Lecture 1 - Introduction To Signals and Systems

Introduction to
Signals and Systems

Angelo R. dela Cruz, Ph.D.
ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012
Introduction to Signal Processing

Signal
Any physical quantity that varies with time,
space, or any other independent variable or
variables.
A function of one or more independent
variables.
u(t) = Asin (2000 t)
s(x,y) = 3x 5xy + 2y2
Examples of Signal
ECG and EEG

Speech
Temperature
Pressure
Audio
Light intensity

System
A physical device that performs an operation
on a signal to produce another signal
It is characterized by the type of operation
that it performs on the signal.
Examples are: Amplifiers, Audio Filters,

Equalizers

Analog
Input Signal
(Excitation Signal)
System
Output Signal
(Response Signal)
Digital
Representation of Signals
Time Domain
Frequency Domain
AMPLITUDE
T1=1/f1
AMPLITUDE
TIME
f1
FREQUENCY
AMPLITUDE
T2=1/f2
AMPLITUDE
TIME
T = period
f2
FREQUENCY
f = frequency
6
Representation of Signals
Real Signals
They consist of many frequencies of differing
amplitudes that combine to a composite
AMPLITUDE
signal.
TIME
AMPLITUDE
|A|
fm
-fm
2fm
FREQUENCY
7
Classification of Signals
1.
Continuous-Time (CT) Signals
It is described by functions of a continuous

variable (i.e. time).
A sinusoid voltage signal
v(t ) = 10 cos(2 (1000 )t + / 4 ), for < t <

Peak amplitude, A
Frequency, F
Phase angle,
2.
Discrete-Time (DT) Signals
are defined only at certain specific values of time.

are defined only at discrete points along t
v(n) = 10 cos(0.5 n + / 4)
For
n = 0, +1, +2, +3, .
3.
Continuous-Valued (or ContinuousAmplitude) Signals
Signal takes on all possible values on a finite or

an infinite range.
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
DT-CV signal
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
10
4.
Discrete-Valued (or Discrete-Amplitude)

Signals
Signal takes on values from a finite set of

possible values
0.8
DT-DV signal
0.6
0.4
Digital signal!
0.2
0
1
3 4
9 10 11 12 13 14
11
5.
Multichannel Signal
Signal generated by multiple sources which is

represented in array form.
s1 (t )
S (t ) = s2 (t )
s3 (t )
12
6.
Multidimensional Signal
Signal which is a function of two or more

independent variables.
Ir ( x, y, t )
I ( x, y, t ) = Ig ( x, y, t )
Ib( x, y, t )
13
7.
Deterministic Signals
Signal that can be uniquely described by an

explicit mathematical expression.
Eg. Sinusoid signal
x(t) = sin(1000 t)
14
8.
Random Signals
Cannot be expressed by a clear mathematical

formula.
Normally described by their probability density
function (pdf)
Eg. Gaussian (normally-distributed) noise.
Gaussian pdf
1
p( x) =
e
2
x )2
(
2 2
15
9.
Symmetric and Antisymmetric

x ( n) = x ( n)
x(n) is symmetric (or even) if
x(n) is antisymmetric (or odd) if
Any arbitrary signal can be expressed as:
x ( n) = x ( n)
x(n) = xe(n) + xo(n)

1
1
xe (n) = x(n) + x(n)
2
2
1
1
xo (n) = x(n) x(n)
2
2
16
17
10.
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

satisfies:
x(t ) = x(t + Tp ), x(n) = x(n + N )
18
11.
Energy and Power Signals
Signals may have:
Finite energy but zero average power

Infinite energy but have finite (non-zero) average
power
Infinite energy and infinite average power
Energy of a signal
E=
x ( n)
n =
If a signal x(n) has a finite energy, then x(n) is an

energy signal
19
11.
Energy and Power Signals
Average power of a signal
1
P=
N
N 1
x ( n)
n =0
Where N period of the signal

If a signal x(n) has a finite (non-zero) average power,
then x(n) is a power signal
20
Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

x a (t ) = A cos(t + )
A j ( t + ) A j ( t + )
x a (t ) = e
+ e
2
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
A amplitude
frequency in radians/sec = 2F
phase in radians
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
21
Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

Properties:
For every value of the frequency F, xa(t) is
periodic with periodicity, TP = 1/F
xa( t + TP ) = xa( t )
Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with
distinct frequencies are themselves distinct.
Increasing the frequency F results in an
increase in the rate of oscillation of the signal.
22
Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

x(n) = A cos( n + )
A j ( n + ) A j ( n + )
x ( n) = e
+ e
2
2
1
0.8
0.6
A amplitude
frequency in radians/sample
= 2 f
phase in radians
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
23
50

Properties:
A discrete-time sinusoid is periodic if and
only if its frequency f is a rational number
x ( n + N ) = x ( n)
where N period
24
Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are

separated by an integer multiple of 2 are
identical. Eg. cos(n/2) and cos(5n/2)
Thus, any sequence with frequencies in the range

1
1
or f are distinct
2
<2
2
alias of signal 2
2
alias of signal 1
25
The highest rate of oscillation in a discretetime sinusoid is attained when =

(or f =1/2)
26
Digital Signal Processing (DSP)

Block Diagram of a Digital Signal Processing System
x(t)
Analog
Filter
A/D
converter
Digital
Signal
Processor
D/A
converter
Analog
Filter
y(t)
27
Advantages of Analog Signal

Processing
Low cost and simplicity in some applications

Wide bandwidth (GHz)
Low signal levels
Infinite effective sampling rate
Infinite resolution in amplitude
28
Advantages of Digital Signal

Processing
Low sensitivity to component tolerances

Low sensitivity to temperature changes
Low sensitivity to aging effects
High noise immunity
Programmability
Stability
Repeatability
29
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Basic Block Diagram
DT-DV signal
(analog low-pass filter)

Sampler
Anti-Aliasing
Filter
Analog input
Quantizer
DT-CV signal
Coder
Binary output
10010
30
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
100
101
111
110
010
011
001
000
31
Quantization of DT-CV Signal
Truncation
Rounding
process of eliminating the undesired excess digits by

assigning each sample to the quantization level below it.
process of eliminating the undesired excess digits by
assigning each sample to the nearest quantization level.
Quantization Levels, L
allowable values in the digital signal
32
Quantization step or Resolution,
distance between two successive quantization levels
x max x min
=
L 1
Quantization error, eq(n)
difference between the unquantized sample to quantized

signal.
e q ( n) = x q ( n) x ( n)
Dynamic Range
difference between the minimum (xmin) and maximum

(xmax) unquantized signal, x(n).
33
Let Px be the power of the DT-CV signal

Let Pq be the power of the quantization error, eq(n)
Since
Therefore
e q ( n) = x q ( n) x ( n)
1
Pq =
N
N 1
1
2
| eq (n) | =
N
n =0
N 1
2
|
x
(
n
)
x
(
n
)
|
q
n =0
34
The quality of the quantized signal can be measured

by the Signal-to-Quantization Noise Ratio
(SQNR)
Px
SQNRdB = 10 log
P
q
Therefore
SQNRdB
1 N 1
2
| x ( n) |
N n =0
= 10 log
1 N 1
2
| x ( n ) xq ( n ) |
N n =0
35
Periodic or Uniform Sampling

x(nT ) = x(t )
1
T =
Fs
t time
n sample
T sampling period (interval)
Fs sampling frequency (rate)
36

Given a CT Sinusoid Signal:
xa (t ) = A cos(2 Ft + )
xa (nT ) = A cos(2 FnT + )

n
xa (nT ) = x(n) = A cos(2 F
+ )
Fs
x(n) = A cos(2 f n + )
Therefore
F
f =
Fs
37

Since
1
1
< f <
2
2
Therefore
Fs
Fs
F
2
2
or
Fs
F
2
Note that
Fmax
Fs
1
=
=
Folding Frequency
2
2T
38
Sampling (Nyquist) Theorem

General representation of a real DT signal
N
xa (t ) = Ai cos(2 Fi t + i )
i =1
Where: N
Fmax
number of frequency components

highest frequency component
Fs 2Fmax
39
Reconstruction of CT Signal
Since the folding frequency is defined as
Fmax
Fs
=
2
Given a sampling rate Fs, the maximum frequency

that can be reconstructed will be half of the
sampling frequency
40
Sample Problems
1.
xa (t ) = 3 cos100 t
Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid
aliasing.
Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate
Fs = 200Hz. What is the discrete-time signal obtained
after sampling?
Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of
Fs = 75Hz. What is the discrete-time signal obtained after
sampling?
What is the frequency 0 < F < Fs/2 of a sinusoid that
yields samples identical to those obtained in part (c)?
Given a continuous-time signal

a.
b.
c.
d.
41
Sample Problems
2.
Given an analog signal xa(t) = 3cos 2000t +

5sin 6000t + 10cos 12000t
a.
b.
c.
What is the Nyquist rate for this signal?

What is the discrete-time signal obtained after
sampling using Fs = 5000 samples/sec?
What is the analog signal ya(t) we can
reconstruct from the samples if we use ideal D/A
converter?
42
Sample Problems
3.
An analog signal contains frequencies up to

10KHz.
a.
b.
What range of sampling frequencies allows exact

reconstruction of this signal from its samples?
Suppose that we sample this signal with a
sampling rate Fs = 8KHz, examine what happens
to the frequency F1 = 5KHz and F2 = 9KHz.
43
Sample Problems
4.
Determine whether or not each of the

following signals is periodic. In case a signal
is periodic, specify its fundamental period.
a.
b.
c.
d.
xa(t) = 3 cos (5t + /6)

x(n) = cos (0.01n)
x(n) = 3 cos (5n + /6)
x(n) = cos ( n/8) cos ( n/3)
44
Sample Problems
5.
The discrete-time signal

x(n) = 6.35cos( n /10) is quantized with
resolution
a.
b.
= 0.1
= 0.02
How many bits are required in the A/D

converter in each case?
Compute SQNRdB in each case using
truncation and rounding.
45

Lecture 1 - Introduction To Signals and Systems

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Lecture 1 - Introduction To Signals and Systems

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Introduction to

Signals and Systems

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Introduction to Signal Processing

Introduction to Signal Processing

ECG and EEG

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Introduction to Signal Processing

Examples are: Amplifiers, Audio Filters,

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Introduction to Signal Processing

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Continuous-Time (CT) Signals

It is described by functions of a continuous

v(t ) = 10 cos(2 (1000 )t + / 4 ), for < t <

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Discrete-Time (DT) Signals

are defined only at certain specific values of time.

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

n = 0, +1, +2, +3, .

Continuous-Valued (or ContinuousAmplitude) Signals

Signal takes on all possible values on a finite or

Discrete-Valued (or Discrete-Amplitude)

Signal takes on values from a finite set of

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Signal generated by multiple sources which is

Signal which is a function of two or more

Signal that can be uniquely described by an

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Cannot be expressed by a clear mathematical

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Symmetric and Antisymmetric

x(n) is symmetric (or even) if

x(n) is antisymmetric (or odd) if

Any arbitrary signal can be expressed as:

x(n) = xe(n) + xo(n)

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

x(t ) = x(t + Tp ), x(n) = x(n + N )

Energy and Power Signals

Signals may have:

Finite energy but zero average power

If a signal x(n) has a finite energy, then x(n) is an

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Energy and Power Signals

Average power of a signal

Where N period of the signal

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Continuous-Time Sinusoidal Signals

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are

Thus, any sequence with frequencies in the range

ECE411 UST - engradc (c)2012

Discrete-Time Sinusoidal Signals

The highest rate of oscillation in a discretetime sinusoid is attained when =