminal points and shafts for long tunnels.
b) Fixing control line, piers and abutments of long bridges over rivers.
c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
d) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.

3.5 Classification of Triangulations

On the basis of quality, accuracy and purpose, triangulations are classified as under:

Page 1 of 27

1) Primary triangulation or First order triangulation.

2) Secondary triangulation or Second order triangulation.
3) Tertiary triangulation or Third order triangulation.
(1) Primary Triangulation: The highest grade of triangulation system which is carried out
either for the determination of the shape and size of the earths surface or for providing
precise plainmetric control points for subsidiary triangulations, is called primary
triangulation. The stations of the first order triangulation are generally selected 16 km
to 150 km apart. Every possible precaution is taken in making linear, angular and
astronomical observations, and also in their computation (Fig. 3.1).
(2) Secondary Triangulation: The triangulation system which is employed to connect two
primary series and thus to provide control points closer together than those of primary
triangulation, is called secondary triangulation. If any triangulation series which is
carried out as primary triangulation does not attain the standard of the accuracy of that
class, due to unfavourable conditions, may also be classified as secondary triangulation
or triangulation of second order (Fig. 3.2).
(3) Tertiary Triangulation: The triangulation system which is employed to provide control
points between stations of primary and second order series of triangulation is called
Tertiary triangulation. In the department of the Survey of India, tertiary triangulations,
known as topo triangulations, form the immediate control for topo-graphical surveys of
various scales (Fig. 3.3).
Specifications of different triangulations:

Length of the base lines

Length of the sides
Average triangulation error
(after correcting the spherical
excess)
Maximum station closure
Actual error of the base
Probable error of the base
Discripancy
between
measures
Probable error of distance

two

Probable error in astronomical

observation

Primary
Triangulation
8-12 km
16-150 km

Secondary
Tertiary
Triangulation Triangulation
2-5 km
100-500 m
10-25 km
2-10 km

Less than 1

12

Not more than

3
1:50000
1:1000000

15

1 in 25000
1 in 500000

1 in 10000
1 in 250000

10 mm

25 mm

1 in 50000 to
1 in 250000

1 in 20000 to
1 in 50000

1 in 5000 to
1 in 20000

0 . 5

10

3.6 Layout of Triangulation

The arrangement of the various triangles of a triangulation series, is known as the layout of
triangulation.
A series of triangulation may consist of the following
(1) Simple triangles in chain
Page 2 of 27

(2) Braced quadrilaterals in chain

(3) Centred triangles and polygons

Fig. 3.1 Simple Triangles

Fig. 3.2 Braced Quadrilaterals

Fig. 3.3. Centred Triangles and Polygon

1) Simple Triangles in Chain: This layout of triangulation is generally used when control
points are provided in a narrow strip of terrain such as a valley between two ridges. This
system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four stations and
observations of long diagonals are avoided. On other hand, simple triangles of a
triangulation do not provide any check on the accuracy of observations as there is only one
route through which distances can be computed. To avoid excessive accumulated error,
check base lines and astronomical observations for azimuth at frequent intervals are
therefore very necessary in this kind of layout (Fig. 3.4).

Fig. 3.4. Simple Triangles in Chain

Page 3 of 27

2) Braced Quadrilateral in Chain: A triangulation system which consists of figures

containing four corner stations and observed diagonals, is known as a layout of braced
quadrilaterals. This system is treated to be the best arrangement of triangles as it provides
a means of computing the lengths of the sides using different combination of the sides and
angles (Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5. A Braced Quadrilateral

3) Centred Triangles and Polygon: A triangulation system which consists of figures
containing centred polygons and centred triangles, is known as centred triangles and
polygons (Fig. 3.3). This layout of triangulation is generally used when vast area extending
in all directions is required to be covered. The centred figures generally are quadrilaterals,
pentagons, or hexagons with central stations. Though this system provides proper check on
the accuracy of the work, the progress of the work, is generally low due to the fact that
more settings of the instrument are required.

3.7 Ideal Figures for Triangulation

The undermentioned factors need be kept in mind while deciding and selecting a particular
figure in any triangulation system.
1)
2)
3)
4)

Simple triangles should be preferably equilateral.

Braced quadrilaterals should be preferably squares.
Centred polygons should be regular.
No angle of the figure, opposite a known side should be small, whichever end of the
series is used for computation.
5) The angles of simple triangle should not be less than 450 in case of quadrilaterals no
angle should be less than 300 . In case of centred polygons, no angle should be less than
400 .
6) The sides of the figures should be of comparable length.
Note: It may be noted that if a very small angle of a triangle does not fall opposite the known
side, it does not affect the accuracy of triangulation i.e. neither the sides nor the azimuth.

3.8 Size of Triangulation

The length of the sides of the triangle varies according to the order of the triangulation and
topography of the country. In order to cover the area quickly and to reduce the computation,
the triangles should be as large as possible, provided sufficient number of intersected points
can be observed simultaneously.
Page 4 of 27

3.9 Layout of Primary Triangulation for Large Countries

In large countries, the frame work of triangulation may be provided by the following two
methods:
a. Grid Iron System
b. Centred System
a) Grid Iron System: In this system, the primary triangulation is laid in series of chains of
triangles, which usually run roughly along the meridians (north-south) and along the
perpendiculars to the meridians (east-west) throughout the country. The distance between
two such chains, may vary from 150 km to 250 kms (Fig. 3.6). The area between the parallel
and perpendicular series of primary triangulation are covered by the secondary and tertiary
triangulation systems. Grid Iron System has been adopted in India and also in Austria,
Spain and France.

Fig. 3.6. Grid Iron System of Triangulation

b) Centered System: In this system, the whole area of the survey is covered by a network
of primary triangulation extending outwards in all directions from the initial base line,

Page 5 of 27

which is generally laid at the centre of the country. This system is generally used for the
survey of an area of moderate extent and has been adopted in United Kingdom (Fig. 3.7).

Fig. 3.7. Centred System of Triangulation

3.10 Well Conditioned Triangles of a Triangulation System

The arrangement of triangles in the layout and the magnitude of the angles in individual
triangles, affect the accuracy of a triangulation system. The shape of the triangle in which any
error in angular measurements, has a minimum effect upon the lengths of the computed sides,
is known as a well-conditioned triangle.
In any triangle of a triangulation system, the length of one of its side is generally obtained from
computation of the adjacent triangle. The error in the other two sides, if any, will affect the side
of triangle(s) whose computation is based upon their values. Due to accumulated errors, the
entire triangulation system is thus affected thereafter. To ensure that two sides of a triangle are
equally affected, these should therefore be equal in length. This condition suggests that all the
triangles must be Isosceles.

Page 6 of 27

Let A, B and C be the three angles of an Isosceles triangle ABC whose sides are a, b and c
respectively. AB be the known computed side whereas AC and BC are sides of equal length
(Fig. 3.8).

Fig. 3.8. Well-Conditioned Triangle

sin

Applying the sine rule to the triangle ABC, we get sin = sin or = sin ----Equation (3.1)
Now, assume that an error in the angle A introduces an error 1 in the side a.
Differentiate equation (3.1) partially, we get 1 =
Dividing equation (3.2) by equation (2.1), we get

cos
sin

----Equation (3.2)

cos
sin

= cot ----Equation (3.3)

Again assume that an error in the angle C introduces an error 2 in the side a.
Differentiating equation (3.1) partially, we get 2 =
Dividing equation (3.4) by equation (3.1),

cos
sin

sin cos
(sin )2

----Equation (3.4)

= cot ----Equation (3.5)

If = = , the probable errors in the angles, then the probable fraction error in the side
a, is given by the equation

= (cot )2 + (cot )2 .

But C = 1800 = 1800 2.

Therefore

= (cot )2 + (cot 2)2 ----Equation (3.6)

From equation (3.6), it is clear that

will be minimum if the value of (cot )2 + (cot 2)2 is

minimum.
Differentiating (cot )2 + (cot 2)2 with respect to A and equating to zero, we get
4(cos )2 + 2(cos )2 1 = 0---- Equation (3.7)
On solving the equation (3.7) for Cos A, we get A= 560 14 approximately.
Hence, the best shape of a triangle is an isosceles triangle whose base angles are 560 14 each.
But, for all particular purposes, an equilateral triangle may be treated as a well-conditioned
triangle. The triangles, whose angles are less than 300 or more than 1200 , should be avoided
in the chain of triangles.
Page 7 of 27

3.11 Strength of Triangulation Figures

The strength of the figures in triangulation, plays an important role to decide its layout and to
ensure a desired degree of accuracy. Computation involves use of the angles of triangles and
the length of a known side. The other sides are computed by the law of sines. For a given
change in the angles, the sine of small angles changes more rapidly than those of large angles.
This suggests that smaller angles than 300 should not be used in the computation of
triangulation. If, due to, unavoidable circumstances, angles less than 300 are used, then it must
be ensured that this is not opposite the side whose length is required to be computed for carrying
forward the triangular series. In any triangulation system, more than one routes are possible for
various stations. Hence, it becomes necessary to find some criterion for the selection of the
most appropriate route so that best shaped triangulation net route may be adopted.
The strength of the figure is decided by an index number which is denoted by R.
The strength of the figure depends on the following factors:
1) Number of observed directions
2) Number of trigonometric conditions
3) Magnitude of the distances and angles
If D = number of directions observed excluding the known sides of the figure.
C = number of the geometric conditions , = tabular difference for 1 second in
the logarithmic sine of angles A, B and C in the sixth place of decimal.
Then =

(2 + . + 2 )----Equation (3.8)

The value of C in equation (3.8) may be computed from the formula,

C = ( + 1) + ( 2 + 3)----Equation (3.9)
Where n = total number of the lines including the fixed line.
n= number of lines observed in both directions.
s = total number of stations.
s = total number of occupied stations.
For the computation of the quantity (2 + . + 2 ) used in the equation (3.8), Table
(3.1) may be used. The required value is obtained in the column headed by the smaller angle
and on the horizontal line containing the larger angle. If the computed value of R is less, the
strength of the figure is more and vice versa.

Page 8 of 27

Table 3.1: Table for the Distance Angle Error Values

3.12 Accuracy of Triangulation

Inspite of all precautions in every triangulation series, the error gets accumulated. It is therefore
very essential to know then accuracy achieved in the triangulation network so that no
appreciable error in plotting, is introduced. For calculating the accuracy, the following formula
2

may be used =

----Equation (3.10)

Page 9 of 27

Where m = root mean square error of un-adjustable horizontal angles (in seconds) as obtained
from the triangular errors.
= sum of the squares of all the triangulation errors in triangulation series.
n = Total number of triangles in series.
Note: The following points may be important considerations
1) All the triangles must be included in the computation.
2) All the four triangles of a braced quadrilateral must be included in the computation.
3) If the average triangular error of the series is 8 , probable error in latitudes and departures
after a distance of 100 km is approximately 8 meters.

3.13 Signals and Towers

To define the exact position of triangulation stations during observations from other stations,
signals are used. Various types of signals are centred vertically over the station marks and
observations are made to these signals. It is very necessary to ensure that the signals whenever
used, are truly vertical and centered over the station marks. The accuracy of triangulation is
entirely dependent on the degree of accuracy of centering the signals. Greatest care of centering
the transit over the station mark will be useless, unless same degree of care of centering the
signals, is impressed upon.

3.14 Classification of Signals

The signals may be classified as under:
a. luminous signals
b. opaque signals
a) Luminous signals: Luminous signals are further divided in to two categories i.e., sun signals
and night signals.
Sun signals: Those signals which reflect the rays of sun towards the station of observation, are
known as heliotropes. Apparently, such signals can only be used in clear weather.
Heliotropes: A heliotropes consists of a circular plate mirror with a small hole at its center. It
reflects the suns rays and a sight vane with an aperture carrying a cross hairs. The circular
mirror can be rotated horizontally as well as vertically through 3600 . The heliotrope is centred
over the station mark and the line of sight is directed towards the station of observation. The
heliotrope man looks through the mirror hole and adjusts the sight vane till the flashes given
from the station of observation fall at the center of cross hairs. Once this is done heliotrope is
not disturbed. Now the heliotrope attendant rotates the frame carrying the mirror so that the
black shadow of the small central hole of the plane mirror falls exactly at the cross of the sight
vane. The reflected beam of rays will now be seen at the station of observation. Due to motion
of the sun, this small shadow also moves and hence the attendant should remain on constant
watch to ensure that the shadow always remains at the cross.
Note:
1) Heliotropes do not give better results as compared to the opaque signals.
Page 10 of 27

2) Heliotropes are found useful only if the signal station is in plains and the station of
observation is on an elevated ground.
Night signals: While making observations at night, night signals are used. Various types of
night signals are:
1) Various forms of oil lamps with a reflector. These are used for sights less than 80 km.
2) Acetylene lamps designed by captain G.T. McCaw. These are used for sight more than 80
km.
b) Opaque Signals: The opaque, or non-luminous signals used during day are of various forms
and the ones most commonly used are the following:
1) Pole signal: It consists of a round pole painted black and white in alternate and is
supported vertically over the station mark on a tripod. Pole signals are suitable up to a
distance of 6 km (Fig. 3.9).

Fig. 3.9. A Pole Signal

2) Target signal: It consists of a pole carrying two squares or rectangular targets placed at
right angles to each other. The targets are generally made of cloth stretched on wooden
frames. Target signals are suitable up to a distance of 6 km (Fig. 3.10).

Fig. 3.10. A Target Signal

Page 11 of 27

3) Pole and Brush signals: It consists of a straight pole about 2.5 metre long with a bunch
of long grass tied symmetrically round the top, making a cross. The signal is erected
vertically over the station mark by heaping a pile of stones up to 1.7 metres round the
pole. A rough coat of white wash is applied to make it more conspicuous to be seen
against a black back ground (Fig. 3.11). This type of opaque signals is very useful. It
should preferably be erected over every station of observation during reconnaissance.

Fig. 3.11. A Pole and Brush Signal

4) Stone cairn: It consists of stones built up to a height of 3 meters in a conical shape. This
white washed opaque signal is very useful if the back-ground is dark (Fig. 3.12).

Fig. 3.12. A Stone Crain

5) Beacon: It consists of red and white cloth tied round the three straight poles. This can
be easily centred over the station marks (Fig. 3.13). Beacons are useful when
simultaneous signals are made at both the stations.

Page 12 of 27

Fig. 3.13. A Beacon

Requirements of an Ideal Signal: An ideal signal should fulfil the following requirements:
1) It should be conspicuous i.e., it should be clearly visible from a distance against any back
ground.
2) It should provide easy and accurate bisection by a telescope.
3) It should be capable of being accurately centred over the station mark.
4) It should exhibit very little phase error of bisection of the signal.
Phase of a Signal:
When a cylindrical opaque signal which is partly illuminated by the sun and partly remains in
shadow, is observed, the observer sees only illuminated portion from his station and thus
bisects the centre of the illuminated portion. The error of bisection thus introduced, is known
as phase of the signal. To reduce the measured angle to the centre of the signal, a phase
correction is therefore necessary.
Two cases may arise:
1) An observation is made on brightest portion
2) An observation is made on bright line
1) When the bright portion is bisected (Fig. 3.14)
Let O = observers station
P = Signals centre
AB = Illuminated portion of the signal
C = Midpoint of illuminated portion AB
OC = Line of Sight
r = Radius of the signal
1 2 = Angles BOP and AOP respectively
= Angle between the sun and the line OP (produced)
Page 13 of 27

D = OP horizontal distance of signal

= Phase correction = Angle COP

Fig. 3.14. Phase of Signal (Brightest Side is Observed)

Therefore Phase Correction = = 1 +

2 1
2

---- Equation (3.11)

From , we get tan 2 = 2 = .

Similarly 1 =

sin(900 )

cos

Substituting the values of 1 2 in equation (3.11) we get =

2) When the Observation is made on the Bright Line (Fig. 3.15)
Let the incident ray SC = reflected ray from the bright line.
= Phase correction
Page 14 of 27

2
2

206265 ( cos )

 = Angle between the sun and line OP

Fig. 3.15. A Phase of Signal (Brightest Line is Observed)

Assuming the rays of the sun to be parallel, we get SC || 1O
= 1800 ( ) = 1800

= 900 +

= 1800 ( + ) = 1800 900

= 900 2 , ignoring being

too small.
tan =

cos(900 )
2

sin(900 )

206265 cos

----Equation (3.12)

Note: The phase correction is applied algebraically to the observed angle according to the
relative positions of the sun and the signal.

Page 15 of 27

3.15 Base Line Measurement

The accuracy of any order of triangulation depends upon the accuracy of the measurement of
its base line. Hence, in triangulation a base line is of prime importance. The length of a base
line depends upon the grade of the triangulation. In India, for the network of first order
triangulation, baselines of lengths ranging from 1.7 miles (2.83 km) to 7.8 miles (13 km) were
used. For topographical triangulation, the length of the base line generally used is 88 yards
(80.467 m).
Site selection for a Base Line: The following factors are generally considered for the selection
of the site for the base line of any triangulation system.
1) The ground at the site should be either fairly level, or uniformly sloping or gently
undulating.
2) It should be free from obstructions throughout its length.
3) The ground should be firm and smooth.
4) The two extremities of the base line should be intervisible at ground level.
5) The site should be such that well shaped triangles can be obtained while connecting its
end stations to the stations of the main triangulation.

3.16 Equipment for Base Line Measurement

The measurement of base line forms the most important part of the triangulation operations.
The base line is laid down with great accuracy of measurement and alignment as it forms the
basis for the computations of triangulation system. The length of the base line depends upon
the grades of the triangulation. Apart from main base line, several other check bases are also
measured at some suitable intervals. In India, ten bases were used, the lengths of the nine bases
vary from 6.4 to 7.8 miles and that of the tenth base is 1.7 miles.
Standards of Length: The ultimate standard to which all modern national standards are
referred is the international meter established by the Bureau International der Poids at Measures
and kept at the Pavilion de Breteuil, Sevres, with copies allotted to various national surveys.
The meter is marked on three platinum-iridium bars kept under standard that they are subject
to very small secular change in their dimensions. Accordingly, the meter has now been
standardized in terms of wavelength of cadmium light. The various national standards are as
follows:
(i) Great Britain: The legal unit in Great Britain is the Imperial yard of bronze bar with gold
plugs kept at the Board of Trade in London.
1 Imperial Yard = 0.91439180 legal meters = 0.91439842 international meters.
(ii) The United States: The standard is copy no. 27 of the international meter. Primary
triangulation is computed in meters and is converted in feet by the statutory ratio:
1 meter = 39.37 inch.
(iii) India: The triangulation is computed in terms of the old 10 feet bar A as it was in 184070, having its length equal to 9.9999566 British feet at that time. The modern survey standards
are however a nickel meter (of 1911) and a silica meter (of 1925) kept at Dehra Dun and
standardized at the National Physical Laboratory.
Page 16 of 27

Forms of Base Measuring apparatus:

There are two forms of base measuring apparatus:
a) Rigid Bars
b) Flexible Apparatus
a) Rigid Bars:
Before the introduction of invar tapes, rigid bars were used for work of highest precision. The
rigid bars may be divided into two classes:
(i) Contact apparatus, in which the ends of the bars are brought into successive contacts.
Example: The Eimbeck Duplex Apparatus.
(ii) Optical apparatus, in which the effective lengths of the bars are engraved on them and
observed by microscopes. Example: The Colby Apparatus and the Woodward Iced Bar
Apparatus.
The rigid bars may also be divided into the following classes depending upon the way in which
the uncertainties of temperature corrections are minimized:
i.
ii.

iii.

Compensating base bars, which are designed to maintain constant length under varying
temperature by a combination of two more metals. Example: The Colby Apparatus.
Bimetallic non-compensating base bars, in which two measuring bars act as a bimetallic
thermometer. Example: The Eimbeck Duplex Apparatus (US Coast and Geodetic
Survey), Bordas Rod (French System) and Bessels Apparatus (German System).
Monometallic base bars, in which the temperature is either kept constant at melting
point of ice, or is otherwise ascertained. Example: The Woodward Iced Bar Apparatus,
and Struves Bar (Russian System).

The Colby Apparatus

Fig. 3.16. The Colby Apparatus

This is a compensating and optical type rigid bar apparatus designed by Maj-Gen. Colby to
eliminate the effect of changes of temperature upon the measuring appliance. The apparatus
was employed in the Ordinance Survey and the Indian Surveys. All the ten bases of G.T. of
Survey of India were measured with the Colby apparatus. The apparatus (Fig. 3.16) consists of
Page 17 of 27

two bars, one of steel and the other of brass, each 10 ft. long and riveted together at the centre
of their length. The ratio of coefficients of linear expansion of these metals having been
determined as 3:5. Near each end of the compound bar, a metal tongue is supported by double
conical pivots held in forked ends of the bars. The tongue projects on the side away from brass
rod. On the extremities of these tongues, two minute marks a and are put, the distance
between them being exactly equal to 10 0 . The distance ab (or ) to the junction with the
3

steel is kept 5

of the distance ac (or ) to the brass junction. Due to change in temperature,

if the distance of steel changes to 1 1 by an amount x, the distance of brass will

change to 1 1 by an amount

5
3

thus unfaltering the positions of dots a and . The brass is

coated with a special preparation in order to render it equally susceptible to change of

temperature as the steel. The compound bar is held in the box at the middle of its length. A
spirit level is also placed on the bar. In India, five compound bars were simultaneously
employed in the field. The gap between the forward mark of one bar and the rear bar of the
next was kept constant equal to 6 by means of a framework based on the same principles as
that of the 10 compound bar. The framework consists of two microscopes, the distance
between the cross-wires of which was kept exactly equal to 6 . To start with, the cross-wires
of the first microscope of the framework were brought into coincidence with the platinum dot,
let into the centre of the mark of the one extremity of the base line. The platinum dot a of the
first compound bar was brought into the coincidence with the cross-hairs of the second
microscope. The cross-hairs of the first microscope of the second frame-work (consisting two
microscopes 6 apart) are then set over the end of the first rod. The work is thus continued
till a length of (10 5 + 5 6 )= 52 6 is measured at a time with the help of 5 bars and 2
frameworks. The work is thus continued till the end of the base is reached.
b) Flexible Apparatus:
In recent years, the use of flexible instruments has increased due to the longer length that can
be measured at a time without any loss in accuracy. The flexible apparatus consists of (a) steel
or invar tapes, and (b) steel and brass wires. The flexible apparatus has the following
advantages over the rigid bars:
i.
ii.
iii.

Due to the greater length of the flexible apparatus, a wider choice of base sites is
available since rough ground with wider water gap can be utilized.
The speed of measurement is quicker, and thus less expensive.
Longer bases can be used and more check bases can be introduced at closer intervals.

Steel Tapes
Steel tapes are semi-tempered bands of tough, flexible steel which has a thermal coefficient of
expansion of very nearly 0.00000645 per degree Fahrenheit. The temperature of a steel tape
cannot be measured with sufficient accuracy by mercurial thermometer in the day time.
Accurate results can, however, be obtained if the measurements are made at night or on cloudy
or even hazy days when there is little radiant heat. At these times the tape and air temperatures
are nearly the same so that the temperature of the tape can be accurately determined and
corrections applied.

Page 18 of 27

Invar Tapes and Wires

The research of Dr. Guillaume, of the French Bureau of Weights and Measures, led to the
discovery of invar, the least expansible steel alloy containing about 36% nickel. The coefficient
of thermal expansion is the lowest of all the known metals and alloys and seldom exceeds
0.0000005 per degree F. However, the temperature coefficient not only varies with the
percentage of nickel, but also with the thermal and mechanical treatment given to each type.
Every tape has its own coefficient which must be separately determined. Another peculiar thing
with invar is that it undergoes some secular change in its length which increases slowly with
time especially in the first few years. Due to this reason, invar can never be used for permanent
standards. The instability, however, can be reduced by a process of artificial ageing, which
consists in annealing them by exposure for several days to the temperature of boiling water.
The coefficient of expansion of invar tapes also show slight variation with time, and should be
determined both before and after a base line measurement. Invar is much softer than steel and
must be handled very carefully. It should be wound upon a large reel or drum. The tensile
strength of invar varies from 100000 to 125000 2 with an elastic modulus of 22 x 106
2 . Invar tapes can be obtained in lengths of 100 ft. to 300 ft. in the in. width, and in the
6 mm width between 24 and 30 to 100 meters. The metric tape, the ends are divided to 1/25 in.
or 1/100 ft. Due to their high cost, they are not used for ordinary work.
Equipment for Baseline measurement:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Three Standardized tapes: out of the three tapes one is used for field measurements and
the other two are used for standardizing the field tape at suitable intervals.
Straining device, marking tripods or stakes, and supporting tripods or staking.
A steel tape for spacing the tripods or stakes.
Six thermometers, four for measuring the temperature of the field tape and two for
standardizing the four thermometers.
A sensitive and accurate spring balance.

The Field Work

The field work for the measurement of base line is carried out by two parties:
(1) The setting out party, consisting of two surveyors and a number of porters have the duty to
place the measuring tripods in alignment in advance of the measurement, and at correct
intervals.
(2) The measuring party consisting of two observers, recorder, leveller and staffman, for actual
measurements.
The base line is cleared off the obstacles and is divided into suitable sections to 1 kilometer
in length and is accurately aligned with a transit. Whenever the alignment changes, stout posts
are driven firmly in the ground. The setting out party then places measuring tripods in
alignments in advance of the measurement which can be done by two methods:
i.
ii.

Measurement on Wheelers methods by Wheelers base line apparatus

Jaderins method

Page 19 of 27

i) Wheelers base line apparatus (Fig. 3.17)

Fig. 3.17. Wheelers Base Line Apparatus

The marking stakes are driven on the line with their tops about 50 cm above the surface of the
ground, and at distance apart slightly less than the length of the tape. On the tops of the marking
stakes, strips of zinc, 4 cm in width, are nailed for the purpose of scribing off the extremities
of the tapes. Supporting stakes are also provided at intervals of 5 to 15 meters, with their faces
in the line. Nails are driven in the sides of the support stakes to carry hooks to support the tape.
The points of supports are set either on a uniform grade between the marking stakes or at the
same level. A weight is attached to the other end of the straining tripod to apply a uniform pull.
To measure the length, the rear end of the tape is connected to the straining pole and the forward
end of the spring balance to the other end of which a weight is attached. The rear end of the
tape is adjusted to coincide with the mark on the zinc strip at the top of the rear marking stake
by means of the adjusting screw of the slide. The position of the forward end of the tape is
marked on the zinc strip at the top of the forward marking stake after proper tension has been
applied. The work is thus continued. The thermometers are also observed.
ii) Jaderins method
In this method, introduced by Jaderin, the measuring tripods are aligned and set at a distance
approximately equal to the length of the tape. The ends of the tapes are attached to the straining
tripods to which weights are attached. The spring balance is used to measure the tension. The
rear mark of the tape is adjusted to coincide with the mark on rear measuring the tension. The
rear mark of the tape is adjusted to coincide with the mark on rear measuring tripod. The mark
on the forward measuring tripod is then set at the forward mark of the tape. The tape is thus
suspended freely and is subjected to constant tension. An aligning and levelling telescope is
also sometimes fitted to the measuring tripod. The levelling observations are made by a level
and light staff fitted with a rubber pad for contact with the tripod heads. The tension applied
should not be less than 20 times the weight of the tape.

Page 20 of 27

Fig. 3.18. Jaderins Method

Measurements by Steel and Brass wires: Principle of Bimetallic Thermometer
The method of measurement by steel and brass wires is based on Jaderins application of the
principle of bimetallic thermometer to the flexible apparatus. The steel and brass wires are each
24 m long and 1.5 to 2.6 mm in diameter. The distance between the measuring tripods is
measured first by the steel wire and then by the brass wire by Jaderins method as explained
above (Fig. 3.18) with reference to invar tape or wire. Both the wires are nickel plated to ensure
the same temperature conditions for both. From the measured lengths given by the steel and
brass wires, the temperature effect is eliminated as given below:
Let = distance as computed from the absolute length of steel wire
= distance computed from the absolute length of the brass wire
= co-efficient of expansion of steel
= co-efficient of expansion of brass
D= corrected distance
= mean temperature during measurement
= temperature at standardization
T= = temperature increase
Now, = (1 + ) = (1 + ) or ( ) = ---- Equation (1)
Therefore, =

---- Equation (2)

Substituting the value of T in (1) for steel wire, we get

= {1 +

( )
}

Therefore, correction for steel wire = = +

( )

accuracy.
Page 21 of 27

( )

with sufficient

Similarly, correction for brass wire = = +

( )

The corrections can thus be applied without measuring the temperature in the field. The method
has however been superseded by the employment of invar tapes or wires.

3.17 Satellite Station: Reduction to Centre

In order to secure well-conditioned triangle or better visibility, objects such as church spires,
steeples, flag poles, towers, etc. are some times selected as the triangulation stations. When the
observations are to taken from such a station, it is impossible to setup instrument over it. In
such a case, a subsidiary station, known as a satellite station or eccentric station or false station
is selected as near to the main station as possible, and observation are taken to the other
triangulation stations with the same precision as would have been used in the measurement of
angles at the true station. These angles are later corrected and reduced to what they would have
been if the true station was occupied. The operation of applying the corrections due to the
eccentricity of the station is generally known as reduction of centre. The distance between
the true station and the satellite station is determined either by method of trigonometrical
levelling or by triangulation. Satellite stations should be avoided as far as possible in primary
triangulation.

Fig. 3.19. Satellite Station S to the Left of Main Station B

In Fig. 3.18, let A, B, C = triangulation stations,
S = Satellite station for B,
d = BS = eccentric distance between B and S, determined by trigonometrical levelling or by
triangulation.
= = Observed angle at a S,
= True angle at B,
Page 22 of 27

 = = Observed angle at S,
1 = , 2 = ,
AC = b, AB = c and BC = a,
O = Point of intersection of lines AB and CS.
1) The angles CAB and ACB are known by observations to B from A and C respectively. The
length of the side AC is known by computations from the adjacent triangle. The sides AB and
BC can then be calculated by applying sine rule to the triangle ABC. Thus,
= =
= =

sin
sin
sin
sin

---- Equation (1)

---- Equation (2)

In the above expressions, may be taken equal to 1800 , at the first

instance to calculate the sides AB and BC.
2) Knowing the sides AB and BC, and the eccentric distance SB, triangles ABS and CBS can
be solved by sine rule to get the values of the angles 1 and 2 respectively.
Thus, from triangle ABS, sin 1 =
And, from triangle CBS, sin 2 =

sin

sin

sin(+)

sin

Since BS is very small in comparision to BA and BC, the angles 1 and 2 are extremely small,
and we may write.
sin

1 () = sin 11 =

sin(+)

sin

And 2 () = sin 12 =

206264 ---- Equation (3)

sin

206264 ---- Equation (4)

3) After having calculated the angles 1 and 2 , the observed angle at S is reduced to that at
B as follows:
= = 2 = 1 + 2 ---- Equation (5)
The above expression for the true angle does not cover all the four possible cases
corresponding to the four positions of the satellite station S, as shown by 1 , 2 , 3 4 in
Fig. 3.20 (a).
Case I: Position 1 to the left of B [Fig. 3.19 (a) and Fig. 3.18]
The true angle = + 1 2
Case II: Position 2 to the right of B [Fig. 3.19 (b)]
The true angle = 1 = + 2 1 ---- Equation (6)
Case III: Position 3 between AC and B [Fig. 3.19 (c)]
The true angle = 1 2 ---- Equation (7)
Page 23 of 27

Case IV: Position 4 [Fig. 3.19 (d)]

The true angle = + 1 + 2 ---- Equation (8)

Fig. 3.20. Different Other Possible Locations of Satellite Station

To ascertain the signs of corrections (i.e. 1 and 2) when a number of angles are observed
from the satellite S, it is convenient to assume SB as an arbitrary meridian. The observed angles
are then reduced to this meridian and the corrections are computed from the formula,
sin

( ) = sin 1 ---- Equation (9)

Where = observed angle reduced to the assumed meridian
D = Distance from the true station to the observed station
The sign of will be the same as the sign of sin .
Thus, in Fig. 3.21 let S = Satellite Station and B = True station,
Page 24 of 27

Fig. 3.21. Bearings measured from Assumed Meridian SB

1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , . are observed stations,
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , etc. are the angles to 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , . respectively, reduced to SB by taking SB
as the reference meridian.
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 = correction corresponding to 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ;
1 , 2 , 3 , 4 = distances of 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , . from point B respectively.
sin 1

Then 1 =

1 sin 1

sin 2

, 2 =

sin 1

, etc.

Since sin 1 is positive, the correction 1 is also positive. i.e., the bearing 1 is also obtained
by adding 1 to the bearing 1 (i.e. 1 ). Similarly, since 2 is in the second quadrant, 2 is
positive i.e. to get the bearing 2 , 2 will be added to 2 . Knowing the bearings of 1 and
2 the angle 1 2 will be computed. If 3 and 4 are in the fourth quadrant, 3 and 4 will
be applied negatively.

3.18 Extension of Base: Base Net

The base lines are usually much shorter than the average length of the triangle sides. This is
mainly due to two reasons:
i.
ii.

It is often not possible to get a favourite site for a longer base; and
It is difficult and expensive to measure long base lines.

Hence, in connecting the comparatively short base line to the main triangulation, badly
conditioned figure must be avoided by expanding the base in a series of stages. The group of
triangles means for extending the base is known as the base net.

Page 25 of 27

There are a great variety of the extension layouts, but the following important points should be
kept in mind in selecting the one:
i.
ii.
iii.

Small angles opposite the known side must be avoided.

The net should have sufficient redundant lines to provide three or four side equations
within the figure.
Subject to the above, it should provide the quickset extension with the fervent stations.

Fig. 3.22. Extension of Base

Fig. 3.22 represents such a base net in which it is required to extend the base AB. The following
steps are necessary:
1) Select two stations E and F to the either side AB such that AEB and AFB are wellconditioned triangles.
2) In the line AB, prolonged very accurately with the help of a theodolite, choose a
favourable position C from which E and F are both visible, and which forms wellshaped triangles AEC and AFC. Thus if the angles at A, E, F and C are about 450 , and
those at base about 900 , both sets of the triangles will be well-conditioned.
3) In the triangle AEB, AB is measured, and hence EB can be calculated by measuring all
the three angles, A, E and B. From triangle EBC, BC can be computed from known
side EB and the measured angles at E, B and C.
4) Similarly, BC can also be calculated from triangles AFB and FBC. Thus, two values of
BC are obtained.
5) Two more values of BC = is extended to AC. Similar procedure can be
adopted if further extensions to D etc. are required.
Fig. 3.23 shows various typical forms of base extensions.
Page 26 of 27

Fig. 3.23. Base Extension (Other forms)

Page 27 of 27