Chapter 3:

Pulau Kukup Johor National Park

Pulau Kukup is one of the largest uninhabited mangroves in the world. It is also the only
one situated in Johor waters. Today, Pulau Kukup has received international recognition,
being granted the status of a 'Wetland of International Importance' (RAMSAR site) by the
Geneva- based Ramsar Convention Bureau.
A local folklore tells the tale of Pulau Kukup, an abode for five celestial princesses. One day,
one of them fell in love with a sailor and they eloped. A curse was set upon the island of
Kukup and it was submerged by sea.
The island later resurfaced, but it was covered in mangroves. Many have tried to settle on this
island, but without success. Some say this is because the island is inhabited by spirits.
Pulau Kukup is today the home of countless species of wildlife. Among these are playful
monkeys, quiet mudskippers and nosy wild boars.
Mangrove trees by the coast of Pulau Kukup can reach up to 18 metres also contain the
largest 'bakau minyak' (Rhizophora Apiculata) in Peninsular Malaysia.The Malaysia Book Of
Records (MBOR) has also recognised the size of these trees.Even more interesting was
1

finding a hybrid of the 'bakau minyak' and 'akik jalar' (rhizophora stylosa) named 'rhizophora
x

lamarckii',

which

is

estimated

to

be

100

years

old.

"Here we also have all kinds of sea snails such as 'siput sedut mata merah' and 'siput
berongan', fiddler crab, water monitor lizard and other species that can be observed up close,"
he said.
Mangrove forests are very important to the survival and growth of marine and land life. It is
not only a source of food, but is also a shelter and protects against erosion. Therefore, should
be taken care of.
On the island, conservation activities are actively carried out such as planting of mangrove
trees and planting of 100 seeds.
With not less than 50,000 visitors to the national park each year, the natural treasures of Pulau
Kukup promises an invaluable Although you can find mangroves along most coastlines in
tropical areas, they do not have an easy life. Mangroves have to deal with high concentrations
of salt, with periodical flooding, and high temperatures, and they need to make sure they have
enough light and nutrients to grow.
Visitors to the island have to take a 10 minute boat ride to get there from the Kukup fishing
village that is located in the district of Pontian.Undeniably, one look at the 150 year old
fishing village does not reveal anything and it passes off as just another fishing village.
Walk through the narrow streets and fishermen can be seen unloading their catch, old men
puffing away as they chat by the roadside and fishmongers waiting for customers.Spanning
1,447 hectares, whereby the mangrove forest makes up 647 hectares of the island, the
uninhabited island boasts of a unique ecosystem.
"If we talk about national parks in Pontian, Tanjung Piai located close by will usually come to
mind although there are two national parks in the district namely Tanjung Piai and Pulau
Kukup.
"Besides that, Johor also has the Endau Rompin National Park (Peta entrance) Endau Rompin
National Park (Selai entrance), Gunung Ledang National Park and the Sultan Iskandar
Marine Park," she s
2

Bird lovers visiting from September to February will be treated to the sight of birds migrating
as the national park is a stopover location.
This is because the southwest coast of the island is a muddy shore that acts as an important
food source for migratory birds and other wildlife.
The plethora of flora and mangrove trees there can also be viewed closely by taking a stroll
on the 600-metre long pedestrian platform or 120-metre arboretum provided.
The national park where 23 natural mangrove species grow also hosts endangered mangrove
species like the 'Berus Mata Buaya' (Bruguiera Hainesii)."Here we work to conserve the
Berus Mata Buaya mangrove. We have eight of them here,

Chapter 4:

Abiotic Components in the Mangroves

Swamps

Mangroves are usually found in sheltered embayments.

The trees must be able to withstand being submerged twice a day

by tidal saltwater. Evaporation during the intertidal period can cause
the salinity of the water to rise well above that of seawater.

During periods of rain the mangroves at low tide are exposed to

salinity levels approaching that of freshwater.

The soil that the mangroves grow in may be sand but is often a rich
mud high in nutrients but lacking in oxygen (anaerobic). This mud is
responsible for the smell often associated with mangrove swamps.

Mangroves have specially adapted aerial and salt filtering roots and
salt excreting leaves that enable them to occupy the fluctuating
wetlands that other plants cannot occupy.

Soil and Water

Mangroves are various large and extensive types of trees up to medium height and shrubs
that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropicsmainly between
latitudes 25 N and 25 S. The remaining mangrove forest areas of the world in 2000 was
53,190 square miles (137,760 km) spanning 118 countries and territories.[1][2]
Mangroves are salt tolerant trees (halophytes) adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions.
They contain a complex salt filtration system and complex root system to cope with salt
water immersion and wave action. They are adapted to the low oxygen (anoxic) conditions of
waterlogged mud.
The word is used in at least three senses: most broadly to refer to the habitat and entire plant
assemblage or mangal, which the terms mangrove forest biome, mangrove swamp and
mangrove forest are also used, to refer to all trees and large shrubs in the mangrove swamp,
and narrowly to refer to the mangrove family of plants, the Rhizophoraceae, or even more
specifically just to mangrove trees of the genus Rhizophora.
The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat
characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high
6

organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. The saline
conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure
seawater (30 to 40 ppt (parts per thousand)), to water concentrated by evaporation to over
twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt
Mangrove swamps are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangal
occurs include estuaries and marine shorelines.
The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents the major limitation to the
number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the
tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity.
The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable
to that of seawater.

Humidity
At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and desiccation, and are
then cooled and flooded by the tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must
tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as a number of other key
environmental factors thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree
community.
About 110 species are considered "mangroves", in the sense of being a tree that grows in such
a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora.
However, a given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It
is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree
species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but
this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in
species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides a home (habitat) for a great variety of
other organisms.
Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of
anoxia, high salinity and frequent tidal inundation. Each species has its own solutions to these
problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species
show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within a mangal may lead to greatly
7

differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly
determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal
inundation and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as predation of
plant seedlings by crabs.
Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby
enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic
sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal
particles in the sediments have scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these
underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and
biota.
Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during
hurricanes), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating
wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the
tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs.[9] In this way, mangroves
build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the
protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs,
including national biodiversity action plans.
However, mangrove swamps' protective value is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is
typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured
over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such
as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river
channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the
inner sides where sediment is accruing
The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine
region for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms
they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard
surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy
bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs munch on the mangrove leaves, adding nutritients to
the mangal muds for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in
mangroves is important in coastal food webs.

Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines and India host several commercially
important species of fishes and crustaceans. Despite restoration efforts, developers and others
have removed over half of the world's mangroves in recent times.
Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as
well as by the action of termites. It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary and
tectonic conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of
mangrove involved. In Puerto Rico the red (Rhizophora mangle), white (Laguncularia
racemosa) and black (Avicennia germinans) mangroves occupy different ecological niches
and have slightly different chemical compositions so the carbon content varies between the
species as well between the different tissues of the plant e.g. leaf matter vs roots.
In Puerto Rico there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations which
are dominated by red mangroves to farther inland with a higher concentration of white
mangroves.[15] Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in
tropical coastal ecosystems. Using this it is possible to attempt to reconstruct the environment
and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem for thousands of years by using sediment
cores.] However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also
gets deposited in the sediment due to tidal flushing of mangrove forests.[15]
In order to understand peat formation by mangroves, it is important to understand the
conditions they grew in, and how they decayed. Termites are an important part of this decay,
and so an understanding of their action on the organic matter is crucial to the chemical
stabilization of mangrove peats.[15]
Of the recognized 110 mangrove species, only about 54 species in 20 genera from 16 families
constitute the "true mangroves", species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. [3]
Demonstrating convergent evolution, many of these species found similar solutions to the
tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils and intense
sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangal. The greatest biodiversity
occurs in the mangal of New Guinea, Indonesia and Malaysia.

Adaptations to low oxygen

Above and below water view at the edge of the mangal.

Red mangroves, which can survive in the most inundated areas, prop themselves above the
water level with stilt roots and can then absorb air through pores in their bark (lenticels).
Black mangroves live on higher ground and make many pneumatophores (specialised rootlike structures which stick up out of the soil like straws for breathing) which are also covered
in lenticels.
These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm, and in some species, over 3
m. The four types of pneumatophores are stilt or prop type, snorkel or peg type, knee type,
and ribbon or plank type. Knee and ribbon types may be combined with buttress roots at the
base of the tree. The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the
plants.

10

Salt intake

Salt crystals formed on grey mangrove leaf.

Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots which are highly
suberised (impregnate with suberin), acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to exclude sodium
salts from the rest of the plant. Analysis of water inside mangroves has shown 90% to 97% of
salt has been excluded at the roots. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as
the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old
leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research suggests the older, yellowing
leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves.[18] Red mangroves
can also store salt in cell vacuoles. As seen in the photograph on the right, white or grey
mangroves can secrete salts directly; they have two salt glands at each leaf base (correlating
with their namethey are covered in white salt crystals).
Limiting water loss
Because of the limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the
amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata
(pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapour during
photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun
and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. Anthony Calfo, a noted aquarium author,
11

observed anecdotally a red mangrove in captivity only grows if its leaves are misted with
fresh water several times a week, simulating the frequent tropical rainstorms.[19]
Nutrient uptake
Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria
liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates, sulfides and methane,
which make the soil much less nutritious.[citation

needed]

Pneumatophores (aerial roots) allow

mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as ferrum,
from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them
even when the roots are submerged during high tide.
Increasing survival of offspring

Red mangrove seeds germinate while still on the parent tree.

In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their
offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal.
Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove) are
viviparous, whose seeds germinate while still attached to the parent tree. Once germinated,
the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis, Avicennia and Aegiceras), or out
through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora, Ceriops, Bruguiera and Nypa) to form a propagule (a
ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis.

12

The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances.
Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over a year before arriving in a
suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so the elongated
shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge
in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of
more favorable conditions.

Topography and evolution

The following listing gives the number of species of mangroves in each listed plant genus and
family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species
of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove
lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove
diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and the
number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global
extinction.

13

Chapter 5:

Biotic Components in the Mangroves

Mangroves are generally small scrubby trees supported by prop roots. There are many species
of mangrove plant. Though mangrove species often look the same or similar, they are often
not members of the same family. Many come from different families not even closely related.
Different mangrove species are simply plants that came up with the same strategy to survive
in a specific environment as plants in the desert have.
Mangroves are essentially terrestrial plants that have adapted themselves to living in salt
water and mud saturated with hydrogen sulfide (the chemical that produces the rotten egg
smell) and salt and is rich in organic matter (up to 90 percent) but deficient in oxygen.
Mangrove swamps are difficult to explore. The roots form an impregnable tangle of
interlocking roots that make boating through them impossible. Sometimes the roots are
covered with a variety of sea creatures and can be as colorful as reefs.

14

Mangrove swamps are easiest to explore on foot at low tide. But even then making your way
through them is no piece of cake They are often covered by barnacles and shells that cut
hands and legs. The mud can suck off shoes, stick to the body and swallow people up to their
knees. The air is humid, full of mosquitos and the smell of decay and rotten eggs (swamp
gas).
Mangrove forests provide vital habitat for endangered species from tigers and crocodiles to
rare humming birds the size of a bee. Kennedy Ware wrote in National Geographic, Forest
mangroves form some of the most productive and biologically complex ecosystems on Earth.
Birds roost in the canopy, shellfish attach themselves to the roots, and snakes and crocodiles
come to hunt. Mangroves provide nurseries for fish; a food sources for monkeys, deer, treeclimbing crabs.". and a nectar source for bats and honeybees."
Ferns, vines, orchids, lilies, terns, herons, plovers, kingfishers, egrets, ibises, cormorants,
snakes, lizards, spiders, insects, snails and mangrove crabs thrive on land or upper parts of
the mangrove plants. Barnacles, oysters, mussels, sponges, worms, snails and small fish live
around the roots.

Mangroves water contain crabs, jellyfish and juvenile snappers, jacks, red drums, sea trout,
tarpon, sea bass, snook, sea bass. The only sharks and barracudas are babies.
Lemon sharks give birth to live young and breed in shallows and young sharks spend their
first year around mangrove swamps, feeding on small fish and crustaceans and staying
shallow waters were there are less vulnerable to attacks from larger fish, especially other

15

sharks. In the Bahamas there are large numbers of youngsters living in mangrove swamps
which offer them a plentiful supply of food and few dangers than in the open sea and around
reefs.
Mangroves begin the food chain by transforming sunlight into energy and food that support
microorganisms that in turn support larger and larger animals. Leaves that fall in the water are
broken up crabs and snails and in turn provide nutrients for other life forms.
Pieces of leave are attacked by bacteria, fungi and yeasts that break down the leaves into
particles that can be consumed by protozoa and microscopic animals. They are fed on by
small fish, worms, crustaceans and other invertebrates. They in turn are fed on by crabs and
bigger fish, which are sometimes gobbled up by herons and eagles.
Some mangrove snails avoid being submerged by crawling up and down mangrove roots.
They have an acute sense of timing and anticipate tide changes by moving up and down the
roots just ahead the rising and falling water. When they tides are at their highest each months
they stay at the highest perch and don't drop down at low tide.
Mudskippers

Mudskippers are small fish found in mudflats that spend a great deal of time out of water.
There are the only fish that feed, court and defend their territories on land. Residing in Old
World mangrove swamps and muddy estuaries from West Africa to Papua New Guinea and
Australia, they spend about half their time on land and can live up to week without water. The
largest species reach lengths of about 20 centimeters.

16

Mudskippers are somewhat similar to the first creatures that moved from the seas to land and
evolved into amphibians, reptiles, dinosaurs, mammals and other terrestrial animals. Most
species feed on plankton and algae. Some feed on worms, crustaceans and insects and other
food and small animals they can extract from the mud.
Mudskippers can breath on both land and in the water. Like all fish they have gills. But what
makes them unique are the little chambers they have outside their gills which entrap water
and enables them to breath on land, sort of like a scuba tank in reverse. To breath in this way
they need to regularly fill their mouths with water. They can also absorb oxygen through their
skin like a frog does but to do this they need to keep their skin wet and often roll around in
the mud to achieve that end.
Mudskippers have relatively large, funny-looking, protruding bug eyes. These eyes are so
well adapted for seeing on land, the ability to see in water is greatly diminished. Below their
eyes are small cups that hold water. As their eyes become dehydrated they retreat for a time
into the cups, which remoisten them.
There are three main kinds of mudskippers. The smallest ones spend most of their time in the
water. They usually hang out at the water's edge sifting for worms and crustaceans. Medium
size ones spend their time in the mid-tide areas of swamps. They are solitary, feed almost
exclusively on algae and sometimes build mud walls to defend their territory. The third and
largest kind hangs out in mudflats close to shore. It is a carnivore and feeds mostly on small
crabs.
Fiddler Crabs

17

Fiddler crabs live in holes and pick up food with their pincers that deliver it to a set of hairfringed blades that scissor back and forth in front of their mouths. One set of hairs sorts out
grains of sand and mud. Another set moves potentially edible material to the mouth. Inedible
material collects at the bottom of the mouth and is coalesced into a pellet that is removed
with the pincer. [Source: Douglas Fox Natural History, April 2004]
Fiddler crabs are seen by the hundreds in mud flats. They make slurping noises as they take
in mud, extract organic material and eject little balls. They rarely venture more than a meter
or two from their burrow. Somehow in their brains they count their steps and use
triangulation to figure out where they are in case they have to make a run for it to the relative
safety of their burrows.
Fiddle crab life revolves around its burrow. Douglas Fox wrote in Natural History: A crab's
most precious resource is its burrow. That's where the animal hunkers down at hide tide,
hides from birds, mates. And other crabs that leave the safety of their own burrows in search
of a larger or better-positioned burrow are often the biggest threat. When a crab ventures even
a few crab steps from its burrow to slurp some mud, other crabs are constantly trying to steal
its burrow, forcing it to dart back time and time again to defend its home."
In the world of the fiddler crab most everything on land level are other crabs and things that
come from the sky are predators. If a dummy is placed next to a crab the crab treats it as
another crab and either ignores it or tries to fight with it or mate with it. If you wave a
dummy over their heads from the sky they immediately run for cover to their burrows.

18

Chapter 6:

Relationships Between Biotic Components

In Mangroves Swamp

The food chain of a mangrove forest relies heavily on the recycling of the detritus, made by
the falling leaves of the trees. This role is mainly filled by the smaller creatures, such as the
burrowing crab and the snapping shrimp. Others like the tube worm and bristle worm also do
this. These species, because they are eating the plant material, are considered the primary
consumers of the ecosystem and the mangroves are the main producers. One step above these
creatures is the smaller fish of the mangrove forests. Some of these fish are the mosquitofish,
the least killifish, and the sail fin molly. The top level of this food chain are the wading birds,
19

such as egrets or ospreys. They feed on the fish is the community, who take shelter in the
roots of the mangrove trees. Other birds of this ecosystem are the white-crowned pigeon, the
eastern brown pelican, and the tricolored heron.
In mangrove forests, the floral elements responsible for the photosynthesis under
brackichwater condition are of different types ie. Angiospermic flora, phytoplankton and
marine algae. These elements contribute mainly to the primary productivity. Apart from this,
faunal elements like zooplankton are responsible for secondary productivity and benthic
animals for tertiary productivity.
The primary productivity of phytoplankton : Plankton production in mangrove environment
represent only that of surrounding waters i.e.. the estuarine water flowing in and out of the
mangrove area. Relationships between the biotic and abiotic factors of the mangrove
ecosystem :
Trophic levels in the mangrove ecosystem:
In the mangrove ecosystem the abiotic and biotic features rely on one another to survive. In
particular the biotic features whereby the autotrophic feeders are the producers and beginning
of the food chain as they are the food source for the primary consumers which are
heterotrophic and are consequently unable to produce food themselves. The autotrophic
organisms of an ecosystem such as planktonic alga produce their own food through the
process of photosynthesis where the energy from the sun is converted into
oxygen. Additionally, the carbon dioxide needed by plants is provided through the respiration
of animals breathing out the oxygen produced by the plants. These autotrophic feeders
become the food source for primary consumers such as tadpoles and mosquito larva which in
turn provide a food source for the secondary consumers and this continues in stages
throughout the ecosystem.
Organisms in the ecosystem:
Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down and recycle organic material within an
ecosystem and returns nutrients to the soil that are the basic needs for plants in order for them
to survive and produce oxygen needed for us to breathe through photosynthesis.
Decomposer lifecycle - Fungi breaks down the soil and removes what it needs from it -->
Releases the nutrients back into the soil --> Plants/ trees absorb these nutrients through their
roots and utilise them to grow.
20

Scavengers such as maggots, crabs and worms eat the dead and/or decaying plant and animal
matter. Scavengers benefit the ecosystem in which the live because they assist in rapidly
breaking down the dead plant and animals matter to smaller components. This is
advantageous for the ecosystem because the prevent the excessive accumulation of the
biomass of dead matter, which can otherwise be hazardous to the living components within
an organism because they encourage the survival of harmful pathogens.
Detrital feeders consume the waste products of other animals found within the environment.
Detrital feeders contribute beneficially to the decomposition and nutrient cycles.
Producers are plants that produce their own food. This is done by using the light energy
produced by the sun, carbon dioxide from the air and water from the soil to produce energy in
the form of glucose and oxygen. This process is called photosynthesis. Producers can be
described as autotrophs or autotrophic because they produce their own food and do not rely
on other organisms within the ecosystem to obtain their energy.
Consumers are organisms that obtain their energy by consuming other organisms.
Consumers are commonly described as heterotrophs because they are unable to produce there
own food.
Biomass refers to the accumulation of living matter within an organism.
Adaptations of the organisms at Home bush:
Roots The soil that mangroves inhabit is anaerobic meaning it has low oxygen content
therefore the aveicennia or grey mangrove adapted pneumatophores through which gaseous
exchange occurs allowing the plant to obtain oxygen. Pneumatophores act almost like straws
that allow the plant to breathe. Pneumatophores are aerial roots which also provide structural
support for the grey mangrove in the soft muddy setting. The height of the pneumatophores
depends on their location and distance from water. The closer to the water a pneumatophore
is, the taller it will be allowing it to penetrate over the changing water level.
Animal adaptations:
The mangrove snail- The mangrove snail has modified various features of themselves in
21

order to adapt to the saline environment at Home bush mangroves. The shell of this gastropod
is crucial in its survival from both the environment and predators. The shell of the snails
found at Home bush protects its body from the saline conditions because it has modified itself
to allow the snail to live in its shell for 99% of its life. This is due to the fact that the biofilm
(a thin robust layer of bacteria and other microorganisms) that is found within the snails shell
is their main food source so they are able to sustain life without leaving their shells and are
consequently unaffected by the saline environment. Additionally these gastropods are able to
protect themselves against birds and other predators because their faeces take the appearance
of a worm which misleads the snails natural predators. This survival technique is reinforced
by the snails slow movement which does not attract the attention of predators, and by the
brown coloured shell which allows them to camouflage with their surroundings.
The mangrove crab- The existence of the mangrove crab within the studied environment are
imperative in the breaking down of leaf litter which they feed on. During low tide the
mangrove crabs remain within their borrows only emerging for necessities such as food.
Additionally during high tide the mangrove crab is able to escape the water and predators by
ascending trees as far up as the canopies. The mangrove crab is able to source out fallen
leaves through vibration. Mangrove crabs are able to survive during low tide due to the
breathing specialisation of oxygenated water which constantly passes through its gills as it
would underwater. A sample of water is continuously redirected through specialised panels on
the crabs body that allow air flow.
Leaves of the mangroves are able to reduce water loss by turning their oval, pointed leaves
away from the hot exposure of the sun. As a result the surface area of the leaf that is heated
by the sun is dramatically reduced, henceforth preventing water loss via evaporation

22

Chapter 7:Interaction Between Biotic Components

Ferns, vines, orchids, lilies, terns, herons, plovers, kingfishers, egrets, ibises, cormorants,
snakes, lizards, spiders, insects, snails and mangrove crabs thrive on land or upper parts of
the mangrove plants. Barnacles, oysters, mussels, sponges, worms, snails and small fish live
around the roots.
Mangroves water contain crabs, jellyfish and juvenile snappers, jacks, red drums, sea trout,
tarpon, sea bass, snook, sea bass. The only sharks and barracudas are babies.
Lemon sharks give birth to live young and breed in shallows and young sharks spend their
first year around mangrove swamps, feeding on small fish and crustaceans and staying
shallow waters were there are less vulnerable to attacks from larger fish, especially other
sharks. In the Bahamas there are large numbers of youngsters living in mangrove swamps
which offer them a plentiful supply of food and few dangers than in the open sea and around
reefs.

23

Mangroves begin the food chain by transforming sunlight into energy and food that support
microorganisms that in turn support larger and larger animals. Leaves that fall in the water are
broken up crabs and snails and in turn provide nutrients for other life forms.
Pieces of leave are attacked by bacteria, fungi and yeasts that break down the leaves into
particles that can be consumed by protozoa and microscopic animals. They are fed on by
small fish, worms, crustaceans and other invertebrates. They in turn are fed on by crabs and
bigger fish, which are sometimes gobbled up by herons and eagles.
Some mangrove snails avoid being submerged by crawling up and down mangrove roots.
They have an acute sense of timing and anticipate tide changes by moving up and down the
roots just ahead the rising and falling water. When they tides are at their highest each months
they stay at the highest perch and don't drop down at low tide.

24

Chapter 8:

Competition In the Mangrove Swamp

Mangroves provide both habitat and a source of food for a diverse animal community that
inhabits both the forest interior and the adjacent coastal waters. Some animals depend on the
mangrove environment during their entire lives while others utilize mangroves only during
specific life stages, usually reproductive and juvenile stages .
Mangroves intricate aerial root system, which is most highly developed within the lower
intertidal zone, provides a substrate for colonization by algae, wood borers, and fouling
organisms such as barnacles, oysters, mollusks, and sponges. From the diverse group of
invertebrates found in mangroves, arthropods, crustaceans, and mollusks are among the most
abundant and have a significant role in mangrove ecosystems. As mentioned earlier, some
species of crabs, recognized as propagule or seedling predators, can influence mangrove
forest structure, as may seedling predation by beetles or other insects. Crabs and snails,
important components of the detritus food chain, help break down leaf litter through grazing.
Shrimp, an important fisheries resource, find food and shelter in mangrove forests. Likewise,
commercially important bivalves such as oysters, mussels, and clams are commonly found in
and around mangrove roots. Mangroves are also recognized as essential nursery habitat for a
diverse community of fish, which find protection and abundant food in these environments,
especially during juvenile stages.
Many animals found within mangroves are semi-aquatic or derived from terrestrial
environments. Numerous insect species are found in mangrove forests; some play critical
roles as mangrove pollinators, herbivores, predators, and as a food source for other animals
Amphibians and reptiles such as frogs, snakes, lizards, and crocodiles also inhabit mangrove
forests. Birds use mangroves for refuge, nesting, and feeding. In Florida and Australia, up to
200 species of birds have been reported around mangrove communities . Most of these birds
do not depend completely on mangroves, and use these habitats only during part of their
seasonal cycles, or during particular stages of the tide. Mammals living in mangrove forests
include raccoons, wild pigs, rodents, deer, monkeys, and bats. Finally, turtles, manatees,
dolphins, and porpoises can be occasional visitors to mangrove-dominated estuaries

25

Colonisation And Succession

Processes In
Mangrove Swamp

Chapter 9:

26

27

28

Chapter 10:

The Importance

Of Mangrove Swamp

Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby
enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it is already occurring. The fine, anoxic
sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal
29

particles in the sediments have scavenged from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these
underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and
biota.
Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion, storm surge (especially during
hurricanes), and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating
wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water enough so its sediment is deposited as the
tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves
build their own environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the
protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs,
including national biodiversity action plans.
However, mangrove swamps' protective value is sometimes overstated. Wave energy is
typically low in areas where mangroves grow, so their effect on erosion can only be measured
over long periods. Their capacity to limit high-energy wave erosion is limited to events such
as storm surges and tsunamis. Erosion often occurs on the outer sides of bends in river
channels that wind through mangroves, while new stands of mangroves are appearing on the
inner sides where sediment is accruing.
The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers a quiet marine
region for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms
they host include algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges, and bryozoans, which all require a hard
surface for anchoring while they filter feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy
bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs munch on the mangrove leaves, adding nutritients to
the mangal muds for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases, export of carbon fixed in
mangroves is important in coastal food webs.
Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines and India host several commercially
important species of fishes and crustaceans. Despite restoration efforts, developers and others
have removed over half of the world's mangroves in recent times.
Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as
well as by the action of termites. It becomes peat in good geochemical, sedimentary and
tectonic conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of
mangrove involved. In Puerto Rico the red (Rhizophora mangle), white (Laguncularia
30

racemosa) and black (Avicennia germinans) mangroves occupy different ecological niches
and have slightly different chemical compositions so the carbon content varies between the
species as well between the different tissues of the plant e.g. leaf matter vs roots.
In Puerto Rico there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations which
are dominated by red mangroves to farther inland with a higher concentration of white
mangroves. Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in
tropical coastal ecosystems. Using this it is possible to attempt to reconstruct the environment
and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem for thousands of years by using sediment
cores. However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also
gets deposited in the sediment due to tidal flushing of mangrove forests.
Productive use value is the one most visible for mangroves. mangroves have shrunk in area
so considerably, productive use value is practically zero, but in the rest of the world, this is
still very significant. The products that can be extracted for sale in local and international
markets are myriad.
Sawn timber: Heritiera and Xylocarpus species produce high-quality timber but are often
scarce and difficult to access.

Poles: Unsawn poles of Rhizophora species (bakau

piles) are the most common extraction product in
the region; they are easily harvested by manual
methods and have a short crop-rotation period in
managed forests (e.g. in Peninsular Malaysia).
Piles of bakau (Rhizophora) wood

A kiln in Matang, Perak,

where Rhizophora wood
is converted into charcoal

Fuel wood and charcoal:This may be used

directly or after conversion into charcoal.
Rhizophora species wood have a high calorific value
meaning that they produce more heat for the same
weight, and are thus the major species exploited.
Charcoal manufacture still occurs in Indonesia,
Malaysia and Thailand. For examples, managed
forests are found in the Matang District and Johor
River Forest Reserve in Peninsular Malaysia.

Tannins and dyes: Bark of mangrove trees are harvested as a source of tannin for the
tanning industry. High tannin content is found especially in members of the Rhizophoraceae,
31

to increase their resistance to herbivores. With development of cheap synthetic tannic acids
after World War II, the commercial exploitation of mangrove bark has dropped to practically
zero. Mangrove sap is, however, still used by East Africans or Polynesians to make the black
dye for tapa cloth.
Raw materials for industries: Mangrove trees are exploited for the lignocellulose for the
manufacture of chipboard, pulpwood (newspaper and cardboard) or synthetic materials (e.g.,
rayon).

Indirect Uses
Non-consumptive use value includes the services provided by the mangrove community
without it being destroyed or removed even in part. These include services for many
industries and activities.
Fisheries: Mangroves supply food to marine
communities via a detritus food chain starting from
fallen mangrove leaves. They also provide a habitat
for some commercially exploited marine organisms
(e.g. prawns, crabs and fish) at critical phases of their
life cycle by functioning as a feeding ground for
juveniles (nurseries). In fact, studies have shovwn that
when mangroves are lost, fishermen suffer
substantially decreased catches of prawns and many
fish species.

A fisherman in the Western

Johor Straits, off the Sarimbun
mangroves in the west of Singapore.
Pulau Sarimbun is in the background.

Natural sewage-treatment plant: Under favourable conditions and reasonable load, the
community may have this function. A thorough understanding of nutrient cycling in this
ecosystem is necessary. This is especially because so many food products are harvested from
mangroves. Indiscriminate dumping of sewage can easily lead to food poisoning and
epidemics!
Coastal protection: Although it is generally concluded that mangroves will develop only
in areas which are predisposed to sedimentation and thus cannot be credited with landbuilding, the community will stabilize and prevent shifting of the coastline. Mangroves can
also buffer against the damage wrought by winds and water during storms, hurricanes and
typhoons.
Ecotourism and education: Mangrove wildlife is a
tourist attraction. This aspect is exploited in Pulau
Langkawi, Kuala Selangor (Malaysia) and the Sungei
Buloh Nature Park which has migratory birds as an
added attraction. More schools in Singapore are
beginning to use the park to conduct short research
projects.

32

Chapter 11 : Action plans to conserve

mangrove Swamp
Large-scale mangrove restoration and rehabilitation programmes have been taken up ,
especially in India along the Mandovi, Zuari, Chapora estuaries and the Cumbarjua canal.
However, in Malaysia no large-scale mangrove restoration works have been taken up in the
last three years. Mangrove conservation and reforestation programmes along the central west
coast of India have resulted in increased public awareness regarding the importance of
mangroves; control of intertidal mudbanks; opening of new avenues for forestry and social
forestry activities; increased biomass along the estuaries, which has influenced biological
productivity; and increased bird and other animal life

33

Since the December 2004 tsunami there has been a mounting call for re-establishing
protective greenbelts along coastlines. Although the jury is still out on the extent to which
mangroves mediate tsunami damage, mangrove forests are proven effective barriers against
tropical storms and strong wave action.
How effective mangroves are depends on a number of factors, such as:

density, width, height, and species composition of the mangrove forest;

bathymetry of the coastline; and

other oceanographic factors.

Some NGOs suggested actions include the following:

people's involvement in mangrove management on public lands and related benefits;

programmes to raise people's awareness of the importance of mangroves, e.g. through

films, exhibitions, newspapers, magazines, posters, stickers, brochures, banners,
seminars, nature camps, birdwatching, study tours in the mangrove forests,
establishment of mangrove parks in the mangrove areas close to towns, and the
celebration of Mangrove Conservation Day, with essay competitions, debates and
drawing competitions;

incentives for sustainable management of mangroves on private and village

community land;
34

enforcement of environmental protection laws;

research on problems related to pests and diseases and on appropriate management of

the mangrove ecosystem;

Chapter 12 : My immediate and future

plans ini mangrove swamp
conservation.

35

Many of the problems observed, particularly those caused by humans, can be traced to the
following root causes, which need to be addressed if mangroves are to be sustainably
conserved:

the poverty of the local inhabitants, which forces them to depend on mangroves for their
fuelwood, timber and fodder requirements even if collection is illegal;

increasing population, resulting in more pressure on mangroves;

lack of education and awareness regarding the importance of mangroves, and ignorance of
rules and regulations regarding conservation of mangroves;

improper planning of development activities such as aquaculture, agriculture, construction for

human
habitation, mining and industrial-ization;

short supply of fuelwood, timber and fodder at affordable prices;

absence of a systematic survey of the area and the ownership of the land under mangroves,
facilitating encroachment on this land;

difficulties of protection because of the scattered geographic distribution of mangroves;

acute shortage of government staff and other infrastructure.

36

Mangrove conservation and development efforts undertaken by the Government have so far
been successful in reducing the degree of problems, but there is scope for further
improvement. Some suggested actions include the following:

people's involvement in mangrove management on public lands and related benefits;

programmes to raise people's awareness of the importance of mangroves, e.g. through films,
exhibitions, newspapers, magazines, posters, stickers, brochures, banners, seminars, nature
camps, birdwatching, study tours in the mangrove forests, establishment of mangrove parks in
the mangrove areas close to towns, and the celebration of Mangrove Conservation Day, with
essay competitions, debates and drawing competitions;

incentives for sustainable management of mangroves on private and village community land;

enforcement of environmental protection laws;

research on problems related to pests and diseases and on appropriate management of the
mangrove ecosystem;

restoration and rehabilitation of degraded mangrove areas.

37

References
Kolej Sultan Abdul Hamid Alor Setar, Kedah, Malaysia. Facebook :
rozaini Othman
www: // kukup ecosystem . nationalpark.
www : kukup world heritage. com.
Kulanthai , Biology Form 4, Penerbitan Preston, Kuala Lumpur
Ching Seow Ju , Biology Tingkatan 4 , Penerbitan Federal , Shah Alam .

38

39

40

Mangrove Areas
Nearly 75 percent of the coastlines in the tropics (between 25 degrees north and 25 degrees
south) have some kind of mangrove covering. Although most are found within 30 degrees of
the Equator some hardy varieties such as those found in New Zealand have adapted
themselves to temperate climates. Mangrove areas worldwide

41

Mangroves are most prolific in Southeast Asia, where they are thought to have originated,
with the largest total area of mangroves in Indonesia. The Indo-Pacific mangroves are
generally richer in species and dense growth than mangroves found elsewhere. In parts of
Sumatra mangroves are marching into the sea at a rate of 115 feet a year; in Java advance
rates of a 180 feet a year have been recorded. There are 60 species in the Indo-Pacific region
compared to only 12 in the New World and three in Florida (the red, the black and the white).
Mangroves in the Asia-Pacific region are harvested for wood for paper. They are also
excellent land builders. Their interlocking roots stop sediments from traveling out sea and
instead cause them to settle around the mangroves. As mud accumulates on the seaward side
of a swamp, mangroves advance and claim it using special seeds that germinate while still
hanging from a branch. The seeds sends down green spear-like shoots which may up to 40
centimeters long. Some aboriginals in northern Australia believe their primal ancestor used
mangroves to walk across the mudflats to bring trees into existence.
Mangroves, Tides, Freshwater and Saltwater

Kennedy Ware wrote in National Geographic, mangroves are brilliant adaptors. Each
mangrove has an ultrafiltration system to keep much of the salt out and a complex root
system that allows it to to survive in the intertidal zone. Some have snorkel-like roots called
pneumatophores that stick of the mud to help them take in air; other use prop roots or
buttresses to keep their trunks upright in the soft sediments at tide's edge."
Mangroves survive in the salty, brackish water with various kinds of safeguards: membranes
that prevent salt from entering the roots, glands on the leaves that secrete salt or move it to
leaves that are about to fall off. These adaption help mangrove carve out a niche for
themselves where other plants can't grow.
42

Different mangroves deal with salt water incursions in different ways. Those that move it
dying leaves carry the salt water through the stems and deposit it leave salt ready to fall off a
die. Those that have glands on their leaves secrete it in concentrations that are 20 times
stronger than the sap and stronger than saltwater. Saltwater is damaging to plants and every
effort is made to conserve freshwater. The leaves contain mechanisms similar to these found
in desert plants to prevent evaporation
Salt marshes and mangrove forest have traditionally served as filters between land and sea.
Mangroves have to deal with high tides that swamp the plant and low tides that expose the
roots and deal with water that can range from almost completely fresh to completely salty.
Currents deposit and remove mud. Some mangroves can live on dry land away from salt
water.
Mangroves, Oxygen and Global Warming

Mangrove roots, like those of other plants, need oxygen. Since estuarine mud contains
virtually no oxygen and is highly acidic, they have to extract oxygen from the air.
Mangrove roots extract oxygen with above-ground, flange-like pores called lenticels, which
are covered with loose waxy cells that allow air in but not water. Some species of mangrove
have the lenticels on their prop roots. Others have them on their trunks or have
pneumatophores (fingerlike projection that grow up from the organic ooze). A single large
tree such as Sonneratia alba can produce thousands of rootlike snorels that radiate out in all
direction.
Mangroves sit like platforms on the mud. Their roots are imbedded in the mud just deep
enough so plants don't wash away. The areal roots also spread out in such a way that act like
buttresses.

43

Scientists have determined carbon inputs and outputs of mangrove ecosystems by measuring
photosynthesis, sap flow and other process in the leaves of mangrove plants. They have found
that mangroves are excellent carbon sinks, or absorbers of carbon dioxide. Research by Jin
Eong On, a retired professor of marine and coastal studied in Penang, Malaysia, believes that
mangroves may have the highest net productivity of carbon of any natural ecosystem. (About
a 100 kilograms per hectare per day) and that as much as a third of this may be exported in
the form of organic compounds to mudflats. On's research has show that much of the carbon
ends up in sediments, locked away for thousands of years and that transforming mangroves
into shrimp farms can release this carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere 50 times faster
than if the mangrove was left undisturbed.
Achin Steiner, United Nations Under-Secretary General told the Times of London. We
already know that marine ecosystems are multitrillion-dollar assets linked to sectors such as
tourism, coastal defense, fisheries and water purification services. Now it is emerging that are
natural allies against climate change."
A United Nations task force on mangroves and the environment recommending:
1) setting up a blue carbon fund to help developing countries to protect
mangroves as well as rain forests; 2) place a value on mangroves that takes into
consideration their value as carbon sinks; and 3) allow coastal and ocean carbon
sinks to be traded in same fashion as those for terrestrial forests. Christian
Nellemann, an author a United Nations report on the issue, told the Times of
London, There is an urgency to act now to maintain and enhance these carbon
sinks. We are losing these crucial ecosystem much faster than rainforests and at
the

44