Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
1 History
See also: History of radar
In 1945, Lon Theremin invented an espionage tool
Small RFID chips, here compared to a grain of rice, are incorporated in consumer products, and implanted in pets, for identication purposes
Radio-frequency
identication
(RFID)
uses
electromagnetic elds to automatically identify and
track tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored information. Passive tags collect energy
from a nearby RFID readers interrogating radio waves.
Active tags have a local power source such as a battery
and may operate at hundreds of meters from the RFID
reader. Unlike a barcode, the tag need not be within the
line of sight of the reader, so it may be embedded in FasTrak, an RFID tag used for electronic toll collection in Calithe tracked object. RFID is one method for Automatic fornia
Identication and Data Capture (AIDC).[1]
RFID tags are used in many industries, for example,
an RFID tag attached to an automobile during production can be used to track its progress through the assembly line; RFID-tagged pharmaceuticals can be tracked
through warehouses; and implanting RFID microchips
in livestock and pets allows positive identication of animals.
for the Soviet Union which retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Sound waves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the
resonator, which modulated the reected radio frequency.
Even though this device was a covert listening device, not
an identication tag, it is considered to be a predecessor
of RFID, because it was likewise passive, being energized
[4]
Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, and and activated by waves from an outside source.
possessions, or implanted in animals and people, the pos- Similar technology, such as the IFF transponder, was rousibility of reading personally-linked information without tinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II
consent has raised serious privacy concerns.[2] These con- to identify aircraft as friend or foe. Transponders are
cerns resulted in standard specications development ad- still used by most powered aircraft to this day. Another
dressing privacy and security issues. ISO/IEC 18000 and early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paper
ISO/IEC 29167 use on-chip cryptography methods for by Harry Stockman.[5] Stockman predicted that "... conuntraceability, tag and reader authentication, and over- siderable research and development work has to be done
the-air privacy. ISO/IEC 20248 species a digital sig- before the remaining basic problems in reected-power
1
DESIGN
communication are solved, and before the eld of useful cuit for storing and processing information, modulating
applications is explored.
and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, collectMario Cardullo's device, patented on January 23, 1973, ing DC power from the incident reader signal, and other
was the rst true ancestor[6] of modern RFID, as it was a specialized functions; and an antenna for receiving and
passive radio transponder with memory.[7] The initial de- transmitting the signal. The tag information is stored in a
vice was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, and non-volatile memory. The RFID tag includes either xed
was demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Author- or programmable logic for processing the transmission
ity and other potential users and consisted of a transpon- and sensor data, respectively.
der with 16 bit memory for use as a toll device. The
basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, sound and
light as transmission media. The original business plan
presented to investors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identication, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest, vehicle
routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic check book, electronic credit card), security (personnel identication, automatic gates, surveillance) and
medical (identication, patient history).[6]
An early demonstration of reected power (modulated
backscatter) RFID tags, both passive and semi-passive,
was performed by Steven Depp, Alfred Koelle, and
Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory
in 1973.[8] The portable system operated at 915 MHz and
used 12-bit tags. This technique is used by the majority
of todays UHFID and microwave RFID tags.[9]
An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag. The RFID tag receives the message and
then responds with its identication and other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or may
be product-related information such as a stock number,
lot or batch number, production date, or other specic
information. Since tags have individual serial numbers,
the RFID system design can discriminate among several
tags that might be within the range of the RFID reader
and read them simultaneously.
2.2 Readers
Design
An Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT) system uses active tags awoken with an interrogator signal from the acA radio-frequency identication system uses tags, or la- tive reader. A variation of this system could also use a
bels attached to the objects to be identied. Two-way Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a pasradio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers sive tag but has a small battery to power the tags return
reporting signal.
send a signal to the tag and read its response.
2.1
Tags
2.3 Frequencies
2.4 Signaling
Signaling between the reader and the tag is done in several dierent incompatible ways, depending on the frequency band used by the tag. Tags operating on LF and
HF bands are, in terms of radio wavelength, very close to
the reader antenna because they are only a small percentage of a wavelength away. In this near eld region, the
tag is closely coupled electrically with the transmitter in
RFID tags contain at least two parts: an integrated cir- the reader. The tag can modulate the eld produced by
Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned
serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may
be read/write, where object-specic data can be written
into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags
may be write-once, read-multiple; blank tags may be
written with an electronic product code by the user.
3
the reader by changing the electrical loading the tag represents. By switching between lower and higher relative
loads, the tag produces a change that the reader can detect. At UHF and higher frequencies, the tag is more than
one radio wavelength away from the reader, requiring a
dierent approach. The tag can backscatter a signal. Active tags may contain functionally separated transmitters
and receivers, and the tag need not respond on a frequency
related to the readers interrogation signal.[13]
2.5
Miniaturization
USES
performance to a reliability of 99.9% and a stable international standard around UHF passive RFID. The adoption
of these standards were driven by EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, which were responsible
for driving global adoption of the barcode in the 1970s An EPC RFID tag used by Wal-Mart.
and 1980s. The EPCglobal Network was developed by
the Auto-ID Center.[22]
3.1
Commerce
3.2
3.1.1
RFID tags are widely used in identication badges, replacing earlier magnetic stripe cards. These badges need
only be held within a certain distance of the reader to authenticate the holder. Tags can also be placed on vehicles, which can be read at a distance, to allow entrance
to controlled areas without having to stop the vehicle and RFID E-ZPass reader attached to the pole and antenna (right)
used in trac monitoring in New York City
present a card or enter an access code.
RFID is used in intelligent transportation systems. In
New York City, RFID readers are deployed at intersections to track E-ZPass tags as a means for monitoring the
In 2010 Vail Resorts began using UHF Passive RFID tags trac ow. The data is fed through the broadband wirein ski passes. Facebook is using RFID cards at most of less infrastructure to the trac management center to be
their live events to allow guests to automatically capture used in adaptive trac control of the trac lights.[33]
and post photos. The automotive brands have adopted
RFID for social media product placement more quickly
than other industries. Mercedes was an early adopter in
3.2.2 Hose stations and conveyance of uids
2011 at the PGA Golf Championships,[24] and by the
2013 Geneva Motor Show many of the larger brands were
The RFID antenna in a permanently installed couusing RFID for social media marketing.[25]
pling half (xed part) unmistakably identies the RFID
transponder placed in the other coupling half (free part)
after completed coupling. When connected the transpon3.1.3 Promotion tracking
der of the free part transmits all important information
To prevent retailers diverting products, manufacturers contactless to the xed part. The couplings location can
are exploring the use of RFID tags on promoted merchan- be clearly identied by the RFID transponder coding.
dise so that they can track exactly which product has sold The control is enabled to automatically start subsequent
through the supply chain at fully discounted prices.[26]
process steps.
3.1.2
Advertising
USES
3.2.3
Track & Trace test vehicles and prototype on the front cover.
parts
Since 2006, RFID tags included in new United States
passports will store the same information that is printed
In the automotive industry RFID is used to Track & Trace within the passport, and include a digital picture of the
test vehicles and prototype parts (project Transparent owner.[36] The United States Department of State initially
Prototype).
stated the chips could only be read from a distance of 10
centimetres (3.9 in), but after widespread criticism and a
clear demonstration that special equipment can read the
3.3 Public transport
test passports from 10 metres (33 ft) away,[37] the passports were designed to incorporate a thin metal lining to
RFID cards are used for access control to public transmake it more dicult for unauthorized readers to "skim"
port.
information when the passport is closed. The department
In London travellers use Oyster Cards on the tube, buses will also implement Basic Access Control (BAC), which
and ferries. It identies the traveller at each turnstile and functions as a Personal Identication Number (PIN) in
so the system can calculate the fare.
the form of characters printed on the passport data page.
In the Chicago area, riders use the open standard Ventra Before a passports tag can be read, this PIN must be encard to board CTA buses and trains, along with PACE tered into an RFID reader. The BAC also enables the
encryption of any communication between the chip and
buses.
interrogator.[38] As noted in the section below on secuIn Ontario, Canada, riders in the GTA and Ottawa Area rity, there are many situations in which these protections
use the Presto card to board trains, buses and street cars have been shown to be insucient, and passports have
across multiple dierent transit companies.
been cloned based on scans of them while they were being delivered in the mail.
3.4
At least one company has introduced RFID to identify In many countries, RFID tags can be used to pay for mass
and locate underground infrastructure assets such as gas transit fares on bus, trains, or subways, or to collect tolls
pipelines, sewer lines, electrical cables, communication on highways.
cables, etc.[34]
Some bike lockers are operated with RFID cards assigned
to individual users. A prepaid card is required to open or
enter a facility or locker and is used to track and charge
3.5 Passports
based on how long the bike is parked.
See also: Biometric passport
The Zipcar car-sharing service uses RFID cards for locking and unlocking cars and for member identication.[39]
The rst RFID passports ("E-passport") were issued by In Singapore, RFID replaces paper Season Parking Ticket
Malaysia in 1998. In addition to information also con- (SPT).[40]
tained on the visual data page of the passport, Malaysian
e-passports record the travel history (time, date, and
place) of entries and exits from the country.
3.7 Animal identication
Other countries that insert RFID in passports include
Norway (2005),[35] Japan (March 1, 2006), most EU
countries (around 2006), Australia, Hong Kong, the
United States (2007), India (June 2008), Serbia (July
2008), Republic of Korea (August 2008), Taiwan (December 2008), Albania (January 2009), The Philippines (August 2009), Republic of Macedonia (2010), and
Canada (2013).
3.9
3.8
Institutions
Human identication
7
RFID tracking solutions are able to help healthcare facilities manage mobile medical equipment, improve patient
workow, monitor environmental conditions, and protect
patients, sta and visitors from infection or other hazards.
Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been
widespread and very eective. Hospitals are among the
rst users to combine both active and passive RFID.
Many successful deployments in the healthcare industry have been cited where active technology tracks highvalue, or frequently moved items, where passive technology tracks smaller, lower cost items that only need
room-level identication.[49] For example, medical facility rooms can collect data from transmissions of RFID
badges worn by patients and employees, as well as from
tags assigned to facility assets, such as mobile medical
devices.[50] The U.S. Department of Veterans Aairs
(VA) recently announced plans to deploy RFID in hospitals across America to improve care and reduce costs.[51]
A physical RFID tag may be incorporated with browserbased software to increase its ecacy. This software allows for dierent groups or specic hospital sta, nurses,
and patients to see real-time data relevant to each piece of
tracked equipment or personnel. Real-time data is stored
and archived to make use of historical reporting functionality and to prove compliance with various industry regulations. This combination of RFID real-time locating sysThe Food and Drug Administration in the United States tem hardware and software provides a powerful data colhas approved the use of RFID chips in humans.[44] Some lection tool for facilities seeking to improve operational
business establishments give customers the option of us- eciency and reduce costs.
ing an RFID-based tab to pay for service, such as the Baja The trend is toward using ISO 18000-6c as the tag of
Beach nightclub in Barcelona.[45] This has provoked con- choice and combining an active tagging system that recerns into privacy of individuals as they can potentially be lies on existing 802.11X wireless infrastructure for active
tracked wherever they go by an identier unique to them. tags.
Some are concerned this could lead to abuse by an auSince 2004 a number of U.S. hospitals have bethoritarian government, to removal of freedoms,[46] and
gun implanting patients with RFID tags and using
to the emergence of an ultimate panopticon", a society
RFID systems, usually for workow and inventory
where all citizens behave in a socially accepted manner
management.[52][53][54] The use of RFID to prevent mix[47]
because others might be watching.
ups between sperm and ova in IVF clinics is also being
On July 22, 2006, Reuters reported that two hackers, considered.[55]
Newitz and Westhues, at a conference in New York City
In October 2004, the FDA approved USAs rst RFID
showed that they could clone the RFID signal from a
chips that can be implanted in humans. The 134 kHz
human implanted RFID chip, showing that the chip is
RFID chips, from VeriChip Corp. can incorporate per[48]
not hack-proof as was previously claimed. Privacy adsonal medical information and could save lives and limit
vocates have protested against implantable RFID chips,
injuries from errors in medical treatments, according to
warning of potential abuse. There is much controversy
the company. Anti-RFID activists Katherine Albrecht
regarding human applications of this technology, and
and Liz McIntyre discovered an FDA Warning Letter
many conspiracy theories abound in relation to human apthat spelled out health risks.[56] According to the FDA,
plications, especially one of which is referred to as "The
these include adverse tissue reaction, migration of the
Mark of the Beast" in some religious circles.
implanted transponder, failure of implanted transponder, electrical hazards and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI] incompatibility.
3.9
3.9.1
Institutions
In Healthcare, there is a need for increased visibility, eciency, and gathering of data around relevant interactions.
USES
gets are being reduced for personnel and increased for infrastructure, making it necessary for libraries to add automation to compensate for the reduced sta size. Also,
the tasks that RFID takes over are largely not the primary tasks of librarians. A nding in the Netherlands
is that borrowers are pleased with the fact that sta are
now more available for answering questions.
Privacy concerns have been raised surrounding library
use of RFID. Because some RFID tags can be read from
up to 100 metres (330 ft), there is some concern over
whether sensitive information could be collected from an
unwilling source. However, library RFID tags do not contain any patron information,[60] and the tags used in the
majority of libraries use a frequency only readable from
approximately 10 feet (3.0 m).[57] Further, another nonlibrary agency could potentially record the RFID tags of
every person leaving the library without the library administrators knowledge or consent. One simple option is
to let the book transmit a code that has meaning only in
conjunction with the librarys database. Another possible
enhancement would be to give each book a new code evRFID tags used in libraries: square book tag, round CD/DVD tag ery time it is returned. In future, should readers become
and rectangular VHS tag
ubiquitous (and possibly networked), then stolen books
could be traced even outside the library. Tag removal
could be made dicult if the tags are so small that they
3.9.2 Libraries
t invisibly inside a (random) page, possibly put there by
Libraries have used RFID to replace the barcodes on li- the publisher.
brary items. The tag can contain identifying information
or may just be a key into a database. An RFID system 3.9.3 Museums
may replace or supplement bar codes and may oer another method of inventory management and self-service RFID technologies are now also implemented in end-user
checkout by patrons. It can also act as a security device, applications in museums. An example was the customtaking the place of the more traditional electromagnetic designed temporary research application, eXspot, at the
security strip.[57]
Exploratorium, a science museum in San Francisco, CalIt is estimated that over 30 million library items world- ifornia. A visitor entering the museum received an RF
wide now contain RFID tags, including some in the Tag that could be carried as a card. The eXspot system
enabled the visitor to receive information about specic
Vatican Library in Rome.[58]
exhibits. Aside from the exhibit information, the visitor
Since RFID tags can be read through an item, there is
could take photographs of themselves at the exhibit. It
no need to open a book cover or DVD case to scan an
was also intended to allow the visitor to take data for later
item, and a stack of books can be read simultaneously.
analysis. The collected information could be retrieved at
Book tags can be read while books are in motion on a
home from a personalized website keyed to the RFID
conveyor belt, which reduces sta time. This can all be
tag.[61]
done by the borrowers themselves, reducing the need for
library sta assistance. With portable readers, inventories could be done on a whole shelf of materials within 3.9.4 Schools and universities
seconds.[59] However, as of 2008 this technology remains
too costly for many smaller libraries, and the conversion School authorities in the Japanese city of Osaka are now
period has been estimated at 11 months for an average- chipping childrens clothing, backpacks, and student IDs
size library. A 2004 Dutch estimate was that a library in a primary school.[62] A school in Doncaster, England
which lends 100,000 books per year should plan on a cost is piloting a monitoring system designed to keep tabs on
of 50,000 (borrow- and return-stations: 12,500 each, pupils by tracking radio chips in their uniforms.[63] St
detection porches 10,000 each; tags 0.36 each). RFID Charles Sixth Form College in west London, England,
taking a large burden o sta could also mean that fewer started September, 2008, is using an RFID card system
sta will be needed, resulting in some of them getting laid to check in and out of the main gate, to both track ato,[58] but that has so far not happened in North Amer- tendance and prevent unauthorized entrance. Similarly,
ica where recent surveys have not returned a single library Whitclie Mount School in Cleckheaton, England uses
that cut sta because of adding RFID. In fact, library bud- RFID to track pupils and sta in and out of the building
3.11
Complement to barcode
3.10 Sports
9
tied to the shoe or velcro strapped the ankle. These need
to be about 400mm from the mat and so give very good
temporal resolution. Alternatively a chip plus a very large
(a 125mm square) antenna can be incorporated into the
bib number worn on the athletes chest at about 1.25m
height.
Passive and active RFID systems are used in o-road
events such as Orienteering, Enduro and Hare and
Hounds racing. Riders have a transponder on their person, normally on their arm. When they complete a lap
they swipe or touch the receiver which is connected to a
computer and log their lap time.
RFID is being adapted by many recruitment agencies
which have a PET (Physical Endurance Test) as their
qualifying procedure especially in cases where the candidate volumes may run into millions (Indian Railway Recruitment Cells, Police and Power sector).
A number of ski resorts have adopted RFID tags to provide skiers hands-free access to ski lifts. Skiers do not
have to take their passes out of their pockets. Ski jackets have a left pocket into which the chip+card ts. This
nearly contacts the sensor unit on the left of the turnstile
as the skier pushes through to the lift. These systems were
based on high frequency (HF) at 13.56 megahertz. The
ChampionChip
bulk of ski areas in Europe, from Verbier to Chamonix
RFID for timing races began in the early 1990s with pi- use these systems.[64][65][66]
geon racing, introduced by the company Deister Elec- The NFL in the United States equips players with RFID
tronics in Germany. RFID can provide race start and end chips that measures speed, distance and direction travtimings for individuals in large races where it is impossi- eled by each player in real-time. Currently cameras stay
ble to get accurate stopwatch readings for every entrant. focused on the quarterback, however, numerous plays are
In the race, the racers wear tags that are read by antennas
placed alongside the track or on mats across the track.
UHF tags provide accurate readings with specially designed antennas. Rush error, lap count errors and accidents at start time are avoided since anyone can start and
nish any time without being in a batch mode.
10
that goods will be tracked by the pallet using RFID tags, ection mode, active circuits can be used, replacing awkand at package level with Universal Product Code (UPC) ward RFID antennae with photovoltaic components and
or EAN from unique barcodes.
IR-LEDs on the ICs.One of the earliest examples of OpThe unique identity is a mandatory requirement for RFID tical RFID is RFIG: Radio Frequency Identity and Getags, despite special choice of the numbering scheme. ometry, by Ramesh Raskar, Paul Dietz, Paul Beardsley
RFID tag data capacity is large enough that each individ- and colleagues. This combines an optical tag with a RF
ual tag will have a unique code, while current bar codes tag to provide ID as well as geometric operations, such as
are limited to a single type code for a particular product. location, pose, motion, orientation and change detection.
The uniqueness of RFID tags means that a product may
be tracked as it moves from location to location, nally
ending up in the consumers hands. This may help to combat theft and other forms of product loss. The tracing of
products is an important feature that gets well supported
with RFID tags containing a unique identity of the tag and
also the serial number of the object. This may help companies cope with quality deciencies and resulting recall
campaigns, but also contributes to concern about tracking
and proling of consumers after the sale.
Optical RFID
5.1
EPC Gen2
11
tions from 865868 MHz. Readers are required to monitor a channel before transmitting (Listen Before Talk);
this requirement has led to some restrictions on performance, the resolution of which is a subject of current
research. The North American UHF standard is not accepted in France as it interferes with its military bands.
On July 25, 2012, Japan changed its UHF band to 920
MHz, more closely matching the United States 915 MHz
band.
ASTM D7435, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
Identication (RFID) Transponders on Loaded
Containers
ASTM D7434, Standard Test Method for Determining the Performance of Passive Radio Frequency
Identication (RFID) Transponders on Palletized or
Unitized Loads
EPC Gen2
Part 6: Parameters for air interface communi- EPC Gen2 is short for EPCglobal UHF Class 1 Generation
cations at 860960 MHz
2.
Part 7: Parameters for active air interface EPCglobal, a joint venture between GS1 and GS1 US, is
communications at 433 MHz
working on international standards for the use of mostly
passive RFID and the Electronic Product Code (EPC) in
ISO/IEC 18092 Information technology the identication of many items in the supply chain for
Telecommunications and information exchange companies worldwide.
between systemsNear Field Communication
One of the missions of EPCglobal was to simplify the BaInterface and Protocol (NFCIP-1)
bel of protocols prevalent in the RFID world in the 1990s.
ISO 18185: This is the industry standard for elec- Two tag air interfaces (the protocol for exchanging infortronic seals or e-seals for tracking cargo containers mation between a tag and a reader) were dened (but not
using the 433 MHz and 2.4 GHz frequencies.
ratied) by EPCglobal prior to 2003. These protocols,
12
commonly known as Class 0 and Class 1, saw signicant 6.3 Security concerns
commercial implementation in 20022005.
In 2004, the Hardware Action Group created a new proto- Retailers such as Walmart, which already heavily use
col, the Class 1 Generation 2 interface, which addressed RFID for inventory purposes, also use RFID as an antia number of problems that had been experienced with employee-theft and anti-shoplifting technology. If a
Class 0 and Class 1 tags. The EPC Gen2 standard was product with an active RFID tag passes the exit-scanners
approved in December 2004. This was approved after a at a Walmart outlet, not only does it set o an alarm, but it
contention from Intermec that the standard may infringe a also tells security personnel exactly what product to look
[80]
number of their RFID-related patents. It was decided that for in the shoppers cart.
the standard itself does not infringe their patents, mak- A primary RFID security concern is the illicit tracking of
ing the standard royalty free.[75] The EPC Gen2 standard RFID tags. Tags, which are world-readable, pose a risk to
was adopted with minor modications as ISO 18000-6C both personal location privacy and corporate/military sein 2006.[76]
curity. Such concerns have been raised with respect to the
In 2007, the lowest cost of Gen2 EPC inlay was oered United States Department of Defense's recent adoption of
[81]
More genby the now-defunct company SmartCode, at a price of RFID tags for supply chain management.
[77]
$0.05 apiece in volumes of 100 million or more. Nev- erally, privacy organizations have expressed concerns in
ertheless, further conversion (including additional label the context of ongoing eorts to embed electronic prodstock or encapsulation processing/insertion and freight uct code (EPC) RFID tags in consumer products. This is
costs to a given facility or DC) and of the inlays into us- mostly as result of the fact that RFID tags can be read,
able RFID labels and the design of current Gen 2 protocol and legitimate transactions with readers can be eavesstandard will increase the total end-cost, especially with dropped, from non-trivial distances. RFID used in access
the added security feature extensions for RFID Supply control, payment and eID (e-passport) systems operate at
a shorter range than EPC RFID systems but are also vulChain item-level tagging.
nerable to skimming and eavesdropping, albeit at shorter
distance.[82]
A second method of prevention is by using cryptography. Rolling codes and challenge-response authentication
6 Problems and concerns
(CRA) are commonly used to foil monitor-repetition of
the messages between the tag and reader; as any messages
that have been recorded would prove to be unsuccessful
6.1 Data ooding
on repeat transmission. Rolling codes rely upon the tags
id being changed after each interrogation, while CRA
Not every successful reading of a tag (an observation) is uses software to ask for a cryptographically coded reuseful for business purposes. A large amount of data may sponse from the tag. The protocols used during CRA can
be generated that is not useful for managing inventory or be symmetric, or may use public key cryptography.[83]
other applications. For example, a customer moving a Security concerns exist in regard to privacy over the
product from one shelf to another, or a pallet load of ar- unauthorized reading of RFID tags. Unauthorized readticles that passes several readers while being moved in ers can potentially use RFID information to identify or
a warehouse, are events that do not produce data that is track packages, consumers, carriers, or the contents of a
meaningful to an inventory control system.[78]
package.[83] Several prototype systems are being develEvent ltering is required to reduce this data inow to a
meaningful depiction of moving goods passing a threshold. Various concepts have been designed, mainly oered
as middleware performing the ltering from noisy and redundant raw data to signicant processed data.
6.2
Global standardization
The frequencies used for UHF RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with those of Europe or Japan. Furthermore, no emerging standard has yet become as universal as the barcode.[79] To address international trade
concerns, it is necessary to use a tag that is operational
within all of the international frequency domains.
6.4 Exploitation
Ars Technica reported in March 2006 an RFID buer
overow bug that could infect airport terminal RFID
databases for baggage, and also passport databases to obtain condential information on the passport holder.[87]
13
6.5
Passports
6.6
Shielding
In an eort to prevent the passive skimming of RFIDenabled cards or passports, the U.S. General Services
Administration (GSA) issued a set of test procedures
for evaluating electromagnetically opaque sleeves.[91] For
shielding products to be in compliance with FIPS-201
guidelines, they must meet or exceed this published standard. Shielding products currently evaluated as FIPS201 compliant are listed on the website of the U.S. CIOs
FIPS-201 Evaluation Program.[92] The United States government requires that when new ID cards are issued, they
must be delivered with an approved shielding sleeve or
holder.[93]
Further information: Aluminium foil Electromagnetic
shielding
There are contradicting opinions as to whether aluminum
can prevent reading of RFID chips. Some people claim
that aluminum shielding, essentially creating a Faraday
cage, does work.[94] Others claim that simply wrapping
an RFID card in aluminum foil only makes transmission
more dicult and is not completely eective at preventing
it.[95]
Shielding eectiveness depends on the frequency being
used. Low-frequency LowFID tags, like those used in
implantable devices for humans and pets, are relatively
resistant to shielding though thick metal foil will prevent
most reads. High frequency HighFID tags (13.56 MHz
smart cards and access badges) are sensitive to shielding
and are dicult to read when within a few centimetres
of a metal surface. UHF Ultra-HighFID tags (pallets and
cartons) are dicult to read when placed within a few
millimetres of a metal surface, although their read range
is actually increased when they are spaced 24 cm from
a metal surface due to positive reinforcement of the reected wave and the incident wave at the tag.
7 Controversies
7.1 Privacy
The use of RFID has engendered considerable controversy and even product boycotts by consumer privacy advocates. Consumer privacy experts Katherine Albrecht
and Liz McIntyre are two prominent critics of the spychip technology. The two main privacy concerns regarding RFID are:
Since the owner of an item will not necessarily be
aware of the presence of an RFID tag and the tag
can be read at a distance without the knowledge of
the individual, it becomes possible to gather sensitive data about an individual without consent.
If a tagged item is paid for by credit card or in conjunction with use of a loyalty card, then it would be
possible to indirectly deduce the identity of the purchaser by reading the globally unique ID of that item
(contained in the RFID tag). This is only true if the
person doing the watching also had access to the loyalty card data and the credit card data, and the person with the equipment knows where you are going
to be.
Most concerns revolve around the fact that RFID tags afxed to products remain functional even after the products have been purchased and taken home and thus can
be used for surveillance and other purposes unrelated to
their supply chain inventory functions.[96]
The RFID Network argued that these fears are unfounded
in the rst episode of their syndicated cable TV series
by letting RF engineers demonstrate how RFID works .
14
They provided images of RF engineers driving an RFIDenabled van around a building and trying to take an inventory of items inside. They discussed satellite tracking of a
passive RFID tag, which is surprising since the maximum
range is under 200m.
The concerns raised by the above may be addressed in
part by use of the Clipped Tag. The Clipped Tag is an
RFID tag designed to increase consumer privacy. The
Clipped Tag has been suggested by IBM researchers Paul
Moskowitz and Guenter Karjoth. After the point of sale,
a consumer may tear o a portion of the tag. This allows
the transformation of a long-range tag into a proximity
tag that still may be read, but only at short range less
than a few inches or centimeters. The modication of the
tag may be conrmed visually. The tag may still be used
later for returns, recalls, or recycling.
8 SEE ALSO
15
Bin bug
Chipless RFID
Internet of Things
[12] Weis, Stephen A. (2007), RFID (Radio Frequency Identication): Principles and Applications, MIT CSAIL
Mass surveillance
[14] John R. Vacca Computer and information security handbook, Morgan Kaufmann, 2009 ISBN 0-12-374354-0,
page 208
Privacy by design
Proximity card
[16] Ants home search habit uncovered. BBC News. 200904-22. Retrieved 2013-09-03.
[17] Hitachis RFID powder freaks us the heck out. Engadget. Retrieved 2010-04-24.
Speedpass
TecTile
Tracking system
[19] Martein Meints (June 2007). D3.7 A Structured Collection on Information and Literature on Technological
and Usability Aspects of Radio Frequency Identication
(RFID), FIDIS deliverable 3(7)". Retrieved 2013-09-22.
RFID in schools
References
Re-
16
[42] National Livestock Identication System. Meat & Livestock Australia Limited. Retrieved 2013-09-03.
[43] Technology | Barcelona clubbers get chipped. BBC
News. 2004-09-29. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
[44] Greene, Thomas C. (2004). Feds approve human RFID
implants. Retrieved 2007-03-01.
[45] Barcelona clubbers get chipped. news.bbc.co.uk. BBC
News. 2004-09-29. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
[46] Monahan, Torin and Tyler Wall. 2007. .Somatic Surveillance: Corporeal Control through Information Networks.
Surveillance & Society 4 (3): 154-173
[47] Kietzmann, J., Angell, I. (2010). Panopticon revisited
(PDF). Communications of the ACM. 53 (6): 135138.
doi:10.1145/1743546.1743582. Retrieved 9 November
2013.
[48] Fulton, Nic. Reuters. Blogs.reuters.com. Retrieved
2013-09-03.
[49] RFID Frequently Asked Questions. RFIDJournal.com.
Retrieved 2013-05-20.
[50] Group Health Reinvents Patient Care With RTLS.
RFID Journal. 22 August 2012.
REFERENCES
spychips.com.
Retrieved
[57] Butters, Alan (December 2006). Radio Frequency Identication: An Introduction for Library Professionals.
Australasian Public Libraries and Information Services.
19 (4): 16474. ISSN 1030-5033.
[58] Sing, Jay; Brar, Navjit; Fong, Carmen (2013). The State
of RFID Applications in Libraries. Information Technology and Libraries. 2532. doi:10.6017/ital.v25i1.3326.
[59] Wadham, Rachel (2003). Radio Frequency Identication. Library Mosaics. 14 (5): 22.
[60] Dorman, David (December 2003). RFID Poses No
Problem for Patron Privacy. American Libraries. 34
(11): 86.
[61] Hsi, Sherry; Fait, Holly (2005). RFID enhances
visitors museum experience at the Exploratorium. Communications of the ACM. 48 (9): 605.
doi:10.1145/1081992.1082021.
[62] Schoolchildren to be RFID-chipped.
Networks.silicon.com.
Archived from the original on
April 27, 2012. Retrieved 2013-09-03.
[63] Williams, Christopher (2007-10-22). Schoolkid chipping trial 'a success". Theregister.co.uk. Retrieved 201309-03.
[64] Epic Mix - Skiiers and Snowboarders Social Media
Dream. 2010-09-07. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
[65]
[66] Kinsella, Bret.
(2010-09-07) Vail shows that
Consumer RFID delivers a better experience.
Blog.odintechnologies.com.
Retrieved on 2013-0816.
[67] How a pair of microchips could transform football into
an intricate dance of data. DailyDot. Retrieved 1
September 2015.
17
[68] The NFL has a (RFID) Chip on its shoulder. News Surgo
Group. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
[69] All NFL Players Are Getting RFID Chips This Season.
Wired. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
[70] 0001-0782
[91] Electromagnetically Opaque Sleeve Test Procedure version 3.0.0 (PDF). GSA.
[72] Regulatory status for using RFID in the EPC Gen 2 band
(860 to 960 MHz) of the UHF spectrum (PDF). GS1.org.
2014-10-31. Retrieved 2015-03-23.
[93] FIPS-201, Personal Identity Verication (PIV) of Federal Employees and Contractors (PDF). NIST.
[74] O'Connor, Mary Catherine (March 18, 2009). Dash7 Alliance Seeks to Promote RFID Hardware Based on ISO
18000-7 Standard. RFID Journal LLC. Retrieved 201003-23.
[75] Roberti, Mark (2004-12-16). EPCglobal Raties Gen 2
Standard. RFID Journal. Retrieved 2011-07-07.
[76] Catherine O'Connor, Mary (2004-07-12). Gen 2 EPC
Protocol Approved as ISO 18000-6C. RFID Journal.
Retrieved 2011-07-07.
[77] Roberti, Mark (2006-05-06). A 5-Cent Breakthrough.
RFID Journal. Retrieved 2007-01-26.
[78] Bill Glover, Himanshu Bhatt, RFID Essentials, O'Reilly
Media, Inc., 2006 ISBN 0-596-00944-5 page 43
[79] Radio Silence. The Economist. 7 June 2007.
[80] RFID Technology Transforming Food Retailers Like
Wal-Mart [Google Inc, Ingram Micro Inc.. Seeking Alpha. 2010-03-18. Retrieved 2013-09-22.
[81] Whats New. Radio Frequency Identication (RFID). 4
April 2007.
Passports to get [108] EPC Gen 2 FAQ. Smart Card Alliance. July 2006. Retrieved 2015-03-25.
18
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