Voltage - Fluctuations LPQI 2014 PDF

APPLICATION NOTE
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS IN POWER NETWORKS

(FLICKER)
Zbigniew Hanzelka
November 2014
ECI Publication No Cu0208

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Application Note Voltage fluctuations in power networks

(Flicker)
Cu0208
01
November 2014
Zbigniew Hanzelka
Roman Targosz, Noel Montrucchio (English language)
Document History
Issue
Date
November
2014
Purpose
First publication in the framework of the Good Practice Guide
Disclaimer
While this publication has been prepared with care, European Copper Institute and other contributors provide no
warranty with regards to the content and shall not be liable for any direct, incidental or consequential damages that
may result from the use of the information or the data contained.
Copyright European Copper Institute.

Reproduction is authorised providing the material is unabridged and the source is acknowledged.
CONTENTS
Summary ........................................................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................... 2
Sources of voltage fluctuations ....................................................................................................................... 2
Arc furnaces ............................................................................................................................................................ 3
Arc welders and spot welders ................................................................................................................................ 5
Induction motors .................................................................................................................................................... 5
Capacitor banks ...................................................................................................................................................... 6
Wind power plants ................................................................................................................................................. 7
Voltage interharmonics .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Effects of voltage fluctuations ...................................................................................................................... 10
Light sources ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
Electric machines .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Static converters ................................................................................................................................................... 13
Electrolysers and electro-heat equipment ........................................................................................................... 14
Voltage fluctuation measurement ................................................................................................................ 14
Classical voltage fluctuation factors ..................................................................................................................... 15
Flicker measurement ............................................................................................................................................ 15
Flickermeter .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Block 1 (input voltage normalization) .................................................................................................... 18
Block 2 (demodulation) .......................................................................................................................... 18
Block 3 (filtering) .................................................................................................................................... 19
Block 4 (squaring and smoothing) .......................................................................................................... 21
Block 5 (statistical analysis) .................................................................................................................... 22
Observation period................................................................................................................................. 23
Short-term flicker severity indicator ...................................................................................................... 23
Long-term flicker severity indicator ....................................................................................................... 25
An example of power quality factor measurements in a HV network ................................................... 28
New concepts of flickermeter structure ........................................................................................................ 32
Location of voltage fluctuation sources ........................................................................................................ 34
Method 1: Measurement of voltage fluctuations during operation of a fluctuating load and after turning it off
................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Publication No Cu0208
Issue Date:
November 2014
Page i
Method 2: Correlation of changes in the flicker severity Pst indicator and changes in the active and reactive
power ..................................................................................................................................................... 37
Method 3: The influence of voltage fluctuations in network branches on the global disturbance level at PCC .. 38
Method 4: Measurement of voltage and current changes................................................................................... 39
Method 5: Measurement of voltage changes ...................................................................................................... 39
Method 6: Examination of the slope of U-I characteristic .................................................................................... 40
Method 7: Examination of the direction of interharmonics power flow ............................................................. 40
Method 8: Examination of the voltage fluctuation power (energy) ..................................................................... 42
Standardization of voltage fluctuations ........................................................................................................ 43
Compatibility, emission, and immunity levels ...................................................................................................... 43
Voltage characteristics ......................................................................................................................................... 44
Planning levels ...................................................................................................................................................... 44
Propagation of voltage fluctuations .............................................................................................................. 45
Propagation of voltage fluctuations emitted by a single fluctuating load ............................................................ 45
Voltage fluctuations emitted from several sources.............................................................................................. 47
Propagation of voltage fluctuations in meshed networks .................................................................................... 49
Technical conditions of connection ............................................................................................................... 50
Emission limit for voltage fluctuations ................................................................................................................. 51
Number of voltage changes per minute r ............................................................................................................. 51
Flicker transfer coefficients in the procedure of emission levels allocation ........................................................ 54
The use of transfer coefficients to re-allocate unused emission contributions ..................................... 55
Re-allocation of unused emissions between networks with different voltage levels ............................ 56
Evaluation of voltage fluctuation emission level ........................................................................................... 57
Evaluation of voltage fluctuations and voltage change emissions from low- and medium power loads ............ 57
Determination of the relative voltage change d ................................................................................. 58
Analytical Method .................................................................................................................................. 59
(b) Shape factor F for double-step and ramp-voltage change characteristics ....................................... 60
Estimation of the Pst indicator for aperiodic voltage changes................................................................ 61
Evaluation of voltage fluctuations emission from high-power loads ................................................................... 62
Evaluation of voltage fluctuations emission based on comparative measurements ............................. 62
Evaluation of voltage fluctuations emission employing statistical analysis ........................................... 62
Measurements of the voltage fluctuation emission level ...................................................................... 63
Voltage fluctuations due to distributed power sources ................................................................................ 68
Motor-generator set ............................................................................................................................................. 71
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November 2014
Page ii
Continuous operation ............................................................................................................................ 72

Switching operations of wind turbines .................................................................................................. 73
Voltage fluctuations versus voltage dipsa case analysis ................................................................................... 75
Methods for mitigation of voltage fluctuation effects .................................................................................. 77
Dynamic voltage stabilizers .................................................................................................................................. 78
References .................................................................................................................................................... 83
Issue Date:
November 2014
Page iii
SUMMARY
Voltage fluctuations are series of voltage changes, or variations of the voltage waveform. Determining the
ratio of reactive power to the short circuit capacity uses a simplified formula to calculate relative voltage
fluctuations at the load end of a High Voltage (HV) supply system.
A changing magnitude of the supply voltage results in a change in the luminous flux of a light source. Therefore
the phenomenon is known as flicker. Flicker occurs in all types of light sources, including incandescent and
fluorescent lights. It can significantly impair vision, can be the cause of general discomfort and fatigue, and
deteriorates work quality. It considerably hampers reading and watching TV.
Voltage fluctuations also have a negative influence on other kinds of devices.
They cause changes in torque and slip at the terminals of an induction motor, affecting the
functionality and energy efficiency of the motor. In extreme cases these changes may lead to
excessive vibration, compromising the mechanical strength and the service life of the motor.
They affect the functionality and reduce the service lifetime of electrolysers.
They can reduce the performance of electro-heat equipment.
They reduce the effectiveness of arc furnaces by prolonging the melt time.
Research into the human visual perception of flicker has been carried out for several decades and has led to
development of flicker severity measurements and the construction of the flickermeters. A standardized
instrument was developed that utilizes the flicker severity indicators Pst for short-term voltage fluctuation
assessment and Plt for long-term voltage fluctuation assessment.
Since the deregulation of the electricity market, both electricity suppliers and consumers are interested in
assigning the responsibility for inadequate power quality unambiguously, so that compensation payments can
be demanded. However, it is often a difficult task to locate the source of voltage fluctuations. No less than
eight methods are being used for this, depending on system design and loads.
Mitigation of voltage fluctuations is one of the most difficult issues of the electric power supply. The effects of
voltage fluctuation depend on the amplitude, rate of occurrence, and duration of voltage changes. Flicker
amplitude depends primarily on the power system itself; the rate of occurrence, on the other hand, depends
upon the type of load and the manner in which it is operated. To date, mitigation measures have focused
primarily on limiting the amplitude of voltage fluctuations, and few measures have been taken to alter the
load and its operation. Examples of the latter include:
In case of an arc furnace: installing a series reactor or a controlled saturable reactor, proper
functioning of the electrode control system, segregation and initial preparation of charge, admixing
electrodes material.
In case of wind turbines: reducing the number of switching operations by keeping the turbine in
standstill until wind achieves a steady speed greater than the turbine cut-in speed.
The amplitude of voltage fluctuations can be limited in two ways:
Increasing the short circuit power (with respect to the load power) at the connection of the disturbing
load. In practice, this can be done by connecting the load at a higher nominal voltage. It can also be
done by supplying fluctuating loads and steady loads from either separate windings of a threewinding transformer, or from separate two-winding transformers (and selecting transformers of a
higher rated power and/or lower short circuit voltage than usual).
Reducing reactive power changes in the supply network by means of the so-called dynamic voltage
compensators/stabilizers.
Issue Date: November 2014
Page 1
INTRODUCTION
Voltage fluctuation is a series of rms voltage changes or variation of the voltage waveform envelope (Fig. 1)
[61]. In the event of this type of disturbance, the following can be noted: the voltage fluctuation waveform
1
(the voltage peak values enveloped as a function of time ), the amplitude of voltage changes (difference
between the maximum and minimum rms or peak voltage value occurring during the disturbance), and the
voltage changes rate (the number of voltage changes per unit time) or frequency (for periodic waveforms).
Figure 1An example of voltage fluctuations a) rms voltage, b) instantaneous voltagerandom and sinusoidal
voltage fluctuations with frequency 10 Hz.
SOURCES OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

Voltages at the origin and the end of a line differ. This can be demonstrated by the example of a simple, singlephase equivalent diagram in Figure 2 (assumed to be the single-phase representation of a symmetrical threephase circuit). Here ES is the source voltage, U0 the voltage at the considered load terminals, I0 the current, and
ZS, XS, RS are the equivalent impedance, reactance and resistance, respectively of the supply network (the
supply source, feeder lines, transformers and reactors, if used).
The relation (1a) determining the amplitude of voltage changes
U 0 at the considered network node can be
derived from the phasor diagram (Fig. 2b and c) and simple trigonometric relations:
ES U 0 U 0
P
Q
P
Q
RS 02 X S 02 RS 02 0
U0
U0
U0
U0
U 0 S sc
(1a)
Regarding the character of this function, we can note periodic or aperiodic, determinate (seldom) or random
(more often) fluctuations.
Page 2
where P0, Q0 are the active and reactive power, respectively (sign + denotes the inductive reactive power
and - the capacitive reactive power), and SSC is the short-circuit capacity at the point of load connection.
Figure 2A single-phase equivalent diagram of the supply network (a) and phasor diagrams for a resistiveinductive load ES U 0 , for a resistive-capacitive load ES U 0 .
Assuming the line equivalent resistance in is negligible compared with its reactance ( X S 10RS ), and that it
remains true for practical HV power supply systems, we obtain a simplified formula describing the relative
voltage change at load end of the line (assuming
U 0 Q0
U0
SSC
U q 0 ):
(1b)
As follows from equation (1b), the primary cause of voltage changes, including fluctuation, is the timevariability of the loads' power. These are mainlybut not exclusivelyindustrial loads with large individual
rated power levels; examples being arc furnaces, rolling mill drives, hoist machines drives, welding equipment,
et cetera. Voltage fluctuations may also be caused by power controllers, electric hammers, lifts, et cetera. In
general, these include variable loads whose power is relatively large with respect to the short-circuit capacity
at the point of their connection to the network. X-ray equipment and large-power photocopiers used for
commercial purposes exhibit similar influence. Sources of voltage fluctuation in residential LV distribution
networks can be loads whose operation implies cyclic on and off switching such as washing machines,
refrigerators, cookers, air conditioners, et cetera. Because of their small individual powers, their adverse
impact is usually limited to a small number of consumers.
This adverse impact may increase due to the functional coincidence of their operation, e.g. of electric water
heaters during evening hours.
Voltage fluctuations also occur as an effect of switching processes in a power system (e.g. improper operation
of transformer tap-changers) and in the operation of certain distributed energy sources (e.g. wind turbines).
ARC FURNACES
Page 3
As shown in the circular diagram in Fig. 3, the natural power factor takes the value 0.7 at the point A
corresponding to the arc furnace maximum power (i.e. maximum effectiveness of the metallurgical process)
and that the active power approximately equals the reactive power. The arc resistance changes during furnace
operation shift the operating point over the example range A1-A2. In this event, changes of reactive power will
exceed the changes of active power at several times. Rapid reactive power changes, following variations of the
arc burning conditions are the main cause of voltage fluctuation at the electric steelworks busbars (Fig. 3b).
Figure 3An arc furnace: (a) circular diagram; (b) an example of reactive power changes and voltage
fluctuations at the electric steelworks busbars.
Since the impedance of HV network has an almost exclusively inductive character (RS << XS) (and almost all
electric steelworks, due to their high power, are supplied from HV networks), changes of power satisfy the
condition P << Q. Thus from the relation (1b), it is evident that the level of voltage changes (voltage
fluctuations) is directly proportional to changes in the fundamental harmonic reactive power and inversely
proportional to short-circuit capacity at the point of the arc furnace connection.
Figure 4 shows, as an example, the empirical characteristics in the coordinate system: short-circuit capacity at
the point of connection (SSC)the furnace transformer power (S), that enable preliminary estimation of
voltage fluctuations emission caused by the arc furnace operation. Three areas can be discerned in these
characteristics: (a) first (1), in which the furnace does not cause significant fluctuations, (b) second (2), a
borderline area, in which the necessity for the use compensators/stabilizers cannot be excluded, and (c) third
Page 4
(3) a case where is a high likelihood that voltage fluctuations will occur and the use of a compensator or other
methods for mitigation of voltage fluctuations effects will be necessary, e.g. substituting an AC arc furnace
2
with a DC one .
Figure 4Characteristics that enable preliminary estimation of emission of voltage fluctuations caused by the
arc furnace operation (explanation in the text above) [107].
ARC WELDERS AND SPOT WELDERS

Figure 5 shows an example of rms voltage and current changes during electric welding or spot welding process.
Voltage changes due to the increase in the welding current are noticeable. The problem becomes more serious
in the event of simultaneous, independent operation of several welders supplied from the same transformer.
Figure 5Changes in the voltage and current during (a) electric welding [40] and (b) spot welding processes.
INDUCTION MOTORS
Experience shows that an arc furnace poses a problem as a source of voltage fluctuation if the quotient of the
short-circuit capacity at the point of its connection and the furnace transformer rated power is contained
within the interval 80-100 [40].
Page 5
Important sources of voltage fluctuation are recurring motor starts and operation of electric drives with
variable-torque loading, e.g. electrical saws, presses, pumps, compressors, air conditioning equipment. (Fig. 6).
The same applies to adjustable speed drives equipped with power electronic AC/DC or AC/AC converters.
Figure 6Voltage fluctuations: (a) at the terminals of a large-power electric motor with variable load and (b)
the spectrum of the amplitude modulated voltage (the 50 Hz fundamental component is not indicated) [12,
49]).
CAPACITOR BANKS
The transient states occurring due to switching capacitor bankscommonly used for automatic reactive power
compensation at all voltage levels (Figure7) can be a source of voltage fluctuations.
Figure 7Voltage and current waveforms during capacitor bank switching.
Page 6
(a)
(b)
Figure 8A recorded wind turbine starting behavior: waveforms of the voltage and current instantaneous (a) and
rms (b) in selected phase.
WIND POWER PLANTS

In the case of wind turbines, fluctuations can be caused by both the switching processes (Figure 8) and the
variability of generated power due to changing wind conditions.
VOLTAGE INTERHARMONICS
The instantaneous power of the supply source should be analyzed in order to identify the spectral voltage
components that can be a source of flicker. For that purpose, the supply voltage was assumed to be periodic
and described by the relation:
u(t ) u1 (t ) u h (t ) uIn (t ) U mcos t mh cosh t h mIn cosIn t In

h
(2a)
In
where the subscript (1) denotes the fundamental component with frequency (the modulated signal) and
amplitude Um; (h) denotes the h-th order harmonic with modulation index mh and initial phase h; (In) denotes
the h-th order interharmonic with modulation index mIh and initial phase Ih. The power of an incandescent
light source (assuming its equivalent resistance is constant) is proportional to the square of the supply voltage
[80]:
u 2 (t ) u12 (t ) uh2 (t ) uIn2 (t ) 2 u1 t uh t 2 u1 t uIn t 2 uh t uIn t
(2b)
Contribution of the term uIn2 (t ) can be neglected because in practice the mIn index are negligible. The term
u12 (t ) yields DC power component and double frequency components. Although the last component can be
significant, its frequency is beyond the visual perception range and therefore it is not the cause of flicker.
Assuming constant values of voltage harmonics, the same applies to the term uh2 (t ) , whose components'
frequencies are not less than 50 Hz. If the values of harmonics undergo changes, they give rise to
interharmonics in the sidebands adjacent to given harmonics and their frequencies may be contained within
the sensitivity range of the human eye.
The result of the multiplication 2 u1 t uh t are components with angular frequencies h 1 , of which
the lowest frequency () is beyond the visible flicker range.
Page 7
Similarly, the result of multiplication 2 uh t uIn t are components with with angular frequencies: In
and In , of which only the second one can theortically be a potential source of flicker for:
h max In h max , where max = 35 Hz. In practice, considering the limited values of harmonics,
this mechanism is of small significance. The result of multiplication 2 u1 t uIn t are components with angular
frequencies: In and In , of which only the second one can be a potential source of the cosiderd
disturbance for max In max , i.e. In 15 85 Hz.
Fig. 1b shows an example of 50 Hz voltage waveform with amplitude modulated by sinusoidal signal with
frequency 10 Hz, described by equation:
u(t ) U m (1 mcost)cos t U mcoso
mUm
cos t cos t
2
(2c)
where is the angular frequency of the modulating signal, and m is the modulation index (=U/2U).
This equation, besides the fundamental harmonic (with angular frequency ), contains two components with
angular frequencies (-) and (+) located symmetrically with respect to the carrier frequency (Fig. 9).
Voltage fluctuations can be therefore considered as the effect interharmonics present in sidebands and
3
modulating the supply voltage .
The relation (2c) describes voltage fluctuation caused by the fundamental component modulation. Modulation
of the voltage high harmonics is also possible (if the voltage is distorted). This case is of minor practical
importance in regards to voltage fluctuation.
Figure 9Graphical interpretation of the frequency spectrum of an amplitude modulated voltage.

The superposition of two voltage components yields the waveform with frequency:
f f inh f 0 , where:
fInhthe interharmonic component frequency, and f0the frequency of the nearest component being an
integer multiple of the fundamental frequency.
There is a substantial likelihood of such an occurrence in the case of arc furnaces equipped with high
harmonic filters. The presence of those filters may cause amplification of interharmonics, an effect of the
resonance of components with frequencies occurring in the furnace current spectrum.
Page 8
For instance, for the interharmonic of order n = 3.1, the modulation frequency is: (3.1-3) = 0.1 or (155-150) Hz
= 5 Hz. Interharmonics with frequencies lower than 100 Hz (the second harmonic) are mostly influencing the
rms voltage value. Interharmonics with frequencies higher than 100 Hz mostly modulate the peak values; their
influence on the rms value is rather smaller. For example, for
u(t ) sin2ft msin2f inht (where f = 50
Hz and U1 = 1), the maximum change in the voltage amplitude equals the interharmonic amplitude, whereas
the change in the rms value depends on both the amplitude and frequency of the interharmonic. Fig. 10 shows
maximum change in the voltage rms value caused by an interharmonic with variable frequency and the
constant amplitude m = 0.2% of the fundamental component U1.
Figure 10Dependence of maximum change of the rms voltage on the frequency of interharmonic with
constant amplitude (0.2% of the fundamental component amplitude) [41].
Mutually interfering remote control signals (interlocks, protection, et cetera) and data transmission signals in
power supply networks can be a specific source of voltage fluctuation. Despite of their small magnitude, these
signals may give rise to voltage fluctuations which disturb operation of sensitive light sources [26].
Figure 11The UPS output voltage waveforms: (a) rms

value, (b) instantaneous value, and (c) the voltage
spectrum.
Figure 11 shows the UPS output voltage waveforms in the selected phase. The UPS supplies an air conditioner.
The switching process (from mains to the UPS power supply) and voltage fluctuations during steady state
operation are seen in both the signal waveform and its spectrum.
Page 9
The frequency-domain description of the voltage fluctuation phenomenon is complex. Voltage fluctuations
and interharmonics are certainly mutually dependent but the methods based on the traditional Fourier
analysis turn out to be insufficient for describing random, non-stationary signals where the issues of time and
frequency resolution play an essential role. Hence other tools for solving this problem must be searched for,
e.g. those utilized by the signal processing theory, including spectral density analysis, linear transformation,
and wavelet analysis.
EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

Voltage fluctuations in power networks are the cause of a number of adverse effects of a technical and
ergonomic nature. In the production sphere, both technical and ergonomic effects entail extra costs whose
quantitative assessment is sometime very difficult to determine. Some illustrative examples of adverse effects
of voltage fluctuation are presented further below.
LIGHT SOURCES
A change in the supply voltage magnitude results in a change in the luminous flux of a light source. This
phenomenon is known as flicker, which is a subjective visual impression of the unsteadiness of the light flux,
when its luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time [61, 29]. It may occur in both incandescent and
fluorescent light sources, as well as in other energy efficient light sources. However the mechanism of the
phenomenon and the frequency range and permissible values of disturbing components are different. Figure
12 shows a change in the luminous flux of an incandescent lamp in response to a short-duration change in the
supply voltage.
Figure 12The effect of a voltage change on the luminous flux of an incandescent lamp [40].
The luminous flux of an incandescent lamp depends on the filament temperature which is directly related to
the power dissipated in the bulb. If the supply voltage is sinusoidal, the luminance is the superposition of the
steady average component and variable component with double network frequency which is not perceptible
to human eye. If a single interharmonic occurs both the electric power and the luminance contain additional
components also in their side bands and also within the human perceptibility range.
In fluorescent lamps, the luminous flux depends on the angle of arc ignition, i.e. the delay necessary for the
voltage to attain the ignition level, dependent on the lamp geometry and physical properties of plasma [26].
The frequency characteristic of a light source depends primarily on its type, power, and the nominal voltage.
For incandescent light sources, this characteristic can be described by the first-order lag element transfer
function where the input signal is the supply voltage change and the output signal is the luminous flux change:
Page 10
L( s )
k
LN
GLamp ( s )
U ( s ) 1 sT
UN
(3)
where: k,T
amplification factor and the thermal time-constant
UN, LN
the bulb nominal voltage and luminance
U, L
the voltage and luminance change
=j2fm (fm- modulation frequency)
The correlation between the supply voltage and luminance is nonlinear but it can be linearized around the
nominal point of the supply source operation. The amplification factor can be determined as the function:
L/LN=f(U/UN) derivative at the nominal point of operation:
L
d
L
k N
U
d
UN
for U=UN
(4)
In practice, the value of this factor is determined from:
k U N U
LU N U
LU N
U U
1- N
UN
k U N U
LU N U
k U U k U N U
LU N
kUN N
U U
2
1- N
UN
(5)
An approximate time constant T can be determined on the basis of the luminance change caused by the
voltage change. Using (3) the inverse Laplace transform takes the form:
t
GLamp (t )
k T
e ut
T
(6)
For t=T, the output signal decreases from the initial value (k/T) to k / T e 1 i.e. by 36.79%. The value of the
time constant depends on the lamp construction properties, which determine the characteristic of heat losses.
Thus gas-filled incandescent lamps with a straight filament has a smaller time constant than lamps with the
coiled-coil filament. For example, the time constant of a 230 V, 60 W tungsten bulb is within the 10-30 ms
4
range, depending on the manufacturer, and the static amplification factor k is 3.4-3.8 [14, 19, 81].
According to the same sources, the exponent for fluorescent lamps is 1.5-1.8.
Page 11
Fluorescent lamps and energy efficient light sources equipped with electronic input circuits are less sensitive to
5
voltage fluctuation, but it is not an absolute rule (Fig. 13) . In this type of light source, the supply voltage peak
6
value influences the change in the luminous flux to a greater extent than the voltage rms value [105].
Incandescent light sources are practically linear loads whereas the voltage-current characteristics of discharge
and energy-efficient light sources are nonlinear. The voltage across the arc tube is the output voltage of a
magnetic or electronic converter and it does not change according to changes in the input voltage.
Figure 13Example of flicker characteristics of

energy-efficient light sources, where [20]:
( ) =
( )
( )
Lx(fm) and LIL(fm)changes in the luminous flux of the

tested light sorce and the incandescent lamp in
response to the voltage modulated by the
rectangular signal with frequency fm (INC
incandescent lamp, CFL1-8compact fluorescent
lamps, LED1-8LED lamps, H1-3halogen lamps of
various powers)
It depends chiefly on the capacitance of the capacitor used in input PFC circuits and on the in-service time of
a given light source [8]. Some solutions of light dimmers increase the flicker effect [128], but this rule has its
own exceptions [16].
6
The thermal inertia of fluorescent lamps is very small; hence the response in the form of a change in the
luminous flux is fast (of the order of several milliseconds). Consequently, fluorescent lamps are more sensitive
to changes in the voltage shape, changes in phase due to harmonics, and fast changes in the voltage
magnitude. Rectifiers in electronic starters of fluorescent lamps are transferring changes in the instantaneous
voltage value to DC side thus altering the discharge conditions in the lamp which are giving rise to flicker. High
pressure discharge lamps are more sensitive to voltage fluctuations of higher frequencies [35].
Page 12
Many measurements of voltage fluctuations lead to the conclusion that there is no correlation between the
measured level of the disturbance and the consumers' complaints [42]. There are three possible reasons for
this situation: (a) voltage fluctuations are measured at the EHV/HV level whereas the visual effects of the
disturbance are visible at the LV level, thus the disturbance attenuation during transfer between networks
with different voltage levels plays a significant role; (b) modern, energy-efficient light sources are less sensitive
7
to voltage changes ; and (c) rapid voltage changes have a substantial share in the measured disturbance level.
In all light sources, i.e. the incandescent, fluorescent, halogen lamps, and compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), the
increase in the voltage modulation depth at constant modulation frequency increases the luminous flux
variability within the frequency interval (0.5-25) Hz almost linearly, although to a different extent. However,
the same modulation depth with a different and increasing modulation frequency not always mean a
reduction in the luminous flux variability. The exception is compact fluorescent lamps with magnetic ballasts.
Flicker caused by voltage fluctuation significantly impairs vision, is the cause of general discomfort and fatigue,
and deteriorates work quality. It considerably hampers reading and watching TV. Flicker affects the vision
process and human brain reaction, and can be a cause of work accidents and epileptic seizures. The
psychophysical nature of this disturbance is complex [79].
ELECTRIC MACHINES
Voltage fluctuations at the terminals of an induction motor cause changes in torque and slip, and consequently
affect the production process. In extreme cases they may lead to excessive vibration, reducing mechanical
strength, and shortened motor service life.
8
Voltage fluctuations at the terminals of synchronous motors and generators give rise to hunting and
premature wear of rotors. They also cause changes in torque and power and increased losses.
STATIC CONVERTERS
However, if their number is large, they can become a source of the increased disturbance emission due to
their large inrush current, compared to that of incandescent sources.
After connecting a new load to a synchronous motor, the rotor phase angle will swing (oscillate) around the
new equilibrium, going from a load angle that is too small to one that is too large and back. This phenomenon
is known as hunting or phase swinging. The rotor hunts (searches for) its new position.
Page 13
Figure 14The voltage and current waveforms in the network supplying a 12-pulse rectifier for control angles
D=Y=0, the DC side current Id=const and the network current spectrum: (a,b)sinusoidal input voltages;
(c,d)modulated output voltage (Udcthe converter output voltage at DC side).
The usual effect of voltage fluctuations in phase-controlled rectifiers with DC-side parameter control is a
reduction of power factor and generation of non-characteristic harmonics and interharmonics. A voltage
change occurring during a DC drive regenerative braking may lead to commutation failure.
Figures 14 illustrate the phase current and rectified voltage waveforms of a 12-pulse converter supplied with
the voltage of variable magnitude (m = 10%; = 80 Hzrelation 2) for control angles Y=D=0 (Y, D
control angles of thyristor bridges supplied from wye-connected and delta-connected transformer windings,
respectively). Non-characteristic components of orders that are not present in the current spectrum of the
ideal 12-pulse converter (Fig. 14d) [139] occur in the supply current spectrum as a result of voltage fluctuation.
ELECTROLYSERS AND ELECTRO-HEAT EQUIPMENT

Both the lifetime and technological process performance of electrolyser equipment can be reduced in the
presence of voltage fluctuations.
The performance of electro-heat equipment is reduced, but this is only noticeable in the presence of
significant levels of voltage fluctuation; likewise there is a reduction in the effectiveness of an arc furnace (due
to a longer melt time).
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION MEASUREMENT

Voltage fluctuation measurements are necessary to ensure the compliance of actual emission levels with the
requirements set forth in applicable standards. They are also necessary to determine the load emission under
consideration in order to compare it with limit values.
There are two basic measurement methods:
-
The first consists of the quantitative assessment of the phenomenon and is based on the time
variation of the rms voltage or voltage waveform envelope (according to the classic indices)
Page 14
The second method employs an indirect measurement, i.e. measuring the flicker effect resulting from
voltage fluctuations
CLASSICAL VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION FACTORS

In the past (and occasionally still at present) voltage fluctuations in power networks or at the loads' terminals
have been described in terms of the following indicators [81]:
1.
2.
3.
The voltage fluctuation amplitude U expressed in volts or on a per unit (percentage) basis with
respect to the nominal voltage
The voltage changes rate (FU in 1/s, 1/min or 1/h) or frequency(FU in Hz) for periodic fluctuations
The energetic dose of voltage fluctuations
D VT
TW
U dt , where T
2
is a unit of time, e.g. 1
minute or the duration of voltage fluctuations
FLICKER MEASUREMENT
Research into the human visual perception process has been carried out for several decades [37,79]. Initially
the research consisted chiefly of tests performed with selected groups of participants and employed various
light sources and different shapes of voltage changes (rectangular and sinusoidal). This research was the basis
for determining the borderline of the annoyance curve in response to variations in luminous flux (Figure 15).
This approach assumed that the average reaction to flicker in the human eye is identical for all observers.
Voltage changes are represented as points in the coordinate system: relative voltage change (U/U)number
of voltage changes per unit time. These characteristics divide the plane into two parts.
Figure 15The borderline characteristic for rectangular, equidistant voltage changes applied to a 60 W bulb
9
(Pst = 1) [2929].
One of the best known, and also the oldest, characteristics of the eye sensitivity to voltage fluctuation is the
curve based on studies conducted by General Electric circa 1930 and first published in the IEEE Std. 141-1993
(see also IEEE Std. 1453-2004). There are actually two characteristics: the first one represents the borderline
of perception and the second the borderline of irritation [9].
Page 15
The area above the characteristic defines the unacceptable level of voltage fluctuations whereas the area
below the curves represents acceptable levels of voltage fluctuations. The characteristic can be easily
employed for periodic disturbances. For non-periodic disturbances, the maximum voltage change that occurs
during the equipment operation can be taken as the numerical measure. For example, the voltage changes
between its two extreme modes of operation in the case of an arc furnace, namely the arc interruption and
the three-phase short circuit between the electrodes and the charge.
The participation of physiologists and psychologists in these experiments enabled the development of
improved mathematical models of the perception process. Some of the earliest work was carried out by
Simons [129]. De Langes experiments [40, 84, 85] offered the first opportunity to advance the thesis of
similarity between the sensitivity of the human eye to light stimuli and the frequency characteristic of an
electrical analogue signal.
Further extensive studies carried out by Kelly took into account not only the amplitude of changes, but also
different levels of eye adaptation to the average luminance.
A significant contribution to developments in this field of knowledge was made by Rashbass, Koenderink, and
10
Van Doom [40]. Their research resulted in developing the UIE flickermeter , which employs voltage
fluctuation as an input signal, rather than the luminous flux changes themselves. This approach required that
the physiology of the visual perception process be reproduced in the instrument. This concept plays a role in
the Rashbass and Koenderink models. Their studies demonstrated that the response of the human eye has the
characteristic of a band-pass filter with 0.05-35Hz passband11) and maximum sensitivity to the luminous flux at
the frequency around 8-9 Hz. In the case of incandescent light sources, it corresponds to repeatable voltage
changes with amplitude of approximately 0.3% of the average voltage magnitude.
Physiological effects of this phenomenon depend on the amplitude of the luminous flux variation (the
amplitude of changes in the voltage supplying a light source), the sequence of repetitions, the frequency
spectrum, average value of the luminous flux (this often becomes visible when a light source is supplied
through a dimmer) and the disturbance duration. The response of the brain to stimulation by a light impulse
has an integral character with the integral action time of approximately 300 ms. This means that slow
variations of luminous flux are traced, and the fast ones are smoothed. For example, two short changes in the
luminous flux occurring in a time interval shorter than 300 ms are perceived as a single change.
Variations/changes in the form of a short light pulse followed by a longer pause, are more annoying. Light
flicker is more dominant in lateral vision than in direct vision of images upon which the viewer attention is
focused. Changes in the luminous flux produced by voltage fluctuation do not depend on the type of voltage
(AC or DC) supplying the light source.
10
First research works were inspired by the International Union for Electroheat (now the International Union
for ElectrotechnologiesUIE). The technical report on the theory and measurement methods for this
phenomenon was developed by the UIE Power Quality Working Group (WG2 Power QualityUIE) and
adopted as a standard by the Voltage Fluctuation Working Group (WG2 Voltage Fluctuation) of the 77A IEC
Subcommittee.
11 Further studies of TV and
video images have shifted the upper flicker fusion boundary to about 100 Hz. They
have demonstrated that stress and fatigue may be caused by light flicker phenomena at the subconscious
level as well. The upper flicker fusion boundary depends on the color temperature, and also on the age of
the observer [40, 79].
Page 16
The studies of a model of the human reaction (fatigue) to the luminous flux changes resulted in construction of
the first flickermeters, namely: (a) the British ERA (Electrical Research Association) instrument, (b) the French
EDF (Electricite de France)instrument, (c) the German FGH (Forschungsgemeinschaft fr Hochspannungs- und
Hochstromstechnik e. V.)instrument, and (d) the Japanese V10 (also used in South Korea and Taiwan)
12
instrument . Some of these instruments comprised a 60W, 230V incandescent lamp, a luminous flux detector,
and an analogue model of human reaction. Considerable differences in these instruments' construction,
interpretation of results, and assumed criteria quantities impeded comparison of their indications. The end of
the 1980s brought more systematic studies, coordinated mostly by the International Union for
Electrotechnology (UIE). As a result, a standardized instrument was developed that utilizes the flicker severity
indicator Pst for short-term voltage fluctuation assessment and the Plt indicator for long-term voltage
fluctuation assessment [33]. This is presently an entirely digital instrument that models the tungsten light
source and human response to light stimuli.
FLICKERMETER
An indirect measurement method is employed if voltage changes are irregular in shape. This utilizes the flicker
of an incandescent lamp luminous flux as the voltage fluctuation indicator. The purpose of the assessment of
this phenomenon is to determine the degree of human irritation that is caused by luminous flux variations.
Three basic components can be identified in this process: the source of variable voltage, the human eye and its
perception process, and the human brain with its nonlinear reactions (as a function of the frequency of
stimulation and the adaptation time). Only the first component is directly measurable, the others are modeled.
Figure 16 shows a simplified block diagram of the UIE flickermeter. The instrument structure comprises five
function blocks [33]. Blocks 2, 3, and 4 represent the model of the light source/human eye/brain chain and its
response to changes in the reference light source luminous flux (60W, 230V incandescent lamp) caused by
voltage fluctuations. Block 5 is responsible for the statistical analysis of flicker signal and presentation of
results.
12
This instrument employs a transformation (using appropriate weights an) of the voltage modulating signal
components (with frequencies fn) into the equivalent component with a frequency of 10 Hz, which produces
the same effect in the form of the luminous flux change: V10
a V
, Vn U m1 U m2 (for the
component with frequency fn,) [18, 147].

Page 17
Figure 16Block diagram of the UIE flickermeter [126]. The diagram shows the signals waveforms at selected
points in response to the sinusoidal modulated input signal.
BLOCK 1 (INPUT VOLTAGE NORMALIZATION)

The information in this block deals with the relative voltage changes (fluctuations) acquired from the input
signal proportional to the time-varying rms supply voltage value U(t). Example analytical relations are provided
for sinusoidal voltage fluctuations with frequency and peak-to-peak value U (Figure 1):
u (t )
U / U Av
cos t 1
cos t cos t 1 cos t
U Av
2
2
(7)
13
where UAv is the average rms voltage value determined during the last minute of the measurement . This
solution allows the disregarding of slow changes due to, for example, regulation processes carried out in the
power system. Such changes are not perceived as flicker since the eye can follow them using pupil size
adaptations. Thus the process of voltage fluctuation assessment is independent of the carrier component
value.
The Block 1 input circuit provides an adequate insulation of the instrument and scales the Block 2 input signal.
It also incorporates a signal generator used for the instruments calibration.
BLOCK 2 (DEMODULATION )
Since the useful signal for the instrument is the relative voltage change (which can be interpreted as a
modulating signal superimposed on the 50 Hz carrier signal), there is a need to determine the modulating
signal. Hence, the demodulator is incorporated into the instrument block diagram.
13
The range of a flickermeters' nominal input voltages is 66-690 V, depending on the manufacturer.
Page 18
Squaring the input signal is equivalent to the reconstruction of the rms voltage value squared and can be
directly referred to the power of an incandescent light source. The use of the square law demodulator (with
the Butterworth filter in Block 3) is justified by the ease of its technical implementation and satisfactory
effectiveness. The demodulator output signal has the form:
2
u (t )
1 d2 d

cost
2 16 2
U Av
1 d2
d2
cos2t

cost
16
2 16
d2
cos2t 2t cos2t 2t
32
d2
cos2t t cos2t t
(8)
The demodulator output signal contains a DC component, alternate components with the modulated signal
angular frequency and alternate components with the modulating signal angular frequency. The direct
component and all components with frequencies greater than can be eliminated by means of appropriate
filtering (Block 3).
Figure 17 shows the waveform of the Block 2 output signal for the sinusoidal input voltage with the 50 Hz
frequency modulated by the rectangular signal with frequency 2 Hz and the modulation depth U/UAv =
0.401%. It is one of the signals recommended for testing the accuracy of an instruments operation [33].
Figure 17The Block 2 output signal [120].
BLOCK 3 (FILTERING)
Block 3 is composed of two filters and a voltage selector. The first band-pass filter eliminates a DC voltage
component and other unwanted components in the demodulator output signal (which due to their frequency
range have no influence on the flicker effect). This filter comprises:
Page 19
Figure 18Frequency characteristics of filters used in the UIE flickermeter [120].

1) The
high-pass
first-order
section
with
transfer
function:
s
s
F HP ( s ) / 1 ,
c c
c 2 0.05s 1 . The filter frequency characteristic is shown in Figure 18. The 3 dB attenuation for
cut-off frequency 0.05 Hz is recommended.
th
2) The low-pass section for which the use of the 6 order Butterworth filter with 3 dB attenuation for
cut-off frequency 35 HZ and low distortion in the pass band are recommended. Its characteristics is
described by relation (9) [40] and shown in Figure 18:
(9)
F LP ( s )
1
1
s
s
s
s
s
s
1 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6
c
c
c
c
c
c
where: b1 = 3.864; b2 = 7.464; b3 = 9.141; b4 = 7.464; b5 = 3.864; b6 = l.

For the signal as (7-8), the band-pass filter output signal is:
uBP (t )
d
F HP j F LP j cost
2
(10)
The high-pass filter, in connection with the Butterworth filter, eliminates the DC component and the second
harmonic component (twice the power frequency). Given the filters' cut-off frequencies, the components
/ 16cos2t and d 2 / 32cos2t 2t have little effect on the output signal value if 2 14.
14
Errors may also result from the presence of components in sidebands. For instance, assuming rectangular
voltage changes with frequency fm=18.2 Hz, the amplitude of the fifth harmonic of this signal with frequency
5fm=91 Hz is 20% of the fundamental component. The component with frequency 100-91=9 Hz (2-) causes
the instrument readings, besides the 18.2 Hz component, and includes the 9 Hz component as well, thereby
regarding it as a source of the disturbance. This is the systematic error occurring in measurements of
rectangular voltage fluctuation.
Page 20
An example output signal of the band-pass filter for rectangular modulating signal is shown in Figure 19.
Figure 19An example output signal of the band-pass

filter [120].
Figure 20The output signal of the weighting filter

(Block 3 output) [120].
The frequency characteristic of the incandescent lamp/human eye chain is reproduced in the instrument by
th
the 4 order band-pass filter with the transfer function determined by the relation (11) and the frequency
characteristic shown in Figure 18:
G230V ( s )
s
2
k 1 s
s 2 s 12 (1 s )(1 s )
3
4
(11)
where: k = 1.74802;
= 24.05981 ;
= 29.15494 ;
= 22.27979; 3 = 21.22535;
221.9 . The form of the transfer function and its frequency characteristic are applicable solely to
incandescent lamps at 230 V. For other light sources, e.g. fluorescent lamps, a different form of transfer
function should be employed [14]. An example waveform of the output signal after the weighting operation is
shown in Figure 20.
BLOCK 4 (SQUARING AND SMOOTHING )

The Rashbass model of visual perception includes two functions: squaring and integration of the obtained
signal by means of a first order low-pass filter with transfer function: F ( s) 1 s , where =300 ms
1
corresponds to cut-off frequency 0.53 Hz (Figure 18). The instrument readings are particularly sensitive to
changes in the time constant of this filter, which reproduces the so-called human eye memory effect [120].
The final element of Block 4 is the linear amplifier whose purpose is the calibration of the entire measurement
path.
The output of Block 4 signal S(t) proportional to voltage changes and weighted by the sensitivity of the
bulb/eye/brain chain, represents the instantaneous flicker level. The signal with an instantaneous value
greater than 1 (for LV and MV networks) signifies that the flicker intensity exceeded the perception threshold
and can be annoying, or even intolerable, for more than 50% of all observers. An example waveform of the
Block 4 output signal is shown in Figure 21.
Page 21
Figure 21The output signal of block 4 representing the instantaneous flicker sensation P inst [120].
BLOCK 5 (STATISTICAL ANALYSIS )

From the mechanism of visual perception it follows that flicker should be assessed over an appropriately long
time period of time. It should be also assumed that the instantaneous flicker value will randomly vary over a
wide range, due to the random nature of the phenomenon. Hence the need for statistical assessment and
control of not only the disturbance level but also the observation period during which a given flicker level is
exceeded. The maximum flicker value is not taken into consideration since it may be too restrictive. The peak
value occurring in a short time interval does not provide information about the harmfulness of the
phenomenon.
Relations between numerical values defining flicker levels and their durations should be determined for the
purpose of statistical analysis. For this purpose the instrument determines, on the basis of the Block 4 output
signal S(t), two statistical indicators: the short-term flicker severityPst and the long-term flicker severityPlt.
These two quantities are dimensionless flicker severity indicators. Flicker severity Pst = 1 corresponds to the
perception threshold, i.e. the borderline of flicker which should be not exceeded in LV and MV networks in
order to avoid observer discomfort. Determination of the Pst indicator requires:
15
Measurement of instantaneous flicker levels and their classification according to their values (Figure
22a). The instrument can dynamically assign the number of classes (variation intervals of the Block 4
15
output signal) or change the class width while maintaining the constant number of classes .
Determining the cumulative probability function (CPF). Figure 22b shows an example of cumulative
probability function where, for the sake of presentation clarity, only a small number of classes are
distinguished. The cumulative probability function is a typical characteristic of ordered probabilities of
not exceeding specified values (levels) occurring in time. The shapes of CPF functions for different
types of voltage fluctuations differ between themselves so there is a need to formulate an
unambiguous, objective, and at the same time simple method for their interpretation and valuation.
Statistical measures such as mean value, standard deviation, or percentiles can be used for this
purpose.
Determination of the short-term and long-term flicker severity indicators.
If a flickermeter is used for power quality measurements, where large voltage fluctuations can occur, 16 bit
resolution and at least 512 logarithmic arranged classes are recommended [72].
Page 22
Figure 22Statistical analysis of voltage fluctuation measurement: (a) the method for determining the
3
duration of fluctuations with different values, the value Class 4 ( T4
) is given as an example; (b)
cumulative probability function (CPF) of the signal with values contained in specified classes ( D - total duration
of measurement) [40].
OBSERVATION PERIOD
The basis for determining flicker indicators should be the working cycle of a disturbing load. However, most of
the time there is not just a single type of disturbing load. A certain common measure of time should be found
that takes the wide diversity of disturbing loads into account. Two time intervals were adoptedtaking into
account also the visual perception physiology and a test of average observer sensitivity:
Short observation period of 10 minutes; it is a sufficiently long enough period of time to ensure that
short-duration, occasionally occurring voltage changes would not have substantial effect on the final
result of measurement and is also sufficiently short to enable a detailed description of the influence
of a disturbing load with short working cycle. If required, shorter measurement periods, e.g. 1 minute,
may also be used.
Long observation period of 2 hours; it is a period of time to sufficiently long to enable analysis of
industrial loads with long duty cycles, particularly those of random nature.
Two indicators give us a substantially different insight into the phenomenon of flicker and guarantee a
complementarity of the disturbance assessment at the measurement point.
SHORT-TERM FLICKER SEVERITY INDICATOR

It is determined from the relation (12) as a square of the sum of weighted levels obtained from the probability
distribution:
Pst
k P
i i
k0 ,1P0 ,1 k1P1 k3 P3 k10P10 k50P50
(12)
where:
k0,1 ,...., k50
are the weighting coefficients whose values result from adopted
calculation procedures. The appropriate selection of weighting coefficients allows achieving

Pst=1 for all points on the borderline characteristicFigure 15 [40]
Page 23
P0,1 ,...., P50
are the flicker levels (the Block 4 output signal values) for which the
probability of their not exceeding is determined.

For practical reasons, five levels of the so-called percentiles were considered sufficient; these are:
P0,1
coefficient k0.1 = 0.0314

P1
-flicker level not exceeded for 1% of the time during the observation period; weight
coefficient k1 = 0.052
P3
P10

P50
- flicker level not exceeded for 50% of the time during the observation period; weight
-flicker level not exceeded for 0.1% of the time during the observation period; weight
coefficient k50 = 0.08.

In some cases (primarily those due to switching operations in the power system), an abrupt change in the
percentiles values and a substantial change in the flicker indicator value may occur. In practice such cases
seldom occur, but they are nevertheless accounted for in the measurement method. Thus, in order to
determine the adopted levels, two additional points on the cumulative probability curve were taken into
account. In that manner the so-called smoothed values, with increased immunity to abrupt changes in the
voltage fluctuation sources operating conditions, were obtained. The suffix s in the formula indicates that
the given percentile is smoothed using the following equations:
P1 P1s ( P0,7 P1 P1,5 ) / 3

P3 P3s ( P2 ,2 P3 P4 ) / 3
P10 P10s ( P6 P8 P10 P13 P17 ) / 5
(13)
P50 P50s ( P30 P50 P80 ) / 3

where P0.7 ,..., P80 are flicker levels whose values are not exceeded for respectively 0.7% ,.., 80% of the time
during the observation period. The percentile P0.1 cannot change abruptly due to the 0.3 s time-constant
employed in the flickermeter and it therefore does need smoothing.
Different interpolation techniques are proposed [40, 120] in order to limit the computing time and number of
operations, as well as to increase the accuracy of instantaneous flicker value classification.
The statistical evaluation algorithm is used for determining the Pst = 1 characteristic for rectangular,
equidistant voltage changes (Figure 15). The UIE tests demonstrated that the majority of participants
considered voltage fluctuations corresponding to indicator Pst 1 as annoying.
Figure 23 shows example changes in the flicker indicator for a residential consumer supplied from a low
voltage network. After 24 hours, 144 Pst indicator values were obtained (1,008 for seven days). It is also
possible to use a 10-minute sliding measurement window, thus the Pst indicator value will be evaluated, e.g.
once a minute, thus the number of measurements per day will be increased to 1,440. The measurement
results therefore become less dependent on the initial point.
Page 24
Figure 23Example changes in the Pst and Plt (the heavy line), the dashed line indicates the P lt limit value.
LONG-TERM FLICKER SEVERITY INDICATOR

The 10-minute period, which is the basis for determining the short-term flicker indicator, is appropriate for
assessment of disturbances caused by the operation of individual loads, i.e. rolling mills, pumps, household
appliances, et cetera. Where the combined effect of several disturbing loads operating randomly is assessed,
or when a load with long duty cycle (e.g. an arc furnace) is considered, it is necessary to provide a long-term
assessment indicator. A limited set of 10-minute short-term severity values Pst is employed for this purpose.
This enables the definition of the so-called long-term flicker severity indicator:
1
N
3
Plt Pst3,i / N
i 1
(14)
where Pst,i are consecutive values of the short-term severity Pst. Commonly, N=12 is taken. That means the
long-term severity indicator is determined over the period of two hours as the cube root of twelve consecutive
short-term flicker severity readings.
The percentile CP95 (also CP99 or other agreed value) long-term flicker severity indicator is the numerical
measure of the supply quality at the specified point in the supply network most often adopted. Figure 23
shows an example of the changes over one-week in the long-term flicker severity Plt for a residential
consumer. For 95% of the observation time (one week) the flicker severity indicator value was 1.52, i.e. it
exceeded the limit level of 1.0. Thus, in terms of voltage fluctuation, the supply conditions of this consumer
are improper.
A drawback of this method of numerical disturbance description is that voltage fluctuations with different
levels of impact on consumers (different probability distribution of the Plt indicator) may take on the same
value of the CP95 percentile (Figure 24). The same value of the Plt indicator may occur for different sets of Pst
valuesfor instance the examples in Table 1.
Page 25
Figure 24Two different distributions of the Plt indicator with the same CP95 percentile value [21].
Table 1The values and number of Pst indicators for which Plt = 1.
THE NUMBER OF PST
INDICATORS WITH NONZERO VALUES
Pst value
10
11
12
2.29
1.82
1.59
1.44
1.34
1.26
1.20
1.14
1.10
1.06
1.03
1.00
E XAMPLE 1
Figure 25Schematic diagram of the analyzed circuit.

Figure 25 shows the schematic diagram of an example power circuit supplying two residential consumers with
the point of connection of a measuring instrument indicated. The consumer X was complaining of bulb flicker,
concurrent with the single-phase arc welding machine (4.8 kVA) operation in the consumer's Y neighboring
bodywork shop. A one-week recording has demonstrated that rms voltage values were contained within the
interval 230 V10% (Figure 26). Nevertheless the voltage fluctuation measurement has confirmed that the
consumer's X complaints were justifiedTable 2.
The long-term flicker severity indicator should satisfy the condition PLt 1 during any week. This condition was
not satisfied in phases L2 and L3Table 2. The quality of supply is therefore inadequate in terms of voltage
fluctuation.
In this event, a considerable reduction of voltage fluctuations was achieved by substituting the single-phase
welder with a three-phase automated welder: SN=5.3kVA, cos 0.92 , overload factor 1.1 (Figure 27)
Page 26
Figure 26An example of a one-week recording of rms voltage in phase L1 at the point of connection of the
consumer X (Figure 24)analogously in the other phases.
Figure 27Voltage fluctuations (measured by means of the P st indicator) in three phases caused by: (a) a
single-phase welder, (b) a three-phase welder.
Table 2Plt indicators and cumulative probability curves.
Plt INDICATOR
Plt CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY CURVE
Percent of time in one week during which the Plt indicator in phase L1 exceeds 12.38%.
Page 27
AN EXAMPLE OF POWER QUALITY FACTOR MEASUREMENTS IN A HV NETWORK

Measurements of power quality factors were performed in a supply system managed by a distribution system
operator. The system is connected with the 220 kV network by means of three autotransformers installed in
three substations: L (industrial and residential consumers), W (mainly industrial consumers) and S (in the
vicinity of a heat and power generating plant)Figure 28. The instruments measuring power quality factors
were installed at each of these three substations. The measurements were carried out for seven months.
Table 3 provides examples of the results of Pst indicator measurements: minimum, maximum, and average
values as well as the CP05, CP50, CP95, CP99 percentiles measured on the secondary sides of transformers
[17]. The last column details the percentage share of the entire measurement time during which the Pst
indicator value exceed the 0.8 level (the limit value recommended by the UIE for HV networks).
Transmission network
Measuring
instrument
Distribution network
Page 28
Figure 28Schematic diagram of the investigated supply network.

Table 3An example of Pst during one week of measurements (power supply system in Figure 28).
PHASE
Pst
min.
average
max.
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.17
0.17
0.17
2.99
3.18
2.88
CP05
T [%]
CP50
CP95
CP99
> 0.8
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.27
0.27
0.27
0.34
0.34
0.34
0.09
0.15
0.10
0.27
0.26
0.26
0.39
0.36
0.62
0.47
0.45
1.10
0.10
0.15
2.01
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.28
0.27
0.27
0.34
0.33
0.34
0.12
0.14
0.26
Measurement point W
L1
L2
L3
0.10
0.10
0.10
Measurement point L
L1
L2
L3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.28
0.27
0.32
6.95
51.64
55.85
0.18
0.17
0.17
Measurement point S
L1
L2
L3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.18
0.18
0.18
3.22
3.39
2.68
0.10
0.10
0.10
Figure 29An example of one week of changes in the Pst indicators of currents and values in the system phases
and their mutual correlation (measurement point W, phase L1, Figure 28) [17].
As shown in Figure 29, the correlation of changes in currents and phase voltages is weak, which is typical for
points between a transmission and distribution network. Figure 30 shows an example of a cumulative
probability curve CPF of the Pst indicator for the measurement period (seven months). Values greater than 0.6
are indicated as more than. Figure 32 shows an example of the cumulative probability curve CPF of the Plt
indicator for the measurement period (seven months). Values greater than 0.8 are indicated as more than.
Figure 30The cumulative probability curve CPF of the Pst indicator (measurement point W, Figure 28)an
example for phase L1, other phases analogously [17].
Page 29
Daily changes in the Plt indicator value are shown in Figure 31, and the Plt indicator measurement results
(minimum, maximum and average values, and the CP05, CP50, CP95, CP99 percentiles) are provided in Table 4.
The last column illustrates the percentage share of the entire measurement period during which the Plt
indicator value exceed the 0.8 level (as recommended by UIE as the HV network limit value).
Figure 31An example of the twenty-four hour characteristics of changes in the Plt indicator (measurement
point W) [17]
Table 4An example of Plt indicator values during one week of measurements (power supply systemFigure
28).
PHASE
Plt
min.
average
max.
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.18
0.18
0.18
1.37
1.27
1.26
CP05
T [%]
CP50
CP95
CP99
> 0.6
0.17
0.17
0.17
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.37
0.46
0.40
0.43
0.65
0.52
0.28
0.26
0.28
0.39
0.35
0.70
0.55
0.53
1.24
0.50
0.79
7.82
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.25
0.25
0.26
0.41
0.50
0.61
0.58
0.82
1.04
Measurement point W
L1
L2
L3
0.11
0.11
0.11
Measurement point L
L1
L2
L3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.29
0.27
0.34
2.19
2.27
5.46
0.20
0.18
0.18
Measurement point S
L1
L2
L3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.20
0.20
0.20
1.41
2.07
2.04
0.12
0.12
0.13
Figure 32The cumulative probability curve CPF of the Plt indicator (measurement point W, Figure 28)
example for phase L1, other phases analogously [17].
Figure 33 shows the variability of flicker indicators against the current changes in successive months of the
measurement.
Page 30
Jan.
Feb.
Mar. Apr.
May
June
July
Jan.
Feb.
Mar. Apr.
(a)
May
June
July
(b)
Figure 33Changes in the current and in flicker indicators percentiles: (a) Pst, (b) Plt, in successive months of the
measurement period (measurement point W, phase L1, Figure 28) [17].
The structural complexity of the flickermeters was, and to a certain extent it still is, (despite of amendments to
the standard [33]) the cause of some measurement problems. This manifests, among other things, in
comparative tests of the accuracy of flickermeter readings. Three classes of flickermeters [72] were defined in
order to minimize discrepancies between measurement results. Each of them was subjected to different tests
to determine measurement accuracy (Table 5).
Table 5Test specifications for flickermeters [72].
Test characteristics
Sinusoidal/rectangular voltage
changes,
Rectangular voltage changes
and performance testing,
including Block 5
Frequency changes
Test purpose
Tests the response characteristic
of the filters and scaling
parameters
Tests the classifier and statistical
evaluation algorithms
Tested values
Instantaneous
flicker level (Block 4
output signal)
Pst
Flickermeter class
F1 F2 F3
Tests the measuring circuit

(hardware)
Instantaneous
output signal)
Instantaneous
output signal)
Instantaneous
output signal)
Pst
F1
Pst
F1
Distorted voltage with

multiple zero crossings
Tests the correctness of the input

control circuit operation
Harmonics and
interharmonics in side bands
Tests the input circuit frequency

bandwidth
Phase jump
Tests the correctness of the input

control circuit operation, the
input frequency bandwidth
and the classifier
Tests the classifier and statistical
evaluation algorithms
Rectangular voltage changes

with the specified modulation
factor
*
dc, dmax, d(t)
F1
F2
F3
F1
F1
F1
F2
Tests the measurement

F1 F2
correctness according to [94]
*
This type of test is only required for Class F1 if the manufacturer specifies the instrument to be suitable for
standards [30] or [31] compliance testing.
**
For the purpose of the periodic calibration of the instrument, the boldfaced tests are applicable.
Page 31
Flickermeters in class F1 are general purpose instruments intended for power quality monitoring as well as
compliance testing. They may be subject to a wide range of input voltage variations, including frequency and
phase changes.
Class F2 flickermeters are intended for product compliance testing to standards [30] and [31] and to measure
voltages with constant frequency and phase, varying within limited range of values.
Class F3 flickermeters are intended for use in power quality surveys for compliance with electromagnetic
compatibility levels, diagnosing causes of failures, and other applications where low measurement
16
uncertainties are not required (corresponding to the power quality measurement equipment Class S) .
NEW CONCEPTS OF FLICKERMETER STRUCTURE

The plausibility of subsequent amendments to standard IEC 61000-4-15 [72], and/or the introduction of new
tests in order to select instruments which could be regarded as credible, is dubious. Hence new methods for
quantitative assessment of voltage fluctuations are sought [12, 133-136, 149]. From the perspective of these
investigations, two decades of standardization based on flickermeters and the UIE instrument cannot be
ignored.
A novel approach to the problem of voltage fluctuation measurement consists of substituting the instrument
composed of a number of function blocks with a single black box which maintains the input/output
characteristics of the classic flickermeter. These opportunities are offered by the use of artificial neural
networks. According to this concept, the instrument incorporates three basic components (Figure 34.) [136]:
Block Ithe input signal envelope demodulator

Block IIthe measuring block performing the voltage fluctuation classification process. The output
signal S(t) of block II represents the instantaneous flicker sensation, which corresponds with the Block
4 output signal in the classic UIE flickermeter.
Block IIIin which statistical analysis of the block II output signal S(t) is made. The analysis is
performed according to the procedure described in [72].
Figure 34The structure of a neural flickermeter [136].

The description of voltage changes vs. time, at the point of the instrument connection, utilizes the flickermeter
input signal spectrum. The input signal envelope (Block I) is obtained as a result of spectral distribution
(employing a so-called neural network). An example of the modulating signal reconstruction(a) sinusoidal
with parameters: fm=0.5 Hz, amplitude m=0.35 and (b) rectangular with parameters: fm =0.5 Hz, are shown in
Figure 35. The modulated signal is sinusoidal.
16
Instruments designed according to the first version of the standard IEC 61000-4-15 are categorized as class
F3.
Page 32
The training set for the neural network in the neural flickermeter (Block II) are signals obtained from the
instrument which passed the tests specified in Table 5Figure 36. For this purpose at the Block II input were
applied: the modulated signal envelope estimated in the Block I and the output signal of Block 4 of the
reference UIE flickermeter (Figure 36).
Figure 35Reconstruction by means of the neural

network of the flickermeter input signal modulated by
(a) sinusoidal and (b) rectangular signal with peak-topeak value of 1 V and frequency fm=0.5 Hz, [136].
Figure 36Example waveforms of input and output

signals, obtained from the reference instrument, used
in the learning process (the modulating signal
parameters: frequency fm=0.5 Hz, peak-to-peak value
1 V) [136].
Page 33
Figure 37Example of results of the neural network learning [136].

Example input and output signals of the neural flickermeter Block II and the output signal of Block 4 (Figure 16)
of the reference UIE flickermeter are shown in Figure 37. The results obtained as measured by the learning
process estimation error (being the difference of the root-mean-square of the neural network signal and the
reference signal), are correct [136].
The output signal of Block II subjected to statistical analysis in Block III according to the procedure described in
[33]. The tests of the neural flickermeter under both: the laboratory and industrial conditions confirmed its
useful metrological properties [136].
LOCATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION SOURCES

-
Along with the increasing deregulation of the electricity market, both the electricity suppliers and
consumers are interested in unambiguous assignment of responsibility for inadequate quality of
supply. This issue gains particular importance during the preparation of contracts for electric power
supply. It is the execution of these contracts that put into action the tariff rates and compensation
payments when there is a deterioration of power quality. Two particular issues are illustrated in
Figure 38.
Page 34

Figure 38Schematic diagram illustrating the problem of locating a source of electromagnetic disturbance.
-
The first issue concerns the location of the disturbance source. Voltage and current waveforms are
recorded at PCC. This data serves as the basis for establishing the responsibility and location
(supplier's or consumer's side) of the disturbance source.
The second issue concerns the quantitative evaluation of each partys contribution to the global
disturbance level. In practice it means the need for determining the individual emission level of a
specific load and comparing it with emission limits specified in standards or in the technical conditions
of connection.
Establishing a true and equitable solution for the above problems is not a trivial matter. Many
methods are usually proposed by the concerned parties and in general, only a few of them can be
expected to have practical significance. It is almost a certainty that they will differ widely in what the
individual parties deem to be a correct inference about the location of a disturbance source, the
magnitude of the error in determining the involved consumer's contribution to the global disturbance
level, the time needed for measurements, and the number and complexity of the required
instrumentation, to name just a few of the considerations.
In the case of a single dominant source of disturbance, its identification is usually an easy task. However in
extensive networks, where influences of several loads occur, the process of locating the dominant disturbance
source is more complex. It may happen that, in the event of strong voltage fluctuations in several branches of
a network, the flicker indicators measurements carried out in a power network node do not indicate the
presence of disturbing loads downstream from the measurement point. The reason for this situation is the
mutual compensation of voltage fluctuations from different sources.
Figure 39 shows a supply system in which voltage fluctuations are caused by two fluctuating loads. The global
disturbance level that may occur at the PCC as a result of their simultaneous operation is also considered.
Simulations were performed for two case scenarios.
C ASE A
Measurements of the short-term flicker severity Pst indicator were performed for different phase shift angles
between voltage fluctuations caused by two disturbance sources. The fluctuating loads generate sinusoidal (8
0
Hz) modulations of supply voltage with mutual phase shift () contained within the interval (0-180) and with
the modulation depth of 3%. When these sources were operated separately the Pst value was 8.48. For the
voltage (at PCC) modulated by co-phasal signals of both sources, the Pst value is the algebraic sum of flicker
severity indicators from individual modulations. The phase shift angle between modulating functions has a
substantial influence on the flicker severity indicator valueFigure 40.
Page 35
Figure 39Schematic diagram of the portion

of the analyzed power network [45].
Figure40The influence of the phase shift angle () between

modulating functions on the Pst value at PCC (Case A) [45].
C ASE B
o
In this investigationcarried out for the phase shift angle =0 the modulation frequency of one source of
fluctuations was varied within the interval (1-20) Hz. The other parameters were maintained as in the Case A.
Figure 41 shows the relation between Pst values at the PCC as measured by the flickermeter (solid, heavy line).
Figure 41Dependence of the measured and computed P st values on the modulating function frequency f m
(Case B). The figure also shows Pst indicator values determined according to the relationship (27) for different
values of the exponent m (Chapter 8.2) [45].
The above examples both demonstrate that the location of voltage fluctuation sources may sometimes be a
difficult task. The methods selected to solve this problem are presented in subsequent chapters.
METHOD 1: MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS DURING OPERATION OF A

FLUCTUATING LOAD AND AFTER TURNING IT OFF
The recorded quantities are the flicker severity Pst, changes in the reactive power Q and the active power P (for
the fundamental harmonic) at PCC. Measurement is carried out during the load operation and, where
technically feasible, after it is turned off.
Page 36
Figure 42An exemplary diagram of electric

steelworks power supply.
Figure 43An example of changes in the flicker

severity indicator and the active and reactive
powerphase L1 (in the configuration shown in
Figure 42).
Figure 43 shows the results of one week of measuring the flicker severity indicator Pst, active power P, and
reactive power Q (phase L1), performed in a steelworks during the operation of an arc furnace (Figure 42). The
dependence of flicker severity values on changes in power caused by the arc furnace operation is evident.
When the furnace is turned off, the reactive power at the measurement point is capacitive due to the
presence of fixed capacitor banks. The measurements confirm the conjecture that in the case under
consideration, the dominant load causing fluctuations is the arc furnace. The percentiles CP 95 (PstL1 = 7.1) and
CP 99 (PstL1 = 8.6) are indicated in Figure 43. If several loads are analyzed, the measurements have to be carried
out separately during the operation of each load.
METHOD 2: CORRELATION OF CHANGES IN THE FLICKER SEVERITY PST INDICATOR AND

CHANGES IN THE ACTIVE AND REACTIVE POWER
This method consists of the analysis of the correlation between changes in the reactive power Q (as well as the
active power P, particularly in low-voltage networks) and the flicker severity value Pst. It enables the defining of
the dominant source of disturbance and the assessing of the influence of a change in the load power on the
voltage fluctuation magnitude at the measurement point. An example is the presence of voltage fluctuations in
the 110 kV network caused by the operation of two electric steelworksFigure 44. The relationship between
changes in the flicker severity indicator and reactive power shows a stronger correlation for the arc furnace
installed in the steelworks A. It means this furnace has a decisive influence on the Pst level in the 110 kV
network.
Another version of this method involves simultaneous, synchronized measurements of voltage fluctuation
indicators at several points around the supply network and the analysis of their mutual correlation [138].
Page 37
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 44Voltage fluctuation at the point of connection PCC of two steelworks: (a) power supply circuit, (b)
changes in Pst and reactive powers QA and QB, (c) correlation characteristic [24].
METHOD 3: THE INFLUENCE OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS IN NETWORK BRANCHES ON THE

GLOBAL DISTURBANCE LEVEL AT PCC
The location of a dominant source of voltage fluctuations can be inferred from simultaneous measurements of
the voltage at supply busbars and the reactive component of currents in feeder lines (Figure 45). This method
is recommended primarily for HV networks.
The voltage change at PCC can be considered the sum of voltage drops across the supply network impedance
caused by the load changes in individual feeder lines:
U U1 U 2 ... Ui ... U n
(15)
Page 38
Figure 45An example of locating the voltage fluctuations source on the basis of current changes [22].
Voltage drops caused by operation of loads connected to the network feeder lines can be determined from the
network equivalent reactance at PCC and the reactive components of the currents to loads connected
downstream from the measurement point:
Ui X S ImI Li
where:
(16)
Ui
voltage drop caused by the change in the current in the i-th line
XS
the network equivalent reactance at PCC
ILi
the change in the current in the i-th line.
This method does not require that a precise value of the network equivalent reactance be known. It enables
the assessing of the influence of the load changes in individual branches on the global disturbance level at PCC.
The information to which line the dominant fluctuating load is connected is obtained from the synchronized
measurements of the voltage and currents. The next stage of the source identification requires the same
measurements carried out at the subsequent downstream point in the identified line.
METHOD 4: MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT CHANGES

It can be demonstrated that if the current fluctuations are smaller than voltage fluctuations, the dominant
disturbance source is located at the supplier's side. This can be established by measuring voltage and current
fluctuations (converted with respect to the common reference impedance). When the disturbance source is
located at the consumer's side, the current fluctuation factor should be larger (or even much larger) than
voltage fluctuation indicator [45].
METHOD 5: MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE CHANGES

This method for locating disturbing load employs the relative voltage change U (with respect to the nominal
voltage) [148]. A fluctuating load is connected at point i, whereas the current changes causing voltage
fluctuations do not occur in other branches of the network (Figure 46). The value of relative voltage change
increases with the increase in the distance from the source (node a) to the point of supply of the fluctuating
load (node i). A characteristic of voltage changes along the supply line can be plotted using measurement
results. Figure 46 shows example characteristics voltage changes U in the line supplying a fluctuating load
(between nodes bi) and in the selected branch which is not loaded with the source of disturbance (line b
m). If there is no increase in the voltage change, it means the fluctuating load is not supplied from the circuit
being investigated.
Page 39
Figure 46Equivalent diagram of a LV power network

(a) and characteristics of voltage changes in lines
between: (b) nodes bi and (c) nodes bm [148].
METHOD 6: EXAMINATION OF THE SLOPE OF U-I CHARACTERISTIC

The essence of this method can be illustrated considering two disturbance sources causing voltage fluctuations
at PCC: Case 1the source is connected at the point A; Case 2the source is connected at the point B (Figure
38). In each case the voltage fluctuations recorded at PCC will be associated with current changes of a different
nature [98]. At location A, the current value decreases during the voltage reduction and increases with the
increase of the voltage value (Figure 47a). At location B, the measured current increases during the voltage
reduction and decreases during the voltage increase (Figure 47b).
These observations are illustrated in Figure 47; each case is characterized by means of the linear correlation
between rms voltage and current values, measured at PCC. The positive slope of the line means that the
fluctuation source is located upstream, and the negative slope indicates that the source of fluctuation is
located downstream from the PCC, which also is the measurement point. This method also enables correct
inference in loop networks [98].
METHOD 7: EXAMINATION OF THE DIRECTION OF INTERHARMONICS POWER FLOW

Voltage fluctuations manifest themselves through the presence of interharmonics (Chapter 2.6). Thus the
problem of locating the voltage fluctuation source can be reduced to locating the source of interharmonics,
e.g. by determining the direction of a particular interharmonic power flow [97]. In practice, interharmonic
frequencies are continuously changing due to variable operating conditions of equipment being the sources of
these components. It is unlikely however, that two or more loads will generate interharmonics with the same
frequency at the same time.
Dominant interharmonic components in voltage and current waveforms recorded during voltage fluctuations
are determined by means of filters. Since they often appear in pairs (in sidebands adjacent to the characteristic
frequency) both of them should be taken into consideration in the assessment process. The sign (direction) of
power flow is determined for each particular interharmonic. The positive sign of interharmonic power means
the source of fluctuation is located at the supplier's side, the negative sign means the source is at the
Page 40
consumer's side. In the case of voltage fluctuations of random nature the effectiveness of this method is
limited.
The source of disturbance located upstream from the
measurement point
The source of disturbance located downstream

from the measurement point
(a)
Voltage fluctuation energy
Voltage fluctuation energy
(b)
Time [ms]
Time [ms]
(b)
(a)
Figure 47Location of the voltage fluctuation source: (a) the slope of the U-I characteristic; (b) correlation
between rms voltage and current values; (c) an example of fluctuation energy for a load operated in the on/off
5
mode, vertical axisfluctuation energy x 10 (Method 8).
Page 41
METHOD 8: EXAMINATION OF THE VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION POWER (ENERGY)

In principle, this method is similar to examining the direction of the interharmonics power flow. Analogously to
the active power definition in the time domain, it is defined as a so-called voltage fluctuation power. The
definition is based on the amplitude-modulated voltage uPCC(t) and current iPCC(t) waveforms recorded at PCC
[5-75,97]:
uPCC (t ) U(1) mU (t )cos(1) t
iPCC (t ) I (1) mI (t )cos(1) t I
(17)
where U(1), I(1) are values of fundamental components with angular frequency (1), mI(t), mU(t) are respectively
the current and voltage amplitude modulating functions, and I is the phase shift angle. On that basis is
defined as the so-called flicker powerp(t) [97]:
p t mUF t mIF t
(18)
For periodic modulating functions:
mUF t U mk cosk(1)t k
k 1
mIF t I mk cosk(1)t k
k 1
The voltage fluctuation power (average value of the flicker power) is:
1
1
U mk I mk
U mk I mk
p
t
d
t
m
t
m
t
d
t
cos
cosk
UF
IF
k
k
T0
T0
2
2
k 1
k 1
T
(19a)
Rapid current changes give rise to rapid voltage changes which are the cause of voltage fluctuations. Thus, in
0
0
practice, it is mainly two values of the phase shift angle that occur: k = 0 or 180 . Sporadic, short duration
transients causing the phase-shift angle variations over time can be eliminated by means of filters used in the
process of disturbance source location.
The voltage fluctuation power can be determined either on the basis of the complex spectrum of voltage and
current signals or using second order demodulators (analogous to those employed in the flickermeter). The
obtained signals are subsequently filtered by means of band-pass filters described in [72] (flickermeter Blocks
1-3), and it is on that basis that the instantaneous and average values of the voltage fluctuation power are
determined. This so-called pseudo power provides important information about two subjects:
The sign of indicates the location of the fluctuation sourceupstream or downstream of the PCC. A
positive sign denotes the direction of the conventional power flow coincident with the direction of
the fundamental component power flow. That means that the voltage modulation is correlated with
the current modulation function mI (t ) . That is to say, a reduction of the voltage value is associated
with current reduction. The source of disturbance is located upstream of the PCC, at the supplier's
side. A negative sign denotes opposite directions of the fundamental component active power flow
and the power flow . The negative correlation of voltage and current changes at PCC, i.e. a current
increase is associated with a voltage reduction. When the source of the disturbance is located
downstream from the PCC, the responsibility for causing the disturbance rests with the consumer.
During the examination of several consumers contributing the disturbance, the value of indicates
the dominant source of disturbance.
This method enables correct inference for consumers of an inductive nature. In the case of consumers of
capacitive nature and consumers with constant power, the inference may not be correct.
Page 42
A modification of this method is found in the alteration of the basis for the inference: it is the flicker energy
instead of the flicker power.
t
EF p t dt mUF t mIF t dt
(19b)
The sign of energy indicates the location of a disturbing load with respect to the measurement point (Figure
47).
STANDARDIZATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

Voltage fluctuation is a particular type of disturbance due to the fact that is manifests itself solely in lighting at
the low-voltage level. This observation is reflected in two principles adopted in the standardization:
The disturbance should be taken into consideration at the low-voltage level, for which the emission
and compatibility levels are defined.
Exceeding the limit level can be allowed in networks where no loads sensitive to voltage fluctuations
are connected. This may be of concern to some industrial networks which do not supply light sources.
Two percentiles, CP95 and CP99 are commonly used. During a week, 84 values of the Plt indicator were
obtained. In the first case, Plt value was not exceeded during 95% of the week. This is a statistical basis for
assessment. The second case will be (depending on the rounding: 0.99x84) the greatest or the penultimate
indicator. It will read off from the cumulative probability curve that may lead to a large Plt value. In each case
the relation:
Plt95 Plt99 Pst99 is satisfied. The mutual relation between these three indicators adopted in
standardization documents enables certain conclusions to be drawn. For instance, if

than
Plt99
Plt95 is significantly less
, it means that fluctuations occur within a limited time frame (up to 5%) during a week (but no
longer than four 2-hr intervals). When
Pst99 is much greater than Plt99
it means that voltage fluctuations are
caused by short incidents.
COMPATIBILITY, EMISSION, AND IMMUNITY LEVELS

Compatibility levels for voltage fluctuations in low and medium voltage networks according to IEC standards
17
[65, 67], are Pst = 1.0 and Plt = 0.8. IEC does not specify compatibility levels for HV and EHV networks.
Voltage fluctuation limits for equipment with rated current 16 A per phase and not subject to conditional
18
connection are set in standard EN 61000-3-3 [29]. Equipment which does not meet the standard provisions
during tests using reference impedances [73] can be tested for compliance with standard EN 61000-3-11 [30]
17
This value is selected on assumption that most (over 50%) of LV networks users will complain in the event of
this level being exceeded. At the same time, the Pst limit value 1.0 is questioned by many experts as
groundlessly too restrictive. This is because it is based on laboratory tests rather than on practical cases where
it is often exceeded without significant consequences [3].
18
The conditional connection requires that the impedance value at the point of connection (the demarcation
point between the public network and the consumer installation) was less than the reference impedance Zref
[68, 73].
Page 43
applicable to electrical equipment having a rated current 75A per phase and not subject to conditional
connection. Standard [69] is applicable to other equipment with rated current greater than 75A.
Immunity levels are considered in standard 61000-4-14 [32]; they are mainly concerned with immunity to
voltage changes.
VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Voltage characteristics are provided in, for example, standard EN 50160 [28]. This document defines the
voltage fluctuations indicator in average quality, low-voltage networks, and suggests indicator values which
should not be exceeded in MV and HV networks under normal supply system operating conditions.
Due to the local nature of this disturbance, CIGRE does not recommend any system indicators in HV networks.
These may be introduced in an area where a large number of fluctuating loads occur and measurements are
carried out at sufficiently large number of points.
Given the high variability of fluctuations, one-week measurements carried out at different times of the year,
are recommended for assessing supply conditions.
PLANNING LEVELS
Only approximate values of planning levels can be defined because they differ and depend on many factors,
including the network structure. Example values of planning levels for Pst and Plt in HV networks are provided
in Table 6.
The CP95percentile should not exceed planning levels (taking into account attenuation coefficients when
values are converted between networks with different voltages). The CP99 percentile may exceed the planning
level by taking into account a coefficient (e.g. 1.0-1.5) specified by the system operator depending on the
system and load characteristics.
CIGRE recommends that planning levels should also be specified for HV and EHV networks. These should be
determined by dividing voltage fluctuation limit levels in LV networks by the fluctuation transfer coefficient
between different voltage levels (Chapter 8).
Table 6Indicative planning levels for voltage fluctuation [106].
PLANNING LEVELS
Pst
Plt
LV
1.0
0.7
MV
0.9 (1.0)
0.7
HV and EHV
19
0.8 (0.8)
0.6
Values recommended by UIE are given in parentheses [145]
19
This value was chosen assuming that the fluctuation transfer coefficient between HV and MV networks is 1.
In practice, its value can be less than 1.
Page 44
PROPAGATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

Suppose you want to determine voltage fluctuation at the supply network point of a fluctuating load. Two
cases can be distinguished:
The point in question is located at a large electrical distance from other fluctuation sources and it can
be assumed that the disturbance level at this point does not depend on emissions from other
fluctuating loads.
The fluctuation level at the point being considered is in effect the summation of disturbances from
several different fluctuating loads connected in a short distance, thus their mutual influences should
be taken into account.
PROPAGATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS EMITTED BY A SINGLE FLUCTUATING LOAD

Voltage fluctuations generated at one point in a network propagate in the power system and disturb the
operation of even distant loads. The quantity, which characterizes the system capability for disturbance
propagation is the so-called flicker transfer coefficient ( TPst ), which for two distant points of a power supply
20
network, e.g. A and P (Figure 48) can be defined as :
Figure 48Propagation of voltage fluctuations in a radial network.
TPst PA
Pst (A)
Pst (P)
The basis for estimating voltage fluctuation propagation using the
(20)
TPst coefficient is illustrated in Figure 48.
The dependence of attenuation upon frequency and types of connected loads are disregarded and the system
equivalent impedances are assumed constant.
A fluctuating load, emitting voltage fluctuations measured by means of the Pst indicator, is connected at point
P, while steady loads are connected at other pointsA, B, C, and D. The voltage fluctuation level decreases
with the decrease in the network equivalent impedance, counting from the emission point (P) towards the
20
The Pst values used in the formula (20) are not applicable to percentiles. Estimation of the flicker transfer
coefficient with reference to statistic measures (CP95 and CP99) is possible solely in the event of a strong
correlation between voltage fluctuations measured at points on different voltage levels.
Page 45
impedanceless source of supply. The voltage fluctuation level at point A can be estimated according to
relation:
Pst (A) Pst (P)
ZA
S (P)
Pst (P) SC
Z A Z AB Z BP
SSC (A)
(21)
Hence the flicker transfer coefficient:
TPst PA
Pst (A)
ZA
Pst (P) Z A Z AB Z BP
(22)
A consumer supplied at point B experiences voltage fluctuations:
Pst (B) Pst (P)
Z A Z AB
Z A Z AB Z BP
(23)
and in this case the flicker transfer coefficient value is:
TPst PB
Pst (B)
Z A Z AB
Pst (P) Z A Z AB Z BP
(24)
Consumer D connected at the point located at another feeder line experiences the same voltage fluctuations
as occur at point A. The flicker transfer coefficient value is
TPst PD
TPst DA 1 :
Pst (D) Pst (A) Pst (D)
TPst PA TPst DA TPst PA

Pst (P) Pst (P) Pst (A)
(25)
The considerations given above mainly concern the case of voltage fluctuation propagation from the point of a
fluctuating load connection towards the supply source. It is evident that in this case the flicker transfer
coefficient depends on the quotient of short-circuit capacities (equivalent impedances) at the considered
points.
A consumer connected at point C, located downstream from the fluctuation source (as seen from the supply
source) may, in the worst case, experience voltage fluctuations of the same magnitude as at the fluctuating
load terminals. Consequently, in this case the flicker transfer coefficient may have the value:
TPstPC
Pst (C) Pst (P)
1
Pst (P) Pst (P)
(26)
In practice, voltage fluctuations are attenuated when travelling towards a network with a lower voltage. The
attenuation effect depends on several factors. It has been demonstrated, e.g. [40]), on the basis of many
measurements that voltage fluctuations generated in HV and EHV networks are often significantly reduced in
MV and LV networks. The degree of attenuation largely depends on the presence of rotating loads in these
networks, and it increases with the increase of the rotating loads power and transformers' loading. The
attenuation also increases with the increase in the voltage modulation frequency. This effect is associated with
attenuation of interharmonics in sidebands adjacent to the frequency 50 Hz. The greater the distance the
interharmonic components are from the fundamental frequency, the stronger the attenuation [141]. At
present there are no analytic methods for estimating the propagation coefficients between networks with
Page 46
different voltage levels. Empirically determined values [40] are used for approximate calculations from EHV
network to HV network~ 0.8; from HV network to MV network~ 0.9 (hence from EHV network to MV
network~ 0.72); and from MV network to LV network~ 1. Exemplary values of flicker transfer coefficients
are listed in Table 7.
Transfer coefficients can be determined empirically from simultaneous measurements of the Pst indicator at
both sides of e.g. a HV/MV transformer, as in Figure 49. Noticeable uncorrelated voltage fluctuations are
generated by another fluctuating load connected at the MV side.
Table 7Exemplary values of flicker transfer coefficients (several arc furnaces are operated at the 220 kV level)
[106].
TPst;AB
VOLTAGE LEVEL
Z 220 kV towards 70 kV
Z 70 kV towards 15 kV
Z 15 kV towards 230 V
0.82
0.91
0.98-1.0
NOTE: Similar relationships apply to Plt indicator
Figure 49The dependence of Pst indicators measured at two sides of a HV/MV transformer [36].
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS EMITTED FROM SEVERAL SOURCES

A general, empirical relationship for the global short-term flicker indicator value caused by several emission
sources takes the form:
Pst m Pstmj
Plt m Pltmj
(27)
where Pstj (Pltj) are flicker indicators from several individually, independently operated disturbance sources [40]
(Figure 41). The factor m takes values depending on the fluctuation source characteristic:
m = 4 used for summation of voltage fluctuations from arc furnaces which are operated in a
manner that precludes simultaneous meltdown
m = 3 commonly used for most types of voltage changes in the case where the likelihood of
simultaneous operation is limited
m = 3.2 used for the linear portion of the Pst = 1 curve (Figure 15)
Page 47
m = 2 used if a coincidence of several sources operation is possible, e.g. simultaneous operation of

several arc furnaces or continuous operation of several wind power plants connected at a short
distance
m = 1 used for summation of coincident voltage changes (strong probability of simultaneous
operation of fluctuating loads)
Empirical studies have demonstrated that the summation law which best matches the measurement results
depends upon the value of the percentile used for the disturbance assessment [25]. For instance, in the case of
two arc furnaces, the summation is almost linear (m = 1) up to the probability level (p) equal 50%; for p75% it
becomes quadratic and for p90% it takes the third power form. It is very difficult to formulate summation law
for p95%; the measured fluctuation level is almost exclusively caused by the most disturbing load (m 4).
Thus, for the purposes of evaluation of voltage fluctuation (CP95 or CP99), the cubic summation law yields a
conservative assessment [90].
It is often convenient to substitute the Pst indicator with a severity indicator Ast [70] defined as
Ast Pstm . The
advantage of this substitution is simplification of calculations. This method of analysis, employed in several
countries [126], yields a linear relationship used for evaluation of the global disturbance generated by multiple
sources of fluctuations:
Ast Asti
(28)
Moreover, considering that the long-term flicker indicator Plt is obtained as a cube root of the average of third
powers of Pst indicator values, it can also be expressed using the severity indicator Alt:
Alt Plt3
1
N
3
sti
1
N
(29)
sti
Linear summation may also be employed for evaluation of the long-term equivalent severity indicator
Alt t
caused by several sources operation:
Alt Alti
(30)
It should be borne in mind that the value Ast is not linearly dependent on relative voltage changes as is the case
of Pst. Thus the usefulness of the presented flicker severity indicators depends on the problem being
considered.
Table 8 provides the values of compatibility levels and planning levels for the introduced indicators.
Table 8Compatibility levels and recommended planning levels for flicker severity indicators [70]
COMPATIBILITY LEVELS
Ast
Alt
LV and MV
1.0
0.5
PLANNING LEVELS
MV
0.73
0.3
NV and EHV
0.5
0.2
NOTE: The provided values are applicable assuming that there is no attenuation during the disturbance
transfer between HV/MV and MV/LV networks.
Page 48
PROPAGATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS IN MESHED NETWORKS

The method described as an appropriate tool for assessment of voltage fluctuations in radial networks is
unsuitable for the phenomenon assessment in extensive meshed networks with loops. The problem then
reduces to the case of examining mutual interaction of two fluctuating loads connected to two different
busbars m and n in a meshed network (Figure 50).
The impedance model of a power system, also used for determining relationships between current and voltage
changes at nodes m and n, can be based on the techniques employed for short-circuit loops modeling:
Figure 50Propagation of voltage fluctuations in meshed networksan example of two loads connected to
two different busbars.
U
m
U n
... ...
U m ... Z mm
U n ... Z nm

...
... ...
...
...
Z mn
Z nn
...
...
... I m
... I n
...
I m
I n
...
...
(31)
It follows from equation (31) that the voltage change at busbars m caused by the current change I m
depends on the impedance Z mm . Also, the effect of the current change I m in line n is determined by the
impedance Z mn . Considering the linearity of flickermeter readings, the short-term flicker indicator
busbars m can be converted into the
Z
Pst,n Pst,m mn
Z mm
Pst
Pst at
level at busbars n according to:
(32)
The simplified approach presented is based on the short-circuit analysis and is correct if quotients X/R are not
significantly different for all the system components and if within the considered range of voltage changes the
dependence of the phenomenon on the frequency changes is not taken into account. If this condition is not
satisfied, the complex values of the system equivalent impedances and phase angles of current changes should
be accounted for. Since the effect of changes in the phase angle on the voltage fluctuation level is essentially
insignificant, therefore further calculations are used solely for the moduli values obtained from (32). Other
methods, based on the time-domain analysis, are also employed.
Page 49
TECHNICAL CONDITIONS OF CONNECTION

The consumer is responsible for maintaining the disturbance emission below the limit value specified by the
electricity supplier. The supplier is responsible for coordination of emission levels under normal supply
conditions, according to regional or national requirements. The global disturbance emission from all
fluctuating loads shall not exceed the planning level.
The flickermeter enables evaluation of voltage fluctuations emitted from existing installations. An inherent
difficulty is encountered in prediction of flicker indicators at the design stage. Attempts to solve that problem
may consist in modeling the characteristics of load changes and of voltage changes and employing a virtual
flickermeter model.
If a load similar to the considered one exists, then an alternative method consists in measuring the Pst indicator
for the existing location and scaling its value by the quotient of the network impedances for the existing and
designed location:
Pst,B
ZB
Pst,A
ZA
where:
(33)
Pst,Ais the flicker indicator measured at point A of the network with short-circuit impedance
ZA, at which the existing fluctuating load is connected
Pst,Bis the estimated flicker indicator for an analogous fluctuating load, which connection is
planned at the point with the short-circuit impedance ZB
The empirical relationship which enables the prediction of the voltage fluctuation level caused by a designed
arc furnace has been derived from the measurements performed in the past:
Pst95% K st
where:
SSCp
(34)
SSC
SSCpthe short-circuit power of the furnace (during three-phase short circuit between
electrodes)
Kstcharacteristic flicker emission factor of the arc furnace. Its value can be estimated on
the basis of measurements performed for arc furnaces of comparable powers and operated
under conditions similar to those being considered. For AC arc furnaces, the value of this
factor is contained within the interval 52 to 135. For 230 V networks, in which voltage
fluctuations occur due to connection of an arc furnace, the Kst factor values should be taken
from the interval (64-75) [111].
In practice, the actual voltage fluctuation level in soft networks may often be higher than inferred from the
formula (34). This is due to unstable arc burning conditions. On the other hand, a higher than nominal voltage
magnitude occurring at the PCC and loads connected in parallel may cause the actual short-circuit capacity SSC
to be higher than that determined from calculations. This reduces the fluctuation level. A compensator should
be installed if the estimated voltage fluctuation level exceeds the limit value.
Report [70] provides guidelines for the assessment of emission levels for fluctuating loads connected to public
supply systems and defines the voltage fluctuation individual emission level. It is the value of the increase in
voltage fluctuation level caused at the point of evaluation by the considered installation. It should be lower
than the limit emission level determined according to the procedure provided in the Report. The document
does not specify how the emission level should be measured and evaluated. Due to the existing flicker
Page 50
background, the voltage fluctuation level from additional loads may not always be easily determined from
simple voltage measurements at the considered point. The document recommends performing at least one
week of measurements in order to compare the global voltage fluctuations caused by a fluctuating load/group
of loads with the limit emission level specified by the system operator. The percentiles
Pst 99% and Plt 99% should
satisfy the conditions:
Pst 99% should not exceed the emission limit level Pst(E)i
Plt 99% should not exceed the emission limit level Plt(E)
.
i
EMISSION LIMIT FOR VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

Standard [70] formulates an algorithm that facilitates the system operator's decision making procedure
21
regarding the connection of a fluctuating load to MV and HV public supply systems . The basis for the adopted
algorithm is the voltage fluctuation planning level specified by the supplier.
Stage 1: Simplified evaluation of emission level
22
There are no emission standards concerning voltage fluctuations for MV equipment. This is primarily due to
the wide range of rated voltages (1-35 kV) and the lack of internationally accepted reference impedance
applicable for this voltage level. Connection of fluctuating loads in these networks can be made without
further analysis if changes in the apparent power S at PCC are limiteddepending on the number of relative
changes per minute (r) (Table 9). The same criterion is applicable to loads connected to HV and EHV systems.
In this case usually one value is adopted: S / SSC max 0,1% .
A procedure to individually determine the allowed voltage fluctuation emissions is applied to consumers that
do not meet these criteria. Thus, for a given network, the total emissions caused by consumers should be
determined, taking into account the adopted voltage fluctuation planning levels.
Table 9Stage 1: Limits for the relative changes in reactive power in a MV network [70].
Number of voltage changes per minute r
-1
min
r > 200
10 r 200
r < 10
K=(S/SSC)max
%
0.1
0.2
0.4
NOTEThe apparent power variations S may be lower, equal, or higher than the rated apparent power SN
21
The concept of a three-stage procedure for acceptance of connection is also employed for other
disturbances, e.g. harmonics and unbalance.
22
The procedure for acceptance of LV loads connection is provided in standards [69, 71, 29, 30]. In the first
stage, the load must be compliant with the emission requirements of all components in the installation. The
simplified evaluation in the first stage must also meet the condition Si < Smin (with Si the demand power and
Smin the minimum short circuit power for a given supply network specified by the manufacturer). In
addition, the change in the installation apparent power with respect to short-circuit power at the point of
power consumption should meet the conditions specified in Table 9.
Page 51
of the considered fluctuating load, e.g. in the case of a motor start S = (3-8)SN.
Stage 2: emission limits relative to actual system characteristics
MV networks
The procedure is based on several simple assumptions 69, 71, 29, and 30
The general summation law (relationship 27) can be employed using the adopted exponent m (most
commonly, but not always, m = 3 is usedthis value is adopted for further considerations to illustrate
the procedure).
Voltage fluctuations generated at given voltage level propagate downstream to a lower voltage
network with some attenuation (transfer coefficient usually lower than 1).
Contribution of voltage fluctuations generated at lower voltage levels to the global disturbance level
at the considered point is essentially negligible (due to the short circuit capacity increase with the
increase in the voltage level and to the usually low mutual correlation of voltage changes).
The allowed global voltage fluctuation level in MV network
Pst(E)MV (or Plt(E)MV ) caused by the analyzed loads
connected at that voltage level is determined by the relationship (analogously for Plt):
Pst(E)MV 3 Pst(P)MV
T
3
3
Pst HV, MV
(P) 3
st HV
(35)
Pst(P)MV , ( Plt(P)MV )
planning level in the MV network,
Pst(P)HV , ( Plt(P)
)
HV
planning level in the HV network,
TPst HV, MV
flicker transfer coefficient from HV network to MV network determined
where:
23
by simulation or measurements; the value of this coefficient is less than one and decreases
with is the number of induction motors connected at the MV level.
The global allowed voltage fluctuation emission limit is allocated to individual consumers accordingly to their
share in the total network load. This criterion was adopted due to the fact that the demand power of a
consumer is often linked with the consumers share in the investment costs of the power system. This method
ensures that the global disturbance level caused by emissions from all consumers connected to network will
not exceed the planning level.
(E)
Thus the individual emission level of the i-th consumer supplied from MV network ( Pst i ) is determined by the
relationship (analogously for
Pst(E)i Pst(E)MV 3
23
Si
SMV
Plt(E)i ):
(36)
Voltage fluctuations may also be transferred from another MV system for which intermediate planning
levels have been determined.
Page 52
where:
Si
the i-th consumer demand power (it can also be a source of energy),
SMV
the sum of all consumers' agreed powers in MV network including
provision for their possible load growth. This can also be a HV/MV transformer power (the
contribution from distributed energy sources might also be included according to their actual
influence on the short-circuit capacity level, as well as the fact that they often are sources of
voltage fluctuations).
For consumers having low demand powers, this procedure may yield impractically low emission levels.
(E)
(E)
Minimum emission level values are adopted in that case: ( Pst i )min = 0.35 and ( Plt i )min = 0.25.
The non-simultaneous operation of fluctuating loads can be accounted for in the relationship (36) and in
further formulas determining individual emission levels by introducing the coincidence factor FSN1. The
relationship (36) then takes the form:
Pst(E)i Pst(E)MV 3
Si
SMV
1
FMV
(37)
(B)
It may occur that the flicker background ( Pst MV ) is higher than that resulting from the relationship
3
SMV SB / SMV , where S
is the power of the already connected fluctuating loads responsible for
voltage fluctuations with the magnitude
Pst(B)
. In order to avoid exceeding the planning levels in the
MV
procedure of allocation of individual emission levels, in the relationship (35) (and in analogous)
be replaced by
P P , and in the relationship (36) S

(P) 3
stMV
(B) 3
stMV
MV
should be replaced by
Pst(P)MV should
SMV SB .
HV/EHV networks
For the purpose of evaluating voltage fluctuation in HV networks, it is assumed that the share of each
consumer depends solely on the demand power of consumers supplied from that network. Thus the value of
the quotient
Si / StHV is of key importance. For simple supply systems the power S
is:
St Sout
(Figure 51a). In this case it is defined as the sum of power flows (expressed in MVA) leaving the considered
busbars (including provision for future load growth). If this conservative approach leads to unrealistic emission
levels, or if important fluctuating installations are likely to be connected in the vicinity of the considered
substation, then a more detailed method for determining the power St should be employed (Figure 51b).
Accordingly, the power St is estimated from the relationship:
StHV StHV1 K21 StHV2 K31 StHV3 ...

3
(38)
Page 53
(a)
(b)
Figure 51The method for determining St for: (a) a simple system; (b) a meshed system with loops [70]
StHV1 ,StHV2 ,StHV3 ,...
here:
powers at nodes of the considered network determined
according the approximate procedure; the terms which cause smaller than 10% changes in
power St are usually neglected in the summation.
K2 1 , K31 ,...
coefficients of mutual influence of individual nodes: a voltage change
with per unit value 1 applied at node 2 causes the voltage change K2-1 at node 1, et cetera.
The values of these coefficients are determined by simulation or measurements.
24
Allowed individual emission levels can determined from the relationship :
Pst(E)i Pst(E)HV 3
Si
S HV
3
Plt(E)
Plt(E)
i
HV
Si
SHV
(39)
This procedure may yield impractically low emission levels for consumers having low demand powers.
(E)
(E)
Minimum emission level values are adopted in that event: ( Pst i )min = 0.35 and ( Plt i )min = 0.25 [7070].
Stage 3: Acceptance of higher voltage fluctuation emission levels on a conditional basis
Under some circumstances, a consumer may expect acceptance of higher emission levels than those allowed
in Stage 2. This is because, among other reasons, not all consumers have fluctuating loads, not all of them are
emitting fluctuations at the same time, some of them are exceeding the levels determined in the Stage 2 for
only over very short periods of time, et cetera. Consequently, a portion of emission is released to be utilized by
other consumers, thus voltage fluctuations can be apportioned to different voltage levels. In such a situation,
the consumer and the supplier may agree to special conditions of electric power supply.
Figure 52 shows the diagram of the voltage fluctuation evaluation procedure for the purpose of technical
conditions of connection.
FLICKER TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS IN THE PROCEDURE OF EMISSION LEVELS ALLOCATION

Using the recommended planning levels specified in Table 6 and assuming the transfer coefficient between HV
and MV system equal 0.9 (Table 7), the global contribution of all MV loads can be estimated from the
relationship [7070]:
3
(P)
Pst(E)MV 3 Pst(P)MV TPstHV,
MV PstHV
where:
24
Pst(P)MV , Pst(P)HV
3 0,93 0,93 0,83 0,71
(40)
Pst planning levels for MV and HV systems, respectively
This procedure can be employed for determination of individual allowed emission levels at each voltage
level.
Page 54
TPstHV,MV
flicker transfer coefficient towards MV network from a system at a
higher voltage level, the value depends on the system and loads' characteristics.
Similarly for a LV network, assuming the planning level is equal to the compatibility level (i.e.
Pst 1 ) and the
transfer coefficient between MV and LV is unity, the global contribution of all LV loads can be estimated from
the relationship:
Pst(E)LV 3 Pst(P)LV
(P)
3
TPstMV,
LV Pst MV
3 1.0 3 1.0 3 0.9 3 0.65
(41)
THE USE OF TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS TO RE -ALLOCATE UNUSED EMISSION CONTRIBUTIONS

Assuming, for the purpose of determining the global contribution at MV level, that the transfer coefficient is
equal to unity and performing analogous calculations as in (40), we obtain:
Pst(E)MV 3 Pst(P)MV
(P)
3
TPstHV,
MV Pst HV
3 0.9 3 1.0 3 0.8 3 0.60
(42)
Page 55
Figure 52Diagram of the voltage fluctuation evaluation procedure for the purpose of decision on technical
conditions of connection [70].
Comparing this result with the previous value equal to 0.71, it is evident that taking the transfer coefficient
equal 0.9 would allow an additional voltage fluctuation emission of 0.11 at MV level. Assuming that the
satisfying MV planning level is 0.60, this means that the unused contribution can be re-allocated to HV by
increasing the planning level at HV according to:
Pst(E)MV 0,6 3 Pst(P)MV
3
PstHV,MV
(P) 3
stHV
0.6 0.9 0.9 Pst HV

3
(P)
Pst(P)HV 0.89
(43)
When needed, an increase in the planning level may allow more emission in the HV network.
RE-ALLOCATION OF UNUSED EMISSIONS BETWEEN NETWORKS WITH DIFFERENT VOLTAGE LEVELS

This is the case where fluctuating installations, which can be a potential source of fluctuations at the
considered voltage level, are not capable of using the allowed emission
Pst(E) . It is therefore possible to rePage 56
allocate the unused emission contributions to other voltage levels and revise existing planning levels. For
example, no significant fluctuating loads are connected to LV network, thus the coefficient of contribution to
global emission of all loads at this voltage level is:
Pst(E)LV 0,5 . Assuming a unity transfer coefficient between
MV and LV networks (Table 7), the allowable MV planning level could be increased to the value:
Pst(E)LV 0.5 3 Pst(P)LV
0.5 3 13 13 Pst(P)MV
(P)
3
TPstMV,
LV Pst MV
0.5 3 Pst(P)LV
3
(P)
TPstMV,
LV Pst MV
Pst(P)MV 0.96
(44)
Assuming that global emission from all loads connected to MV network will not exceed
Pst(E)MV 0.5 , the
planning level in HV network (taking transfer coefficient between HV and MV network to be equal 0.9Table
7) can be increased to the value:
Pst(E)MV 0.5 3 Pst(P)MV
(P)
3
TPstHV,
MV Pst HV
0.5 0.96 0.9 Pst HV

3
(P)
Pst(P)HV 1.01
(45)
If this reallocation process will be continued further by assuming the global emission from all loads in EHV
network is not greater than
Pst(E)HV 0.5 , the planning level in EHV network (assuming transfer coefficient
between HV and MV network equal 0.8Table 11) can be increased to the value:
Pst(E)HV 0.5 3 Pst(P)HV
(P)
3
TPstEHV,
HV Pst EHV
0.5 1.01 0.8 Pst EHV

3
(P)
Pst(P)EHV 1.21
(46)
The obtained planning level in EHV network is significantly greater than the indicative value provided in Table
6. It is the result of re-allocation of unused contributions of voltage fluctuation emissions.
EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION EMISSION LEVEL

The short-term and long-term flicker indicators Pst and Plt can be determined not only by means of direct
measurement using a flickermeter but also employing the analytical method for examining time variation of
the rms voltage shape or voltage waveform envelope. This approach primarily concerns emissions from loads.
EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS AND VOLTAGE CHANGE EMISSIONS FROM LOWAND MEDIUM POWER LOADS
Reference [29] specifies the basic requirements concerning assessment and limitations of voltage changes and
flicker emission for low-voltage loads supplied from public distribution systems. It specifies, among other
things, the maximum level of voltage changes produced by equipment supplied from a network with the
equivalent impedance equal to the reference impedance (Figure 53). All electrical and electronic equipment
with rated current up to 16 A, (220-250) V intended for connection to a public low-voltage distribution
network, is included in the specification.
Page 57
Figure 53The circuit for testing voltage fluctuations emission in single-phase and three-phase supply
networks [29].
Alternative evaluation methods are specified in Table 10. All types of voltage fluctuations cannot be
quantitatively evaluated from a direct measurement using a flickermeter. This method is considered to be
reference method.
Table 10Methods for evaluation Pst [29].
TYPE OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS
All types of voltage fluctuations (on-line evaluation)
All types of voltage fluctuations, for which U(t) is defined
Voltage change characteristics according to Table 11 with an
occurrence rate less than one per second (the use of shape factors
F)
Rectangular voltage changes occurring in equal time intervals
(Figure 15)
THE METHOD FOR Pst INDICATOR

EVALUATION
Direct measurement
Simulation
Direct measurement
Analytical method
Simulation
Direct measurement
Pst = 1 curve
DETERMINATION OF THE RELATIVE VOLTAGE CHANGE D

The basis for quantitative assessment of voltage fluctuations at the equipment under test terminals are
voltage changes, i.e. the difference U of arbitrary two consecutive rms phase voltage values U(t1) and U(t2)
(Figure 54):
U = U(t1)U(t2)
(47)
(a)
(b)
Figure 54(a) rms voltage change characteristic, and (b) relative voltage change characteristic (U(t)rms
voltage change characteristic; UCsteady state change; Umaxmaximum voltage change; U(t)voltage
change characteristic) [29].
Page 58
The rms voltage values U(t1) and U(t2) are measured or calculated. The voltage change U is caused by the
change in the voltage drop across the reference impedance Zref, due to fundamental input current change of
25
the equipment under test I. The relative voltage change is determined by the relationship :
D = U/UN
(48)
Calculations are performed for rms voltage values evaluated for each successive half-cycle.
The values of d(t), dC, and dmax (Figure 54b) obtained by this method are criteria quantities for assessment of
voltage fluctuation emission from the equipment under test under normal operating conditions (excluding
26
abnormal operating conditions) [29].
Where the relative voltage change d(t) is known, the Pst indicator can be determined using either a
flickermeter computer model (simulation method) or using the analytical method.
ANALYTICAL METHOD
In many cases, the time characteristic of voltage changes produced by a load is known or predictable. In such
cases, voltage fluctuation level can be assessed at the design stage.
The flicker perception characteristic Pst = 1 shown in Figure 15 [29] can be used for the evaluation of shortterm flicker indicators for rectangular, equidistant voltage changes d of the same amplitude. The limit
amplitude value of voltage changes, corresponding to Pst = 1 for the given rate of repetition, is dlim. The shortterm flicker indicator value corresponding to the voltage change d is:
Pst
d
d lim
(49)
Using the Pst=1 curve, the voltage change characteristic and the known relative voltage change d (Figure 54)
the short-term flicker severity Pst for non-rectangular voltage changes can be predicted from the relationship:
d
F
Pst
d P 1
st
[29]
(50)
where d Pst 1 is the relative voltage change value corresponding to Pst=1 for a given frequency, read out from
27
the Pst=1 curve, and F is a shape factor read out from characteristics provided as an example in Table 11 . The
25
Approximate formulas for relative voltage change are a balanced three-phase load d % S / SSC 100 ; a
load connected between two phases d % 1,5S / SSC 100 ; and a load conncted between the phase and
neutral conductor d % 3S / SSC 100.
26
According to [69] (for equipment with rated current 16 A per phase) and [30] (for equipment having a rated
current 75A per phase), the maximum supply network impedance should be determined for each piece of
equipmenttaking into account its mode of operation and power demand. The aim is to avoid exceeding the
limit levels specified in [29]. A supplier is obliged to give consent to connection upon verification that the
equivalent impedance at the point of connection is not greater than the maximum impedance specified by the
manufacturer.
Page 59
shape factor converts a relative voltage change characteristic d(t) into a flicker equivalent step voltage change
(Fdmax). For step voltage changes the step factor is F = 1.
A flicker impression time tf expressed in seconds corresponds to each relative voltage

change:
Table 11Shape factors for selected typical voltage change characteristics (based on [70, 30])
CHARACTERISTIC
VOLTAGE CHANGES
(a) Shape factor F for rectangular and triangular

voltage change characteristics
(b) Shape factor F for double-step and ramp-voltage

change characteristics
(c) Shape factor F for sinusoidal and triangularvoltage change characteristics
27
Voltage swells are normally not represented in the characteristics. However, the fluctuation prediction is
equivalent to that of the voltage reductions.
Page 60
(d) Shape factor F for aperiodic voltage change

characteristics
tf 2,3F d max
3,2
where: dmax
(51)
the maximum relative voltage change expressed as a percentage of the nominal voltage.
The shape factor may be deduced from data in Table 11, provided that the relative voltage change
characteristic matches a characteristic shown in the Table. If so, the maximum relative voltage change dmax and
time T in milliseconds should be determined.
The sum of the flicker impression times of all measurement periods within a total interval of time Tp, is the
basis for the Pst and Plt evaluation. If the time intervals are chosen according to the recommended observation
periods (10 min or 2h), the Pst and Plt indicators are determined by relationships:
1 / 3 ,2
tf
Pst
10min
tf
Plt
2h
1 / 3 ,2
(52)
ESTIMATION OF THE PST INDICATOR FOR APERIODIC VOLTAGE CHANGES

In many cases voltage changes do not occur in a continuous and periodic manner over the 10-minute time
interval during which the Pst indicator is measured, e.g. during an electric drive start, steady state operation,
shut down for some time, and then restart. For the purpose of evaluation of Pst values in such cases, the
characteristics shown in Table 11 [70] are used. These characteristics are based on an unequal duty cycle
square wave modulation with a relative voltage change of maximum 2%. The Pst indicator can be estimated
from:
d
Pst Pst,2%
2
where d is the actual relative voltage change expressed in percentage and
(53)
Pst,2% is the value read from Table
11d for the considered voltage change described by t1 and t2.

The relationship (53), together with (54), enable estimation of the voltage fluctuation level for non-periodic
disturbances of arbitrary shape:
d
Pst F Pst,2%
2
(54)
Page 61
EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS EMISSION FROM HIGH-POWER LOADS

A voltage measurement provides information solely about the global voltage fluctuations from all loads
connected to the supply network and having influence on the disturbance level at the considered point.
Appropriate control methods must be developed to assess whether the voltage fluctuation emission from a
load, treated individually, does not exceed the level allocated in the technical conditions at the moment of
connection. [25, 53]. An individual emission of a disturbance occurs if the considered fluctuating load is the
sole source of the emission and there are no other sources.
EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS EMISSION BASED ON COMPARATIVE MEASUREMENTS

The emission level can be assessed by means of a comparative analysis of measurements performed for the
considered load when turned on (Pst, load) and turned off (Pst, no load) and employing the emission summation law
28
according to Chapter 8.2. (e.g. for m = 3) :
Pst i 3 Pst,3 load Pst,3 no load
(55)
The result obtained using this method rises doubts for two reasons. The first is that the measurements of
flicker indicators are not performed at the same time. The result may therefore be distorted by potential
variations in operating conditions of other disturbing loads and/or modifications to the supply network
configuration (in particular those altering the short-circuit capacity). The second is that the adopted exponent
m = 3 may not be appropriate for all types of fluctuating loads. The use of exponents which are more
appropriate to the nature of voltage fluctuations may improve the results.
EVALUATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS EMISSION EMPLOYING STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Statistical analysis based on the assumption about normal distribution of voltage fluctuations with the
fluctuating load turned on and off.
If the statistical distribution of voltage fluctuations, i.e. distribution of the measured Pst indicator values with
the fluctuating load turned on and off, can be regarded as normal, then the emission level distribution is also
normal and its characteristic parameters can be described using the formulas:
Pst i Pst,load Pst, no load

i load no load
2
i load
2no load
(56)
where is the mean value and is the standard deviation. This method is not without its disadvantages
however. The normal distribution is usually true for the existing background, i.e. the fluctuation level resulting
from operation of several different fluctuating loads or, under certain circumstances, with a single, dominant
disturbing load. This assumption may not hold true where two or more high power fluctuating loads are
simultaneously operated. Such situation usually leads to a multimodal distribution.
If the actual distribution is not the normal distribution, minor discrepancies lead to significant differences in
evaluation of the CP95 or CP99 percentiles due to very small slope of the CPF curve within the high probability
region (e.g. Figure 30).
28
In practice, the relationship (55) yields acceptable results if the voltage fluctuation level prior to connecting
the considered load (background level) is low, i.e. Pst0.5
Page 62
Similarly as in the previous method, the measurements of flicker indicators are not performed at the same
time. Results may therefore be distorted by potential variations in operating conditions of other disturbing
loads and/or modifications to the supply network configuration.
Application of both of these methods requires the use of only one instrument for at least two weeks: one
week with the fluctuating load turned off and the second week with the fluctuating load turned on.
Statistical analysis based on simultaneous measurements of voltage and power fluctuations
An increase in the voltage fluctuation level associated with operation of each load individually can be
determined by employing a detailed analysis of voltage shape characteristics. Therefore, the voltage
fluctuations level at the PCC, as well as the simultaneous power of various customers, must be measured
continuously over a sufficiently long period of time (e.g. several months). A drawback to this method, aside
from the long measurement time, is an unavoidable alteration in both the assessed load operating conditions
and the short-circuit capacity. If the variability of the short-circuit capacity during measurements is known,
then all results can be converted to a common and constant short-circuit capacity level.
MEASUREMENTS OF THE VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION EMISSION LEVEL

M ETHOD 1: S IMPLIFIED APPROACH
The voltage fluctuation background at the PCC (point B in Figure 55) must not be neglected in the event that
other fluctuating loads are operated in the network. The dominant contribution of the considered fluctuating
load to the global voltage fluctuation at the transformer secondary side (point A) is evident and often the
impact of other fluctuation sources can be disregarded, particularly when the CP99 percentile is considered, as
in [70] (cf. Figure 55).
This method consists of measuring voltage fluctuations at the secondary side of a transformer and reflecting
29
them to the primary side :
Pst ( B )
where:
SSC(A)
Z1
X1
Pst (A)
Pst (A)
Pst (A)
Z1 Z 2
S SC(B)
X1 X 2
Z1, X1
the equivalent impedance and reactance of the supply network
Z2, X2
the equivalent impedance and reactance of the transformer
Pst(A)
the global voltage fluctuation level at point A
(57)
30
A correct result is obtained in the case of equal phase angles of the impedances Z 1 and Z2 . In other cases
results are approximate.
M ETHOD 2: V OLTAGE DROP ANALYSIS [122-125]
29
In practice, the fluctuation level at point B is often lower than that determined from (57). It means the actual
short-circuit capacity at point B is higher than that determined for the three-phase fault.
30
If this assumption is not satisfied this calculation does not lead to significant errors, provided that the
0
network equivalent impedance phase angle is smaller than 85 , and this condition is satisfied in HV and MV
networks.
Page 63
This method consists of measuring voltage fluctuations across the known impedance of the network, in most
cases across the equivalent impedance of a transformer (55).
U flick. U A U B
(58)
In the case of voltage fluctuations caused solely by a fluctuating load connected at point A, voltage changes at
this point are:
U A(A) I load Z 1 Z 2
(59)
and voltage changes measured at point B are:
U B(A) I load Z 1
(60)
Voltage changes across the impedance ZAB=Z2, caused by the load A:
U wah(A) U A(A) U B(A) I load Z 2
(61)
Figure 55The network equivalent diagram for considerations in accordance with the Method 1.
Page 64
(a)
(b)
Figure 56Voltage fluctuation measurement (a) at MV level (point A in Figure 55) and (b) HV level (point B
in Figure 56) [25].
When the load A is turned off, voltage changes are solely caused by the load connected at point B:
U A(B) U B(B)
(62)
in other words, voltage changes across the impedance Z2 are:
U flick.B U AB U BB 0
(63)
Using the principle of superposition it can be demonstrated that if the fluctuation sources occur at the same
time at points A and B, the difference of voltages across the impedance Z2 is:
U flick. U flick.A U flick.B U flick.A
(64)
The evaluation is made using the measurements performed simultaneously at points A and B (uA(B),m, Figure
55). In order to express the obtained waveforms in per unit values, the rms voltage value determined over a
10-minute interval was taken as a reference:
uA ( t )
uA, m (t )
uB,m (t )
and uB (t )
UA
UB
(65)
Voltage changes across the impedance Z1, due to the load current changes are:
di (t )
uB (t ) uN (t ) R1iTotal (t ) L1 Total
dt
di (t )
di (t )
uA (t ) uN (t ) R1iTotal (t ) L1 Total R2iload (t ) L2 load

dt
dt
uAB (t ) uA (t ) uB (t ) R2iload (t ) L2
The voltage changes
diload (t )
di (t )
L2 load
dt
dt
(66)
uAB (t ) are then subtracted from the sinusoidal supply voltage (with unity amplitude)
with the same phase angle as the measured voltage

uB (t ) in order to obtain the input signal for a digital

Page 65
flickermeter:
2sin t uAB (t ) . The flicker severity indicator Pst thus determined is the emission
level referred to the chosen reference impedance Z2. In order to determine the emission level at PCC, the
obtained level should be converted with respect to the contract short-circuit capacity at PCC:
Pst (PCC)
Z1
X
Pst ( Z 2 ) 1 Pst ( X 2 )
Z2
X2
(67)
The above relationship holds true if there is no attenuation during fluctuation transfer from the transformer
primary to secondary side. This method is employed under two basic assumptions.
Assumption 1: Phase angles of equivalent impedances of the transformer and supply network are identical.
In this method the voltage fluctuation emission level is referred to the chosen reference impedance. In most
cases this is the transformer impedance (which is almost exclusively inductive). Voltage fluctuations caused by
changes in the active power are therefore not accounted for, although they may give rise to voltage drops
across the network equivalent impedance and, consequently, influence the fluctuation level at PCC. Voltage
fluctuations are referred to the network impedance at the considered point under the assumption that the
network equivalent resistance can be neglected. This may be a source of significant errors, depending on the
current phase angle and the supply network equivalent impedance phase angle.
Assumption 2: Changes in the voltage drop
U NB phase angle along the feeder line are negligible
I.e. only the longitudinal voltage drop is taken into account and its orthogonal component neglected. This
assumption holds true for purely reactive load current because in that event the source voltage and the load
voltage will be cophasal.
M ETHOD 3: A NALYSIS OF THE LOAD CURRENT [25]

This method involves measuring the load current
is determined the voltage
ue (t ) , which
iload (t ) and voltage um (t ) waveforms at PCC. On that basis
should occur at PCC in an ideal network model (Figure 57) if the
fluctuating load under consideration is the sole source of fluctuation. From this voltage the flickermeter model
evaluates the instantaneous fluctuation level and subsequently the statistical measures of the distribution Pst
and Plt. The emission level is evaluated in two stages.
Page 66
Figure 57The network equivalent diagram for considerations in accordance with the Method 3 [25].
Stage 1: The measured load current
iload (t ) and voltage um (t ) are used for determining the reference
voltage u(t ) which takes into account the voltage measured at PCC and the voltage drop across the supply
network equivalent resistance (R1) and reactance (X1), (Figure 57):
u(t ) um (t ) R1iload (t ) L1
diload (t )
dt
a sinusoidal source voltage with amplitude

the voltage
(68)
2 / 3U N and phase angle () corresponding to the phase of
u t fundamental component is determined: uN t 2 / 3U N sint
knowing instantaneous values of the source voltage
u N (t )
and load current
iload (t ) , the voltage ue (t ) can
be determined from:
ue (t ) uN (t ) R1iload (t ) L1
diload (t )
dt
(69)
In order to maintain correct phase shift with respect to the load current and therefore the same reactive and
active powers at PCC, the phase angle of the simulated voltage a
voltage phase angle
ue (t )
should be the same as the measured
iload (t ) .
Stage 2: Applying the digital flickermeter algorithm and using the
ue (t )
voltage waveform determines the
instantaneous flicker level and the Pst and Plt indicators.
M ETHOD 4: M EASUREMENT OF RMS VOLTAGE VALUE AND POWER AND THE USE OF A SIMULATION MODEL
This method allows determining a customer contribution to the global voltage fluctuation level at PCC from
measurement of actual quantities and simulation. This requires measuring the active P and reactive Q power
(fundamental harmonic) for each cycle or half-cycle and the use of a virtual flickermeter model.
The method is applied under the following assumptions: (a) there are no resonance phenomena within the
flicker frequency range (< 35 Hz); (b) voltage fluctuations occurring in the network (background) do not cause
significant changes in the investigated load powers P and Q, and (c) voltage fluctuations occurring across the
network impedance are regarded as an individual emission of fluctuation. The following procedure steps
should be followed:
Record characteristic of the load reactive and reactive power (averaging time 10 ms, 50 Hz)
Create the network model with sinusoidal equivalent source voltage and equivalent impedance at
PCC
Develop the load equivalent impedance model on the basis of the measured powers P and Q
Develop a virtual flickermeter model with input data to be rms voltage shape or voltage change
characteristic
Determine the voltage fluctuation characteristic by computing the Pst values at PCC
The advantages of this method are: (a) it uses relatively simple calculations, (b) both the active and reactive
power changes are taken into account, and (c) the network equivalent resistance and impedance are
accounted for. The voltage fluctuation background can be determined employing the summation law:
Page 67
Pst,background 3 Pst3 Pst3,i , where Pst,i is a load contribution to the global voltage fluctuation level (individual
fluctuation emission) and Pst is the measured fluctuation level at PCC.
Exemplary results of voltage changes simulation using this method are shown in Figure 58. Table 12 provides a
comparative listing of various methods for individual voltage fluctuations emission evaluation.
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS DUE TO DISTRIBUTED POWER SOURCES

Electric power sources with powers significant with respect to the short-circuit capacity at the point of their
connection can be a cause of voltage fluctuation due to switching processes, e.g. start or turn off, or during
their steady-state operation due to changes in their output power. If these changes are slow, as is the case
with photovoltaic sources, they generally do not produce voltage fluctuations.
Page 68
Figure 58An example of application of the rms voltage and power measurements and the use of simulation
model (Method 4) [142].
Page 69
Table 12Comparative listing of various methods for evaluation of individual voltage fluctuations emission.
Page 70
MOTOR-GENERATOR SET
A symmetrical generator with constant load, excitation current, and rotational speed, produces a constant
voltage at its output terminals. If any of these parameters becomes disturbed, voltage fluctuations may occur.
The rotational speed changes are dominant because the time constant of the generator excitation circuit
effectively reduces the influence of the generator's flux variations on voltage changes.
A non-uniformity of the generator air gap due to the rotor and stator eccentricity may also result in the
machine output voltage fluctuation. However at the present level of technology, the likelihood of its
occurrence is small.
In the case of reciprocating engine-driven generating sets a poor quality of fuel or inadequate maintenance
may lead to the engine erratic ignition [127] and, consequently, to changes in the output power.
In very large, low-speed engines, the output power fluctuations occur even during normal operation. The
frequency of changes in the output power due to the engine pistons strokes is:
f F Nn / 25k Hz, where:
N is the number of cylinders; nthe generator rotational speed in revolutions per minute, coefficient k takes
the value 2 for two-stroke engines and 4 for four-stroke engines [127]. During correct operation of a
reciprocating engine, even in the case of low-speed generators, the change in the output power due to the
engine pistons strokes is sufficiently fast and fluctuations do not occur.
If a misfire occurs in a cylinder(s), the frequency of voltage changes in Hz can be expressed as:
f F n / 25k . In such an event in commonly used generators, the frequency of voltage changes coincides
exactly with the most unfavorable area. For instance, a four-cylinder, 900-rpm engine produces fluctuations
with frequency 7.5 Hz. The situation improves at 1,800 rpmwhich corresponds to a fluctuation frequency of
15 Hz. That means it is located within the area where human eye is less sensitive to flicker. A basic way to
prevent this effect is fuel quality control and proper engine maintenance [127].
Wind turbines
Both the extent and manner of the influence of wind farms on the power network depends on how the wind
turbines are constructed as well as on the method of their connection to the power system. Wind power
plants are erected in sites having good wind conditions. They are usually located in areas where the power
system is weak. Consequently, the network parameters and structure may have a significant influence on the
wind power plant operation and the extent of its adverse impact.
Wind-generated electric power is variable and consequently the voltage at the wind power plant busbars may
also undergo changes (Figure 59). This is mainly due to changes in the speed of air flow past the blades and the
resultant changes in the rotor torque.
Fluctuations may also occur under extreme wind gust conditions. The wind speed may be non-uniformly
distributed over the rotor planehigher wind speeds occur in its upper part. Mechanical torque is also
reduced when the lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower (the so-called shadow
effect). Moreover, any vibrations and oscillations of a tower may affect the wind turbine operation,
particularly when under partial load conditions.
An essential aspect of determining technical conditions of connection of wind turbines is the analysis of their
potential influence on voltage fluctuation at the point of connection.
Page 71
Figure 59An example of voltage and current waveforms and flicker severity indicators at the point of a wind
turbine connection during (a) steady state operation; (b) switching operations.
The analysis is based on data provided by the wind turbines manufacturer (in the form of measurement
31
certificates) and by the power system operator .
Flicker emissions from wind power plant should be mitigated so as to be contained within the disturbance
limits. Furthermore, the relative voltage change caused by the wind power plant operation must be limited,
i.e.: d U dyn / UN , where d is the relative voltage change due to wind power plant switching process, and
dyn
/ UN is the maximum permitted voltage change.
CONTINUOUS OPERATION
The normal operating condition of a wind power plant is its continuous operation, excluding start-up and shut
down operations. The flicker coefficient for continuous operation c(k,va) is used for evaluating voltage
fluctuation which depends on the annual average wind speed va and the power network equivalent impedance
phase angle k at the point of connection. The flicker coefficient for continuous operation is:
ck Pst,pc
where:
31
SSC
SN
Pst,pc
(70)
flicker emission from the wind power plant during continuous operation
According to [127] voltage fluctuations are not an issue if the quotient of the short-circuit current and the
turbine rated current is larger than 100.
Page 72
SN
the rated apparent power of a wind power plant.
The flicker coefficient for continuous operation is identical to short (10 min) and long (2 h) time period. Its
value (c(k)) is expressed as the 99th percentile at the network impedance phase angles k = 30 , 50 , 70
and 85 , for four annual average wind speeds (at the hub height) equal va = 6 m/s, 7.5 m/s, 8.5 m/s, and 10
m/s, respectively. The distribution of 10-minute average wind speeds is assumed to be the Rayleigh
distribution, which is usually a good approximation of the reality.
The CP99 percentile is estimated on the basis of flicker emission from a single wind power plant during
continuous operation [74]:
Pst Plt ck ,va
SN
SSC
(71)
In variable-speed wind turbines, the flicker indicators values are usually low, whereas in fixed-speed wind
turbines they may vary from a medium (stall regulation) to high (pitch control) [1].
For estimation of global emission from N simultaneously operated wind turbines is used relationship [74]:
Pst Plt
1
Sk
c
N
i 1
, va S n,i
(72)
SWITCHING OPERATIONS OF WIND TURBINES

The analyzed characteristics of switching operations are:
32
Wind turbine start-up at the cut-in wind speed

Wind turbine start-up at the rated wind speed
Switching between generators (applicable to wind power plant with more than one generator or a
generator with multiple windings)
The following parameters should be specified [74] for each of the above types of switching operations:
The maximum number of switching operations within a 10 min periodN10

The maximum number of switching operations within a 2 h periodN120
The flicker step factor kf(k) for the network impedance phase angles k = 30 , 50 , 70 and 85 ,
determined for the switching operation which gives the highest flicker step factor value
The voltage change factor ku(k) for the network impedance phase angles k = 30 , 50 , 70 and 85 ,
determined for the switching operation that gives the highest voltage change factor value
The flicker step factor, which is a normalized measure of the flicker emission due to a single switching
operation of the wind turbine, is given by the formula:
k f k
32
1 SSC
Pst,pc Tp0 ,31

130 SN
(73)
Cut-in wind speed is the lowest wind speed at the hub height at which wind turbine starts to produce power.
Page 73
where:
Tp
is the measurement period, long enough to ensure that the transient of the
switching operation has abated so possible power fluctuations due to turbulence are limited
to negligibly small values.
The flicker emission due to switching operation of a single wind turbine shall be estimated using equations (74)
[74]:
Pst 18 N 100.31 k f k
SN
S
0.31
Plt 8 N 120
k f k N
S SC
S SC
(74)
Where a number of wind turbines are connected at PCC, their global flicker emission can be estimated from
relationship (75) [74]:
1
3.2
18 N
3, 2
Pst
N10,i kf, i k S N ,i
S SC i 1
3.2
8 N
3, 2
Plt
N 120,i k f ,i k S N ,i
S SC i 1
(75)
where N is the number of generators operated in parallel, SN,i is the rated power, and kf,i(k) is flicker step
factor for the ith unit. N10,i and N120,i are maximum numbers of switching operations that may occur within 10
min and 120 min time periods for the ith unit. The parameters N10, N120, kf(k) and ku(k) can be provided by the
manufacturer. The values of the latest two parameters can also be measured or calculated. If the installation is
provided with a master control system, which limits the total number of switching operations, the effect of its
operation shall be taken into account in calculations.
The voltage change factor is a normalized measure of the voltage change due to a switching operation of a
single wind turbine:
ku k 3
U max U min SSC
UN
SN
where:
(76)
- Umin and Umax are the minimum and maximum rms value, respectively, of the phase-toneutral voltage during the switching operation
UNthe nominal phase-to-phase voltage
The voltage change factor ku is defined similarly to the ki factor being the ratio between the maximum inrush
current and the rated current, although ku is a function of the network impedance phase angle. The highest
value of ku is numerically close to ki and is contained within the interval of values from less than unity to
greater than 8, depending on the considered equipment type and the starting method employed.
The expected voltage change at PCC due to a switching operation of a single wind turbine is given by:
d 100 k U ( k )
SN
SSC
(77)
Since it is unlikely that several turbines will be simultaneously started, the relationship (77) is not a function of
the number of turbines.
A detailed description of the assessment procedure of voltage fluctuations due to operation of various types of
wind turbines can be found in bibliography, e.g.: [86-89, 102, 121, 130, 143, 146].
Page 74
VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS VERSUS VOLTAGE DIPSA CASE ANALYSIS

Figure 60 shows an equivalent diagram of a power network where several wind turbines are operated
(induction machines directly connected to the power network) grouped as small wind farms or single units
[51]. The powers of individual wind installations are indicated in the figure. Total installed power of wind
generators on the investigated area is 2.85 MW.
In order to investigate the influence of operating wind turbines a series of measurements was performed at
the points of their connection, i.e. at the LV and MV networks nodes and at busbars of the 15 kV substation
and the 110 kV Main Substation (GPZ) from which the considered MV network is supplied. The measurements
demonstrated the occurrence of voltage disturbances.
Figure 60Diagram of the analyzed MV network

with wind turbines.
Figure 61Exemplary waveforms of maximum and

minimum voltage values against the wind turbines
maximum current value (10-ms averaging time),
recorded at the wind farm No 4 (phase L1).
The phase voltages and currents (rms values averaged over a 10-minute time interval, maximum and minimum
voltage values, and maximum current values averaged over 10 ms time interval) recorded at the point of the
wind farm No 4 connection to the power network are shown in Figure 61. Large changes of minimum and
maximum voltage values are noticeable in the voltage shape. Nevertheless, the average value did not exceed
the limit level of 10%. As seen from Figure 61, voltage changes are not correlated with changes in the
maximum current value, thus they are not caused by the wind turbines' operation.
current
Voltage
Current
Pst
Figure 62The average, maximum and minimum (10

ms) voltage value and the line current measured at the
MV busbars at the Main Substation (GPZ).
Figure 63The current maximum value against e

minimum and maximum (10 ms) voltage values and
the short-term flicker severity indicator Pstthe wind
farm 4.
Page 75
Similar waveforms of phase voltages and currents were recorded at other measurement points, including 15
kV busbars at the Main Substation (GPZ). Figure 62 shows the maximum and minimum voltage and phase
current values recorded at the section II busbars at the point of supply. Voltage dips and swells occurring at
other measurement points can also be seen. There is no time correlation between voltage events and the
phase current and the Pst indicator (Figure 63).
The measured long-term flicker severity values exceed the values permitted for that voltage level on several
occasions. Figure 64 shows an example of long-term flicker severity indicator Plt recorded at the 15 kV busbars.
The permissible value (unity) is significantly exceeded.
As can be seen from Figure 65, the high values of voltage fluctuation numerical measures are not correlated
with the current changes. Periods with a low Plt value occur during high current from wind turbines and
periods with a high Plt value occur when the wind turbines' current is low. A similar dependence was also
observed at other measurement points.
Current
Figure 64The long-term flicker severity indicator Plt, ,

recorded during a week at the Main Substation (GPZ)
15 kV busbars at (CP95 Plt =7.69).
Figure 65The long-term flicker severity indicator Plt

against the line current (wind farms No 1 and No 4).
According to standard [34], the Pst and Plt values recorded during voltage dips/swells were excluded from of
the flicker level evaluation. The end result achieved a significant reduction in the flicker level at the points of
connection of wind farms to the power network (estimated levels see Table 13).
Table 13The measured and evaluated long-term flicker severity values at measurement points (after
excluding flagged flicker indicators from statistical analysis according to [34]).
MEASUREMENT
POINT
GPZ 110 kV
GPZ 15 kV section I
GPZ 15 kV section II
Wind turbines No 1
Wind turbine No 2
Wind turbines No 3
Wind turbines No 4
Wind turbines No 5
Wind turbines No 6
Plt MEASURED
UL1
0.17
1.45
5.87
1.27
0.76
3.05
7.94
3.01
3.01
UL2
0.24
1.42
5.46
1.42
0.78
3.02
6.16
3.03
3.04
UL3
0.20
1.29
7.69
1.46
0.70
3.3
6.49
3.03
3.04
Plt ESTIMATED
UL1
0.17
0.31
0.19
0.27
0.57
0.27
0.24
0.21
0.21
UL2
0.24
0.22
0.17
0.25
0.59
0.33
0.21
0.25
0.25
UL3
0.20
0.30
0.19
0.23
0.57
0.31
0.25
0.24
0.23
Page 76
METHODS FOR MITIGATION OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION EFFECTS

Mitigation of voltage fluctuations is one of the most difficult issues of the electric power supply. The effects of
voltage fluctuation depend on the amplitude, rate of occurrence, and duration of voltage changes. Whereas
the amplitude depends, inter alia, on the power system supplying fluctuating loads, the rate of occurrence
depends on the load type and the manner of its operation and, consequently, on the technological process. So
far mitigation measures are focused on limiting the amplitude of voltage fluctuations; the technological
process is influenced to a lesser extent. An example of these measures in the case of an arc furnace can be a
series reactor, also a controlled saturable reactor, proper functioning of the electrode control system,
segregation and initial preparation of charge, admixing electrodes material, et ceteraall methods well-known
to the steel-making process engineers.
Numerical measure
Plt
min.
av.
95 %
max.
L1
L2
L3
1.901
3.690
4.212
12.113
2.080
3.807
4.383
12.341
2.064
3.757
4.340
12.002
Figure 66Exemplary records of flicker severity indicator at the electric steelworks terminals (MV).
Figure 66 shows exemplary records of the voltage fluctuation index in electric steelworks feeder line (HV/MV
33
transformer) .
33
According to [105, 106], a constant, or almost constant, correlation coefficient related to load characteristics
occasionally occurs between Plt and Pst indicators. For example, the relationship between flicker severity
indicators, determined for arc furnaces from numerous measurements carried out in their vicinity, takes the
form: Plt95% 0,84Pst95% .
Page 77
In the case of wind turbines, one mitigating measure is the reduction in the number of switching operations by
keeping the turbine in standstill condition until wind achieves a steady speed greater than the turbine cut-in
speed.
As follows from the relation (1), the amplitude of voltage fluctuations after modifications to the
technological process (if possible)can be limited in two ways:
Increasing the short circuit power (with respect to the load power) at the point of a fluctuating load
connection. Practical means include: (a) connecting the load to a higher nominal voltage system
busbars, (b) supplying this category of loads directly from a high voltage system through dedicated
lines, supplying fluctuating loads and steady loads from either separate windings of a three-winding
transformer or from separate two-winding transformers (separation of a fluctuating load), (c)
supplying the fluctuating load from a transformer of a larger rated power and/or lower short circuit
voltage, (d) installing series capacitors, et cetera
Reducing reactive power changes in the supply network by means of the so-called dynamic voltage
compensators/stabilizers
A separate category of measures is the improvement of loads immunity to voltage fluctuations [32].
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE STABILIZERS

Dynamic voltage stabilizers are a technically viable solution for the elimination or mitigation of voltage changes
(in the case of an arc furnace, the use of dynamic voltage stabilizer may also improve efficiency of the
metallurgical process). Their effectiveness depends mainly on their rated power and fast reaction. They cause
voltage drops on the supply network impedances, since they generate reactive power in the domain of the
fundamental harmonic. Depending on whether the reactive current is inductive or capacitive, the rms voltage
value at the point of common connection (PCC) can be increased or reduced (Figure 2).
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE STABILIZERS
ROTATING
(Synchronous Machine)
STATIC
Power electronic systems
Linecommutated
converters
Selfcommutated
converters
Saturable reactors
STATCOM
DVR
Thyristor switched capacitors (TSC)
Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) with fixed (FC) or

switched capacitor (TSC)
Page 78
Figure 67Classification of dynamic voltage stabilizers.

Figure 67 shows the classification of various solutions for dynamic voltage stabilizers. They are primarily threephase systems, of large rated power, designed for voltage stabilization at the node of a distribution system or
stabilization of the specific load/group of loads at PCC. Since these systems are often used as dynamic
compensators of the reactive power/current fundamental component, the terms stabilizer and static VAR
compensator can be used interchangeably.
As a synchronous machine is regarded to be the origin of the industrial voltage stabilizers development path,
the present-day power electronics offers a wide selection of diverse technical solutions which, inter alia, fulfill
the stabilization task.
The effectiveness of voltage fluctuation mitigation/limitation by means of static compensators can be
evaluated using the so-called flicker reduction factor given by the relationship:
RF
Pst
Pst(K)
(78)
34
where: Pst is short-term flicker severity indicator in the system without a compensator , and Pst(K) after the
compensator installation. The Pst(K) value for an arc furnace supplied with a static VAR compensator can be
35
estimated from the relationship :
Pst( K ) kst
where:
S F,SC 1
TCU1/U2
SSC KSVC
(79)
kst
a constant coefficient related to the furnace design features; if unknown
it can be determined from analyzing operation of similar power and technology arc furnaces.
According to UIC research, it is contained within the interval 85kst50. A typical value for
present day arc furnaces is kst = 75,
SF,SC
the arc furnace short-circuit power. It is determined under conditions of threephase short circuit between electrodes and the charge, when the short-circuit current is
about twice the rated current of the transformer (without series reactors). In the event of
parallel operation of several furnaces, this is the short-circuit power of an equivalent arc
furnace:
TPst ,U1 ,U2
flicker transfer coefficient between two voltage levels: U1 and U2,
34
[107] provides empirical formulas that allow predicting the Pst CP99 indicator for: AC arc furnace
Pst99 60S F,SC / SSC ; DC arc furnace Pst 99 0,70 60S F,SC / SSC .
35
The extent of voltage fluctuation mitigation due to connecting a series reactor can be estimated on the basis
of predicted reduction of the furnace short-circuit power.
Page 79
KSVC
flicker reduction factor attained in effect of application dynamic
compensators/stabilizers (Static Var CompensatorSVC), its value for the FC/TCR system can
be evaluated from the formula:
KSVC 1 0.75
SSVC
STrN
(80)
SSVC
the SVC rated power
STrN
the furnace transformer rated power.
Figure 68 shows an example of voltage fluctuations ordered characteristic for the furnace operation with and
without the compensator. For the measurements as in Figure 68:
theoretical value of the flicker reduction factor
actual values read off from Figure 68
K SVC 1 0.75
- K SVC,CP99
48MV A
1.75
48MV A
3.9
4.6
1.50
1.44 K SVC,CP95
2.6
3.2
The flicker reduction factor KSVC value is contained within the interval 3-6 [46, 56] in the case of the STATCOM
compensator.
The speed of compensator operation is essential. The required short response time often means the necessity
of oversizing the compensator then its power can be estimated using the empirical relationship [46]
R 1
SSVC STrN F
0,75
(81)
Figure 68Ordered values of the Pst indicator during the furnace operation with and without a compensator
[39].
Research has shown that eliminating only the changes in the load reactive power in the fundamental harmonic
domain guarantees about (35-40)% mitigation of voltage fluctuations. If the compensator serves the additional
function of a symmetrizator, then the reduction level may increase up to 50%. Compensation of reactive
power changes, symmetrization, and filtering of voltage harmonics enables the reduction of voltage
fluctuations by 90-95%.
Page 80
The above calculations are only an estimate because voltage fluctuations due to an arc furnace operation
depend on multiple factors of a random nature, hence the prediction of their impact is very difficult.
Figure 69The shape of Pst indicator cumulative probability curves and the difference of the read off percentile
values vs. the measurement duration [13].
The result of the compensator effectiveness assessment also depends on the duration of check measurements,
both with and without the compensator. This is evident in the cumulative probability curves shown in Figure
69. The curve obtained from the measurements performed over a short time clearly reflects technological
stages of the arc furnace operation.
Figure 70 shows exemplary waveforms that illustrate changes in the rms voltage value at the electric
steelworks busbars (MV) for the FC/TCR compensator turned on and off, a high effectiveness of the
compensator operation is evident.
Page 81
Figure 70The effectiveness of the FC/TCR compensator operationan example of active and reactive power
and the voltage at the electric steelworks busbars for the compensator turned on and off.
Page 82
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Voltage - Fluctuations LPQI 2014 PDF

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APPLICATION NOTE

VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS IN POWER NETWORKS

ECI Publication No Cu0208

Document Issue Control Sheet

Application Note Voltage fluctuations in power networks

Copyright European Copper Institute.

Continuous operation ............................................................................................................................ 72

The amplitude of voltage fluctuations can be limited in two ways:

SOURCES OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

U 0 at the considered network node can be

ARC WELDERS AND SPOT WELDERS

Figure 7Voltage and current waveforms during capacitor bank switching.

WIND POWER PLANTS

u(t ) u1 (t ) u h (t ) uIn (t ) U mcos t mh cosh t h mIn cosIn t In

u 2 (t ) u12 (t ) uh2 (t ) uIn2 (t ) 2 u1 t uh t 2 u1 t uIn t 2 uh t uIn t

u(t ) U m (1 mcost)cos t U mcoso

Figure 9Graphical interpretation of the frequency spectrum of an amplitude modulated voltage.

u(t ) sin2ft msin2f inht (where f = 50

Figure 11The UPS output voltage waveforms: (a) rms

EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

amplification factor and the thermal time-constant

the bulb nominal voltage and luminance

the voltage and luminance change

=j2fm (fm- modulation frequency)

Figure 13Example of flicker characteristics of

Lx(fm) and LIL(fm)changes in the luminous flux of the

ELECTROLYSERS AND ELECTRO-HEAT EQUIPMENT

VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION MEASUREMENT

CLASSICAL VOLTAGE FLUCTUATION FACTORS

is a unit of time, e.g. 1

minute or the duration of voltage fluctuations

11 Further studies of TV and

component with frequency fn,) [18, 147].

BLOCK 1 (INPUT VOLTAGE NORMALIZATION)

Figure 17The Block 2 output signal [120].

Figure 18Frequency characteristics of filters used in the UIE flickermeter [120].

where: b1 = 3.864; b2 = 7.464; b3 = 9.141; b4 = 7.464; b5 = 3.864; b6 = l.

Figure 19An example output signal of the band-pass

Figure 20The output signal of the weighting filter

BLOCK 4 (SQUARING AND SMOOTHING )

BLOCK 5 (STATISTICAL ANALYSIS )

duration of fluctuations with different values, the value Class 4 ( T4

) is given as an example; (b)

SHORT-TERM FLICKER SEVERITY INDICATOR

k0 ,1P0 ,1 k1P1 k3 P3 k10P10 k50P50

k0,1 ,...., k50

are the weighting coefficients whose values result from adopted

calculation procedures. The appropriate selection of weighting coefficients allows achieving

P0,1 ,...., P50

probability of their not exceeding is determined.

coefficient k0.1 = 0.0314

coefficient k10 = 0.28

coefficient k50 = 0.08.

P1 P1s ( P0,7 P1 P1,5 ) / 3

P50 P50s ( P30 P50 P80 ) / 3

LONG-TERM FLICKER SEVERITY INDICATOR

Figure 25Schematic diagram of the analyzed circuit.

Plt CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY CURVE

AN EXAMPLE OF POWER QUALITY FACTOR MEASUREMENTS IN A HV NETWORK

Figure 28Schematic diagram of the investigated supply network.

Tests the measuring circuit

Distorted voltage with

Tests the correctness of the input