AS BIOLOGY

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

Kushagar

Maini

1) Describe structure of water (hydrogen bonding):

Water has cohesive forces between the O and H atoms; these are strong
bonds and require a lot of energy to break. Oxygen requires two electrons
in its valence shell therefore; two Hydrogen atoms (single electrons) are
required to full valence shell.
2) Explain roles of water in living organisms
Solvent:
Ionic bonds form hydrogen bonds with the water, forming a
hydrated metal ion salt.
Polar molecules dissolve lipids, allow for it to travel around lacteals
in body.
Cohesive forces in water allow for it to move, pulled along a
pathway as a transport medium in humans and plants.
Specific heat capacity: (Thermal)
Large quantities of water are required to change/rise the
temperature
Important for maintaining stable temperatures in and environments
eg: rivers, sea and humans.
Large energy loss, in exchange for little water loss: sweating,
panting maintains constant temperature in body.
Latent heat of vaporisation:
Large amount of energy is required to evaporate water.
In oceans, lakes, rivers water is required to maintain its state to
accommodate for aquatic life.
3) Explain roles of water as environment for organisms-surface tension
and cohesion:
Cohesion is generated permits capillary uptake and transpiration. Water is
able to travel up xylem pipes due to cohesive forces. Some insects are
able to travel over water surfaces.
4) Definitions momner, polymer, macromolecule, mono, di and
polysaccharide:
Monomer: a single unit
Polymer: many subunits bonded together
Macromolecule: large molecules made up of multiple polymer units
Hydrolysis: break down of large molecules by addition of water; in suitable
conditions
Condensation: formation of large molecules by removal of water.
Monomers are joined to form polymers.
Monosaccharide: single unit of sugar
Sweet and dissolve easily are classified according to number of
Carbon present:
- Triose (3C) glyceraldehyde C(3)H(6)0(3)
- Pentose (5C) ribose C (5)H(10)O(5)
- Hexose 6C glucose, fructose, galactose C(6)H(12)O(6)
Disaccharide: multiple units of sugar bonded together
2 or more monosaccharaides linked together by condensation


Polysaccharide: multiple sugar molecules bonded together
Not sweet, insoluble
- Used for energy storage; starch and glycogen
- Used for structural support

5) Define polymerisation:
Monomer units bonded together
through condensation reaction,
resulting in product and removal of
water.
6) Describe the ring forms a and B glucose.

The OH- hydroxyl group of Carbon-1 is at

the lower end.
ALPHA IS BOTTOM

The OH-hydroxyl group of Carbon-1 is at

top of Carbon1.
BETA IS TOP

7) Describe the formation of glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides

A condensation reaction occurs between two monosaccharaides. The

hydroxyl groups of C1 and C4 react together forming Oxygen bondage and
a water molecule.
8) Relate properties of Starch, glycogen, cellulose to function
Starch: Made up of two molecules
Amylose a-glucose C1 C4 linkages helical shape
Amylopectin a-glucose main structure with C1 C6 links forming
short-branched chains.
Compact, insoluble, high number of branches (increase Surface area
for enzymes to act on)

Glycogen: Similar to amylopectin structure (more branches than starch)

Repeating units of a-glucose C1 & C4 glycosidic links
Long and numerous a C1-C6 link branches
Storage product of animals-liver and muscle
Compact, insoluble, high number of branches (increase Surface area
for enzymes to act on)
Cellulose:
Structural carbohydrates to add strength and rigidity to plant
Repeating units of C1 &C4 B-units Linear shape.
Every second monomer rotates 180 to allow glycosidic bond to form
Micro-fibrils form which allow Hydrogen-bonds to form between
chains
60-70 B glucose in one micro fibril

Sucrose (condensation of glucose and fructose)

Alcohol group (C1) of alpha-glucose bonds with (C2) alcohol group
of alpha fructose. Forming C1-C2 bond.

9) Describe breakage of glycosidic bonds in disaccharides (including

sucrose)
Glycosidic bonds are broken by hydrolysis. It is the breakdown of a
molecule with the addition of water.
This forms the alcohol groups to a-glucose and a-fructose from sucrose.
The enzyme Sucrase is involved in the reaction. From the disaccharide
sucrose, two monosaccharides glucose and fructose are formed.

10) Describe the formation of an ester bond

In lipids the ester bond forms by a condensation reaction between Glycerol
and fatty acids. The 3xOH (Hydroxide) groups of Glycerol each react with a
separate the fatty acid COOH (carboxyl) group react, removing a H20
molecule.
The R below presents a continuous branch of C-H bonds.

11) Describe the structure of triglyceride (structure above)

Hydrophobic (dislikes water), non-polar molecule (no net

electronegative charge). Does not form hydrogen bonds therefore
cannot dissolve in water. No effect on osmosis regularity of cell.
Branches can fold for compact storage.
Hydrolysis of ester bond and molecular breakdown of glyceride
bond forms water and C02. High amounts of energy stored in ester
bond. When energy is released it is used to generate ATP.

Saturated vs. Unsaturated fatty

acids
The terms saturated and unsaturated refer to the number of Hydrogen
atoms present in the molecule.
Bond type
Number of C-H
bonds
Melting/ boiling
point
State at room temp.
Shape of molecule
Found in

No double bonds
More

Some double bonds

Less

Low-energy required to
break single C-C bonds
is relatively lower.
Liquid
Linear

High- energy required

to break C=C double
bond is higher
Solid
Bent at double bonds

Warm blooded animals

Olive oil

Cold blooded animals

Butter

12) Relate the molecular structure of phospholipid to its function