Linear Algebra

Linear Algebra is a branch of mathematics which deals

with the study of vectors, families of vectors and with
functions that input one vector and output another,
according to certain rules. These functions are often
represented by Matrices. Matrices are defined as
rectangular arrays of numbers or symbols and matrix
algebra provides the rules which define the operations
that can be performed on such an object.
Linear algebra finds its applications in almost all
branches of engineering. The most basic of all
applications is to solve a system of linear equations in
several unknowns.
Matrix
A system of (mn) numbers arranged in the form of a
rectangular array having m rows and n columns is
called a Matrix, of order [m X n].
11 1

]
=[
1
The horizontal arrangement are rows and vertical
arrangement are columns.
Types of Matrices
1. Square Matrix: - An [m X n] matrix for which m=n,
i.e. number of rows is equal to number of columns is
called a square matrix.
1 3 5
[2 4 6 ] Is a square matrix of order [3X3].
7 9 11
A square sub-matrix of a square matrix is called a
principle sub-matrix, iff the diagonal elements of the
sub matrix are also the diagonal elements of the matrix.
1 3
In reference to the above given matrix, [
] is a
2 4
3 5
principle sub-matrix, but [
] is NOT.
4 6
2. Diagonal Matrix: - A square matrix in which all of the
non-diagonal elements, i.e. entries outside the main
diagonal are zero. The diagonal elements, may or may
not be zero.
4 0 0
[0 3 0] is a diagonal matrix. This matrix can also be
0 0 2
written as diag[4,3,2]
Important properties for a Diagonal Matrix:
Diag[x,y,z]+diag[p,q,r]= diag[x+p, y+q, z+r]
Diag[x,y,z] X diag[p,q,r] = diag[xp, yq, zr]
(diag[x,y,z])-1=diag[1/x, 1/y, 1/z]
(diag[x,y,z])t=diag[x,y,z] ; the transpose of a diagonal
matrix is the transpose itself
(diag[x,y,z])n=diag[xn, yn, zn]
Eigen values of diag[x,y,z] are x, y, z
Determinant of diag[x,y,z] = xyz
3. Unit or identity matrix:- A square matrix whose
diagonal elements are 1 and non-diagonal elements are
zero. It is denoted by letter I. An identity matrix is
always a square matrix.

1
3 = [0
0

0 0
1 0] is an Identity matrix of order [3X3].
0 1

Important properties of Identity matrix:

AI=IA=A
In=I
I-1=I
Det (I) = 1
4. Null Matrix:- A matrix whose all elements are zero. It
may be a square or non-square matrix.
0 0
0 0
2 = [
] , 32 = [0 0] are examples of null
0 0
0 0
matrix.
Important properties of Null matrix:
A+O=O+A=A; therefore O is called an Additive identity
A+ (-A) =O
5. Idempotent Matrix: - A matrix A is called
idempotent iff A2=A.
6. Involutory Matrix: - A matrix A is called
involutory iff A2=I.
7. Upper triangular Matrix:- A matrix, always square,
in which elements below the diagonal elements are zero.
It is denoted by letter U.
1 2 2
[0 3 4] is an example of the Upper triangular Matrix.
0 0 6
8. Lower Triangular Matrix:- A matrix, always square,
in which elements above the diagonal elements are zero.
It is denoted by letter L.
1 0 0
[5 3 0] is an example of the Upper triangular Matrix.
8 8 6
9. Nilpotent Matrix:- A matrix A is said to be
Nilpotent of degree k iff Ak=0, and 1 0. The
Eigen values of a nilpotent matrix are zero.
Equal and Similar matrices:- Two matrices are said to be
equal, if there orders and each of the elements are same.
Two matrices are said to be similar, if there orders are
same but the elements are distinct from each other.
Two equal matrices will always be similar, but the vice
versa of it is not always true.
Two matrices can ONLY be added and subtracted if they
are similar, and/ or equal.
Matrix addition is commutative and associative
Matrix subtraction is neither commutative nor associative
Matrix Multiplication
Two matrices A and B can only be multiplied if the
number of columns in A is equal to number of rows in B.
Let [A](mXn) and [B](nXp), as number of columns of A
is equal to number of rows of B=n, the product AB is
possible and will be of order (mXp).
Matrix multiplication is not commutative; AB is not
necessarily equal to BA.

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Matrix multiplication is associative, if conformability is

assured, i.e. A(BC)=(AB)C, where A, B and C are
matrices of order (mXn), (nXp), (pXq) respectively.
The equation AB=0 does not necessarily imply that at
least one of the matrices A and B must be a zero.
If AB=0, then it does not imply that BA=0, in fact BA
might not even exist.
Trace of a Matrix
The sum of elements lying in the principal diagonal of a
square matrix is called trace, denoted by Tr(A).
Properties of Trace
Tr(kA) = k Tr(A)
Tr(A+B) = Tr(A) + Tr(B)
Tr(AB) = Tr(BA)
Transpose of a Matrix
Transpose of a matrix can be obtained by interchanging
rows to columns and vice versa. If [A](mXn) then
[A]t(nXm).
Properties of transpose
(At)t=A
(A+B)t=At+Bt
(kA)t=kAt
(AB)t=BtAt
(ABC)t=CtBtAt
Complex Matrix/ Imaginary Matrix
If at least one of the elements of a matrix is a complex
number then the matrix is said to be Complex or
Imaginary Matrix.
1+ 2
=[
] is an example of complex matrix
1
0
Conjugate of a matrix
Conjugate can only be found out for a complex matrix,
by changing the sign of the imaginary part of the
complex number element in the matrix.
1 2
= [
] is the conjugate of the above mentioned
1
0
matrix A.
Properties of Conjugate of Matrix

) =
(

(
+ ) =
) =

(
= , then matrix is called a real matrix
If
= , then matrix is called a purely imaginary
If
matrix
Transposed Conjugate of a Matrix
The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called
transposed conjugate of A. It is denoted as .
Properties of Transposed Conjugate
( ) =
( + ) = +

() = , where k is any complex number

() =
Symmetric matrices
If At=A, then the matrix is said to be symmetric.
AAt is always a symmetric matrix

+
2

is always a symmetric matrix

If A and B are symmetric matrices then A+B and A-B

are also symmetric. But AB and BA may or may not be
symmetric.
Skew Symmetric Matrix
If At= - A, then the matrix is said to be skew symmetric.
A skew symmetric matrix must have all zeroes in its
diagonal.
For any matrix A,

is always a skew symmetric

matrix.
Orthogonal Matrix
Any square matrix A is said to be orthogonal if;
At = A-1 ; AA-1=AAt = I.
This means that a matrix will be orthogonal if
AAt=AtA=I.
An identity matrix is an orthogonal matrix
The determinant of an orthogonal matrix is always 1
Hermitian Matrix
A matrix is said to be Hermitian if, = .
Skew-Hermitian Matrix
A matrix is said to be skew hermitian if = .
Unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be unitary iff;
= 1 .
A square matrix is said to be unitary if = = .
Determinants

11 12 13
The symbol = |21 22 23 | = 11 (22 33
31 32 33
23 32 ) 12 (21 33 23 31 ) + 13 (21 32
22 31 ) represents a determinant.
The signs of the elements are considered in the following
+ +
pattern| + |.
+ +
Minors of a Determinant
A minor is the determinant of a square matrix, formed by
deleting one roq and one column from some larger
square matrix. Considering the determinant mentioned on
the previous page;
11 12 13
= |21 22 23 |, cross all entries sharing a row or
31 32 33
column with a21.
12
Minor of element a21= |

13
33 | = 21
When finding Minors, sign is NOT to be considered.
32

Cofactors of a Determinant
After finding the minor, , , take the subscript and add
I and j. Whatever result we get from this addition, make
it the power of -1, so the result will be either +1 or -1.

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Multiply this with the minor; we get the cofactor , =

(1)+ , .
Properties of a determinant
The value of determinant does not change if rows and
columns are interchanged.
If any row or column of a matrix A is completely zero,
then det(A)=0.
If any of the two rows or columns are interchanged in a
determinant, then the value of determinant is multiplied
by -1.
|| = ||||
A.AdjA=||.I
| | = ||1
| ( )| = ||^(( 1))2

Inverse of a Matrix
The inverse of a matrix A will exist iff || 0, i.e. nonsingular and is given by the formula,

1 =
||
Inverse of a matrix is unique, always. Let the two
inverses of the matrix A be B and C, then AB=BA=I, and
AC=CA=I. So, CAB=(CA)B=IB=B, and
CAB=C(AB)=CI=C. Thus, B=C.

Adjoint of a square matrix

It is a matrix formed by taking the transpose of cofactor
matrix for any square matrix A.
= [()]
Properties of inverse
If A and B are inverse of each other, then AB = BA = I
()1 = 1 1
()1 = 1 1 1
If A is a non-singular matrix, then ( )1 = (1 ) , and
( )1 = (1 )
Short cut to find inverse of a (2X2) matrix, if det (A) is
non zero
1
1

[
] =
[
]

( )
Rank of a Matrix
Rank of a matrix can be defined as the size of the largest
non-zero minor.
for any matrix A, () min(, )
() min[(), ()]
Rank of a matrix is the number of non zero rows in the
echelon form.
Echelon form:
Leading non zero element in every row is behind leading
non zero element in previous row.
All the zero rows should be below all non zero rows
Elementary row transformations do not alter the rank of a
matrix
Only null matrix can have a rank of zero, all other
matrices should have rank of at least one
Consistency and Inconsistency for system of Linear
Equations

Procedure to test consistency of a system of linear

equations ( r is the rank of mat A, and r is the rank of
augmented mat (A/B) ):Inconsistency () (|) then the system AX=B
has no solution
Consistent systems- () = (|) = , then the system
AX=B is consistent and the following two cases will
arise:Consistent Unique Solution- () = (|) = = ,
where n is the number of unknown variables in the
system
Consistent Infinite Solution- () = (|) = < ,
where n is the number of unknown variables in the
system.
AX=0, represents a system of homogeneous equations;
find rank of A by reducing it to the triangular form by
applying E-Row transformations. Let rank A = r;
The above mentioned system of equations can never be
inconsistent
Consistent Unique Solution- If r = n, then AX= 0 will
have a unique/ trivial solution; i.e. x=y=z=0; =
|| 0,
Consistent infinite Solution- if r<n then the system AX =
0 will have infinite solutions; < || =
0,
Eigen values
The equation AX = X, is called an Eigen Value
problem, where is a scalar. The non zero solutions to X
satisfying the eigen value problem are called eigen
vectors of A, and the corresponding values of are
called the eigen values of A.
The matrix A- I is called the characteristic matrix of
A, and the equation | A- I| = 0, is called the
characteristic equation of A.
The roots of characteristic equation are called the eigen
values for the given matrix.
If I is a characteristic root of the equation |A I| = 0,
then the matrix A-I is a singular matrix
If X is a eigen vector of a matrix A, then X cannot
correspond to more than one eigen values of A
The eigen values of a Hermitian matrix are real
The eigen values of a real symmetric matrix are all real,
since every such matrix is Hermitian
Eigen values of a skew hermitian matrix are either pure
imaginary or zero
the eigen values of an Unitary matrix are of unit modulus
The sum of the eigen values is equal to the sum of
elements of the principal diagonal of the matrix
The product of eigen values of a matrix A is equal to its
determinant
If is an eigen value of A, then 1/ is an eigen value of
1
If is an eigen value of an orthogonal matrix then 1/ is
also an eigen value of the same matrix.
If 1 , 2 . be the eigen values of a matrix A, then

1 ,
2 . are the eigen values for matrix
Quadratic form

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= [ ] , = [] =

[ ] = 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 +
2 + 2 is said to be a quadratic form.
The above quadratic is said to be
Positive definite, if all the eigen values of A>0
Negative definite, if all the eigen values of A<0
Positive Semidefinite, if all the eigen values of A0, and
at least one eigen value =0
Negative semidefinite, if all the eigen values of A0 and
at least one eigen value =0
Indefinite if some of the eigen values of A are +ve and
others ve

7.

5
0

The rank of a 3 X 3 matrix C(= AB), found by

multiplying a non-zero column matrix A of size 3 X 1
and a non-zero row matrix B of size 1 X 3, is
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) 2
(D) 3

2.

The following set of equations has

3x + 2y + z = 4
x-y+z=2
-2x + 2z = 5
(A) no solution
(B) a unique solution
(C) Multiple solutions
(D) An inconsistency

3.

4.

Consider the system of simultaneous equations

x + 2y + z = 6
2x + y + 2z = 6
x+y+z=5
This system has
(A) unique solution
(B) infinite number of solutions
(C) no solution
(D) exactly two solutions
For the matrix [

4 1
] the eigen values are
1 4

(A) 3 and -3
(C) 3 and 5
5.

6.

For which value of x

become singular?
8
[4
12
(A) 4
(C) 8
The sum of
1
below is [1
3
(A) 5
(C) 9

(B) -3 and -5
(D) 5 and 0

1
0

0

2
C)

(B) 6
(D) 12

the eigen values of the matrix given

2 3
5 1]
1 1
(B) 7
(D) 18

(B)

0
0

1

0

(D)

1
1

2

1

A is a 3 X 4 real matrix and Ax = b is an inconsistent

system of equations. The highest possible rank of A
is
(A) 1
(B) 2
(C) 3
(D) 4

9.

Multiplication of matrices E and F is G. matrices E

and G are

E=

cos
sin

sin
cos
0

0
0
1

and

1 0 0
0 1 0

0 0 1

G=
What is the matrix F?

(A)

0
2]
0

0
0
1

0
0
2
3

8.

will the matrix given below

0
6

0
5
0
0

1
2

0

0
(A)

Question
1.

Which one of the following is an eigen vector of the

matrix

cos
sin

cos
cos

0
(B)

(C)

cos
sin

sin
cos
0

0
0
1

cos

0
0
1

sin
0
sin
cos
0

0
0
1

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(D)

sin
cos

cos

0
0
1

sin
0

10. Eigen values of a matrix S

(A)

3 2
2 3 are 5 and what

are the Eigen values of the matrix S2 = SS?

(A) 1 and 25
(B) 6 and 4
(C) 5 and 1
(D) 2 and 10
11. The number of linearly independent eigen vectors of

2 1
0 2

is

(A) 0
(C) 2

(B) 1
(D) infinite

1 2

0 2

12. The eigen vector of the matrix

in the form

1
a

and

are written

19. x + 2y + z = 4
2x + y + 2z = 5
x-y+z=1
The system of algebraic equations given above has

20. For a matrix A =

has one eigen value

M =

3 / 5 4 / 5
, the transpose
x 3 / 5

of the matrix is equal to the inverse of the matrix,

M = M
T

-1.

(A) 4/5
(B) 3/5

5 3
1 3 , ONE of the normalized

eigen vectors given as

equal to 3. The sum of the other two eigen value is

(A) p
(B) p - 1
(C) p - 2
(D) p 3

15. For a matrix

(D)

1
1

(A) a unique solution of x = 1,y = 1 and z = 1.

(B) only the two solutions of (x = 1,y = 1,z = 1) and (x
= 2,y = 1, z = 0)
(C) infinite number of solutions
(D) no feasible solution

13. For what value of a, if any will the following system

of equation in x,y and z have a solution ?
2x + 3y = 4
x+y+z=4
3x + 2y - z = a
(A) Any real number
(B) 0
(C) 1
(D) There is no such value

14. The matrix

(C)

4
1

18. Eigen Values of a real symmetric matrix are always

(A)positive
(B) Negative
(C) Real
(D)complex

(B) 2
(D) 2

1 2 4
3 0 6

1 1 p

(B)

2
1

17. Consider the following system of equations

2x1+ x2+ x3 = 0
X2- x3 = 0
X1+ x2 = 0
This system has
(A) a unique solution
(B) no solution
(C) infinite number of solutions
(D) five solutions

1
b . What is a + b?

A) 0
(C) 1

2
1

(A)

3
2

(B)

(C)

10

10

(D)

ANSWERS

The value of x is given by

(B) -3/5
(D) 4/5

16. One of the eigen vectors of the matrix A =

2 2
1 3

1
B
11
B

2
B
12
B

3
C
13
B

4
C
14
C

5
A
15
A

6
B
16
A

7
A
17
C

8
C
18
C

9
C
19
C

10
A
20
B

is

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