Electrons- http://www.chem4kids.com/files/atom_electron.

html

Electrons are the negatively charged particles of atom.

Together, all of the electrons of an atom create a negative
charge that balances the positive charge of the protons in the
atomic nucleus. Electrons are extremely small compared to all
of the other parts of the atom. The mass of an electron is
almost 1,000 times smaller than the mass of a proton.
Electrons are found in clouds that surround the nucleus of an
atom. Those clouds are specific distances away from the
nucleus and are generally organized into shells. Because
electrons move so quickly, it is impossible to see where they
are at a specific moment in time. After years of
experimentation, scientists discovered specific areas where
electrons are likely to be found. The overall shape of the shells
changes depending on how many electrons an element has.
The higher the atomic number, the more shells and electrons
an atom will have. The overall shell shape will also be more
complex (because of the suborbitals) as you have more
electrons.

Electrons play a major role in all chemical bonds. There is one

type of bonding called electrovalent bonding (ionic), where an
electron from one atom is transferred to another atom. You
wind up creating two ions as one atom loses an electron and
one gains one. The second type of bonding is called covalent
bonding, where electrons are actually shared between two or
more atoms in a cloud. Both types of bonds have specific
advantages and weaknesses.

Electrons are very important in the world of electronics. The

very small particles can stream through wires and circuits,
creating currents of electricity. The electrons move from
negatively charged parts to positively charged ones. The
negatively charged pieces of any circuit have extra electrons,
while the positively charged pieces want more electrons. The
electrons then jump from one area to another. When the
electrons move, the current can flow through the system.

electromagnetic radiationhttp://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Fundamentals/Elec
tromagnetic_Radiation

What is electromagnetic radiation?

Electromagnetic energy is a term used to describe all the different kinds of energies
released into space by stars such as the Sun. These kinds of energies include some
that you will recognize and some that will sound strange. They include:
Radio Waves
TV waves
Radar waves

Heat (infrared radiation)

Light
Ultraviolet Light (This is what causes Sunburns)
X-rays (Just like the kind you get at the doctor's office)
Short waves
Microwaves, like in a microwave oven
Gamma Rays

All these waves do different things (for example, light waves make things visible to
the human eye, while heat waves make molecules move and warm up, and x rays
can pass through a person and land on film, allowing us to take a picture inside
someone's body) but they have some things in common.
They all travel in waves, like the waves at a beach or like sound waves, and also are
made of tiny particles. Scientists are unsure of exactly how the waves and the
particles relate to each other. The fact that electromagnetic radiation travels in
waves lets us measure the different kind by wavelength or how long the waves are.
That is one way we can tell the kinds of radiation apart from each other.
Although all kinds of electromagnetic radiation are released from the Sun, our
atmosphere stops some kinds from getting to us. For example, the ozone layer
stops a lot of harmful ultraviolet radiation from getting to us, and that's why people
are so concerned about the hole in it.
We humans have learned uses for a lot of different kinds of electromagnetic
radiation and have learned how to make it using other kinds of energy when we
need to.

spectrum of radiationhttp://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Fundamentals/Elec
tromagnetic_Radiation

As a waves wavelength increases, the frequency decreases, and as waves wavelength

decreases, the frequency increases. When electromagnetic energy is released as the
energy level increases, the wavelength decreases and frequency decreases. Thus,
electromagnetic radiation is then grouped into categories based on its wavelength or
frequency into the electromagnetic spectrum. The different types of electromagnetic
radiation shown in the electromagnetic spectrum consists of radio waves, microwaves,
infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays. The part of
the electromagnetic spectrum that we are able to see is the visible light spectrum.

Atomic nucleushttp://www.windows2universe.org/physical_science/physics/atom_particle/atomic_nu
cleus.html

Atoms are composed of a massive, central nucleus surrounded by a swarm of fast-moving electrons. The
nucleus is made up of protons and, in most cases, neutrons. Almost all of the mass (more than 99%) of an
atom is contained in the dense nucleus.
An atomic nucleus is much, much smaller than an atom. The cloud of electrons that "orbit" the nucleus and
define the "size" of an atom is roughly 100,000 times as large as that atom's nucleus! For example, a helium
atom has a size of about 1 ngstrm (0.1 nanometers or 10 -10 meters), while its nucleus is only 1 femtometer
(10-15 meters) in diameter. If you made a scale model of an atom with a nucleus the size of a pea, the electrons
would zing around in a space larger than a major sports stadium! An atom is mostly empty space.

The number of protons in the nucleus determines what type of element the atom is. The number of protons is
called the element's "atomic number". For example, hydrogen has an atomic number of one, since all hydrogen
atoms have one proton in their nucleus. Carbon has 6 protons, so its atomic number is 6; oxygen has 8
protons, so its atomic number is 8. Uranium has 92 protons, so its atomic number is 92! If we count the number
of protons plus neutrons, we get an atom's atomic mass. Most elements come in different versions, called
"isotopes", with different numbers of neutrons. For example, the most common form of carbon is carbon-12
(12C); that isotope of carbon has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, and thus an atomic mass of twelve. Another isotope
of carbon, carbon-14 (12C), has 6 protons and 8 neutrons, hence and atomic mass of fourteen. 12C is
radioactive and is used to determine how old things are in a technique called "carbon dating".
Sometimes the electrons get stripped away from an atom. If an atom loses all of its electrons, leaving behind a
"naked" atomic nucleus, the nucleus is called an ion. Ions moving at high speeds make up one type of particle
radiation. These ions are usually made from relatively small nuclei, like the nucleus of a hydrogen atom (a
single proton) or a helium atom (two neutrons and two protons). They can be much larger, though; some
cosmic rays are very heavy ions from more massive atoms.

alpha particles- https://www.euro-fusion.org/faq/how-are-alpha-particles-producedand-how-dangerous-are-they/

An alpha particle is produced by the alpha decay of a radioactive nucleus. Because the
nucleus is unstable a piece of it is ejected, allowing the nucleus to reach a more stable
state.
The piece that is ejected is the alpha particle, which is made up of a two protons and
two neutrons: this is the nucleus of the helium atom. Helium is an inert and harmless
gas, so the particles are not dangerous in themselves, it is only because of the high
speeds at which they are ejected from the nuclei that make them dangerous. At these
high speeds they have enough energy to break bonds in matter or ionise atoms (knock
electrons off), which is especially deleterious for living cells.
An interesting thing about alpha particles is that they do not penetrate far through matter
(unlike beta or gamma radiation). They are stopped by paper! Therefore an external
source of alpha particles ( or alpha radiation as it is called, for historical reasons, even
though we now know they are particles) is not a big concern for humans.

Of course the alpha particles, while not penetrating far, deposit their considerable
energy in a short distance (i.e. the piece of paper that stopped them absorbs all the
energy). Hence, while our epidermis, the outer layer of our skin, is basically dead cells
and so is not damaged by alpha particles, ingesting an alpha emitter, thereby giving it
access to our internal organs would be a concern.
In fusion, helium/alpha particles are produced by the fusion reaction, along with
neutrons. At JET we use magnetic confinement to contain the fusion reaction because
the helium nuclei are charged, they are confined by the magnetic field and do not
escape. At the end of the experiment, when the magnets are turned off, these helium
nuclei collide with the walls ( which are thicker than paper!) recombine with some
electrons, and return to being ordinary helium gas.
Note that the fusion reaction only continues to happen while the experiment is turned on
if the experiment gets too hot or cold, or gets too little fuel or too much then it stops. It
is not like a spontaneously radioactive element (such as Americium-241 or Polonium210).

Collisions- http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-determine-whether-acollision-is-elastic-or.html

In physics, collisions can be defined as either elastic or inelastic. When bodies collide in
the real world, they sometimes squash and deform to some degree. The energy to
perform the deformation comes from the objects original kinetic energy. In other cases,
friction turns some of the kinetic energy into heat. Physicists classify collisions in closed
systems (where the net forces add up to zero) based on whether colliding objects lose
kinetic energy to some other form of energy:

Elastic collision. In an elastic collision, the total kinetic energy in

the system is the same before and after the collision. If losses to heat and

deformation are much smaller than the other energies involved, such as
when two pool balls collide and go their separate ways, you can generally
ignore the losses and say that kinetic energy was conserved.

Inelastic collision. In an inelastic collision, the collision changes

the total kinetic energy in a closed system. In this case, friction, deformation,
or some other process transforms the kinetic energy. If you can observe
appreciable energy losses due to nonconservative forces (such as friction),
kinetic energy isnt conserved.
You see inelastic collisions when objects stick together after colliding, such as when two
cars crash and weld themselves into one. However, objects dont need to stick together
in an inelastic collision; all that has to happen is the loss of some kinetic energy. For
example, if you smash your car into a car and deform it, the collision is inelastic, even if
you can drive away after the accident.
Regardless of whether a collision is elastic or inelastic, momentum is always the same
before and after the collision, as long as you have a closed system.

kinetic theory of gaseshttp://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/St

ates_of_Matter/Gases/Kinetic_Theory_of_Gases/Kinetic_Molecular_Theory_of_Gases

Kinetic theory of gases, a theory based on a simplified molecular or particle

description of a gas, from which many gross properties of the gas can be
derived.
The British scientist James Clerk Maxwell and the Austrian physicist Ludwig
Boltzmann, in the 19th century, led in establishing the theory, which became
one of the most important concepts in modern science.

The simplest kinetic model is based on the assumptions that: (1) the gas is
composed of a large number of identical molecules moving in random
directions, separated by distances that are large compared with their size; (2)
the molecules undergo perfectly elastic collisions (no energy loss) with each
other and with the walls of the container, but otherwise do not interact; and (3)
the transfer of kinetic energy between molecules is heat. These simplifying
assumptions bring the characteristics of gases within the range of
mathematical treatment.
Such a model describes a perfect gas and is a reasonable approximation to a
real gas, particularly in the limit of extreme dilution and high temperature.
Such a simplified description, however, is not sufficiently precise to account for
the behaviour of gases at high densities.
Based on the kinetic theory, pressure on the container walls can be
quantitatively attributed to random collisions of molecules the average energy
of which depends upon the gas temperature. The gas pressure can therefore
be related directly to temperature and density. Many other gross properties of
the gas can be derived, such as viscosity, thermal and electrical conduction,
diffusion, heat capacity, and mobility. In order to explain observed deviations
from perfect gas behaviour, such as condensation, the assumptions must be
appropriately modified. In doing so, considerable insight has been gained as
to the nature of molecular dynamics and interactions.

atom size- http://www.edu.pe.ca/kish/grassroots/chem/atomicsi.htm

Each atom has a nucleus inside and electrons zooming around outside the nucleus.
The size of an atom depends on how far away its outermost (valence) electrons are
from the nucleus. If they are very close to the nucleus, the atom will be very small.
If they are far away, the atom will be quite a bit larger. So the atomic size is
determined by how much space the electrons take up.

There are comparisons in size in families and in a periods on the periodic table. In a
family like from hydrogen to lithium to sodium on down--the atomic size increases
because there are more protons but there are more orbits of electrons in the atom
so it takes up more space with the extra electrons so as you go down a group, the
size increases. As you go across a period, as from lithium to neon, the size
decreases because there are more protons in the atoms but the electrons are are all
in the same orbit so they are pulled closer to the nucleus so the size smaller. You
need to remember those trends.

As you go right on the periodic table atomic size decreases

---------------> atomic size decreases
As you go down on the periodic table atomic size increases

newtons 2nd law- http://www.livescience.com/46560-newton-second-law.html

Newtons Second Law of Motion. It states, The force acting on an object is equal to the
mass of that object times its acceleration. This is written in mathematical form as:
F = ma
F is force, m is mass and a is acceleration. The math behind this is quite simple. If you
double the force, you double the acceleration, but if you double the mass, you cut the
acceleration in half.
When a constant force acts on a massive body, it causes it to accelerate, i.e., to change
its velocity, at a constant rate. In the simplest case, a force applied to an object at rest
causes it to accelerate in the direction of the force. However, if the object is already in
motion, or if this situation is viewed from a moving inertial reference frame, that body
might appear to speed up, slow down, or change direction depending on the direction of

the force and the directions that the object and reference frame are moving relative to
each other.
The bold letters F and a in the equation indicate that force and acceleration are vector
quantities, which means they have both magnitude and direction. The force can be a
single force or it can be the combination of more than one force. In this case, we would
write the equation as:
F = ma

The large represents the vector sum of all the forces, or the net force, acting on a
body.

coulomb law of repulsion- http://www.everythingmaths.co.za/science/grade-11/09electrostatics/09-electrostatics-02.cnxmlplus

Like charges repel each other while unlike charges attract each other. If the charges are
at rest then the force between them is known as the electrostatic force. The electrostatic
force between charges increases when the magnitude of the charges increases or the
distance between the charges decreases.
The electrostatic force was first studied in detail by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
around 1784. Through his observations he was able to show that the magnitude of the
electrostatic force between two point-like charges is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between the charges. He also discovered that the magnitude of the force
is proportional to the product of the charges. That is:

FQ1Q2/r2,
where Q1 and Q2 are the magnitudes of the two charges respectively and r is the
distance between them. The magnitude of the electrostatic force between two
point-like charges is given by Coulomb's law.

K.E, P.E(U)http://www.softschools.com/difference/kinetic_energy_vs_potential_energy/124/
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_energy_lesson01

Energy is the ability to do work. Objects can have stored, or potential, energy
when work has been done (such as raising an object in the air) or by virtue of
their position (such as sitting at the top of a hill). Potential energy changes to
kinetic energy when the object moves. Examples include holding a stretched
spring (potential energy) and then releasing it (kinetic energy) or holding a box
above the ground (potential energy) and then dropping it (kinetic energy).
Kinetic energy is a form of energy that results from an object's motion. There
are many types of motion that use kinetic energy: translation (moving from one
place to another), rotation, and vibration. The measurement of kinetic energy in
an object is calculated based on the object's mass and velocity. It is measured
in Joules.
Potential energy is a form of energy that results from an object's position or
arrangement of parts. It is stored energy that can become kinetic energy. It
includes potential electrical, chemical, and nuclear energy. The measurement of
potential energy in an object is calculated based on the object's mass and its
height or distance. It is measured in Joules.

Mechanical engineers are concerned about the mechanics of energy how it is generated, stored and
moved. Product design engineers apply the principles of potential and kinetic energy when they design
consumer products. For example, a pencil sharpener employs mechanical energy and electrical energy.
When designing a roller coaster, mechanical and civil engineers ensure that there is sufficient potential
energy (which is converted to kinetic energy) to move the cars through the entire roller coaster ride.

centripetal acceleration- http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/centripetalacceleration.html

In order to keep an object going around in a circle, that object must be pulled toward the
center of the circle. Take a look at the Moon circling Earth in the following figure. The
Moon is accelerated toward Earth along a radius from Earth to the Moon.

The acceleration needed to keep an object (here, it's the Moon) going around in a circle
is called the centripetal acceleration, and it's always perpendicular to the object's travel.
The centripetal acceleration points toward the center of the circle.
If you're given the linear speed of the object going in a circle and the radius of the circle,
you can calculate the centripetal acceleration, ac, like this:

This equation gives you the acceleration needed to keep an object going around in a
circle. You can think of this acceleration as continually bending the direction the object is
going in so it will keep going in a circle.
The linear velocity v of an object going around in a circle is directly related to the
angular velocity omega and the radius of the circle: v = omega x r. So you can also write
this equation as

Wavelength- http://science.howstuffworks.com/what-is-wavelength.htm

A wave is made of traveling energy. Consider the waves in a swimming pool: If

you jump into the water, waves travel from the spot where you hit to the other
side of the pool. Those waves are a result of the energy from your splash, and
the energy moves across the pool. Take note that it's only the energy that moves,
not the water. When the water molecules move up and down at a right angle to
the direction of the wave, it's called a transverse wave. Light waves are similar in
that they, too, are made of traveling energy composed of electric and magnetic
fields. That's why light is sometimes called electromagnetic radiation. These
fields vibrate perpendicularly to the direction the light wave is moving in, and they
also vibrate perpendicularly to each other.
Wave size is measured in wavelengths. The wavelength is calculated by
determining the distance between corresponding points on consecutive waves.

Normally this is done by measuring from peak to peak or from trough to trough.
When it comes to light, you can only see wavelengths of 400 to 700 billionths of a
meter. However, wavelengths can be as small as one billionth of a meter, like in
gamma rays. They can also be as long as centimeters or meters, like in radio
waves. Light waves are just part of the wave spectrum.
The first person to recognize that light works as a wave was Christian Huygens in
the late 1600s, and his work was followed up by Thomas Young in 1807. Young
realized that light would spread out after passing through a slit, and the
movement of waves was a good way to explain this type of light behavior. One of
the properties of light waves is that light beams always radiate outward.

Rydberg constant-https://www.britannica.com/science/Rydberg-constant

Rydberg constant, (symbol R or R ), is a fundamental constant of atomic

physics that appears in the formulas developed (1890) by the Swedish
physicist Johannes Rydberg, describing the wavelengths or frequencies of
light in various series of related spectral lines, most notably those emitted by
hydrogen atoms in the Balmer series. The value of this constant is based on
the premise that the nucleus of the atom emitting light is exceedingly massive
compared with a single orbiting electron (hence the infinity symbol ). The
constant can be expressed as 2mec/2h, where is the fine-structure
constant, me is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light, and h is
Plancks constant.

zoom_in
The Balmer series of atomic hydrogen. These lines are emitted when the electron in the hydrogen
.

The value of the Rydberg constant R is 1.0973731568508 107 per metre.

When used in this form in the mathematical description of series of spectral
lines, the result is the number of waves per unit length, or the wave numbers.
Multiplication by the speed of light yields the frequencies of the spectral lines.

Linear and angular velocity- http://www.chegg.com/homeworkhelp/definitions/linear-and-angular-velocity-65

Linear and angular velocities relate the speed of an object, dependent on the perspective taken. Linear
velocity applies to any object or particle that moves, while angular velocity applies to those that turn (such
as a wheel, the revolution of the earth, or a spinning top). Angular velocity is an expression of angular
displacement over time, and can be expressed in degrees or radians (radians/hr, degrees/sec, and so

on). Angular velocity is found with the equation

. To determine linear velocity (linear

displacement over time) from angular velocity, apply the formula

, where is expressed in
radians/time and r is the radius of the path taken (or the radius of the object, if it is spinning).

Photon- http://www.ducksters.com/science/physics/photons.php

In physics, a photon is a bundle of electromagnetic energy. It is the basic unit that

makes up all light. The photon is sometimes referred to as a "quantum" of
electromagnetic energy. Photons are not thought to be made up of smaller particles.
They are a basic unit of nature called an elementary particle.
Photons have some basic properties that help define what they are and how they
behave. These properties include:
They have zero mass. They have no electric charge. They are stable. They carry energy
and momentum which are dependent on the frequency. They can have interactions with
other particles such as electrons. They can be destroyed or created by many natural
processes. When in empty space, they travel at the speed of light.
Photons behave like particles in that they can interact with matter. In some cases the
energy of the photon is absorbed by the matter. In this case the extra energy may be
emitted as heat. One example of this is the blacktop of the road getting hot in the sun.
Our eyes also interact with photons. When a photon strikes the eye it is turned into
electrical energy that is then transmitted to brain to form an image. When the energy
from photons is absorbed by matter, the matter can emit electrons. This process is
called the photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect is a property of light that is not
explained by the theory that light is a wave. This is one of the main reasons that
scientists chose to treat light as both a wave and a stream of particles.
The relationship between the energy of a photon and its frequency can be described by
the following equation: E = hv where E is energy, v is frequency, and h is Planck's
constant. Planck's constant is always the same (i.e. the "constant") and equals
6.62606957 10-34 m2 kg / s.

standing waves- https://www.britannica.com/science/standing-wave-physics

Standing waves, also called stationary waves, is combination of two waves

moving in opposite directions, each having the same amplitude and
frequency. The phenomenon is the result of interferencethat is, when waves
are superimposed, their energies are either added together or cancelled out.
In the case of waves moving in the same direction, interference produces a
travelling wave; for oppositely moving waves, interference produces an
oscillating wave fixed in space. A vibrating rope tied at one end will produce a
standing wave, as shown in the Figure; the wave train, after arriving at the
fixed end of the rope, will be reflected back and superimposed on itself as
another train of waves in the same plane. Because of interference between
the two waves, the resultant amplitude of the two waves will be the sum of
their individual amplitudes. Part I of the Figure shows the wave trains B and C
coinciding so that standing wave R has twice their amplitude. In part II, 1/8
period later, B and C have each shifted wavelength. Part III represents the
case 1/8 period still later, when the amplitudes of the component waves B and
C are oppositely directed. At all times there are positions along the rope,
called nodes, at which there is no movement at all; there the two wave trains
are always in opposition. On either side of a node is a vibrating antinode. The
antinodes alternate in the direction of displacement so that the rope at any
instant resembles a graph of the mathematical function called the sine. Both
longitudinal (e.g., sound) waves and transverse (e.g., water) waves can form
standing waves.