Heat Loss 1. Thermal Value of Walls and Roofs. For economy of fuel consumption, walls, and roofs, and sometimes floors—if there-is out- door space below —must be resistant to the rapid transmission of heat. Slow passage of heat also results in warmer, more comfortable inside surface temperatures. In modern prac- tice, 2 to 3 in. of insulation is considered essential and should not be omitted except for very special reasons. Vapor bartiers are needed to prevent room moisture from pene- trating outward to colder parts of roofs and walls where it condenses or freezes. Tight construction retains warm air and resists the * entry of cold air during windy times. Finally, the proportion of glass to insulated opaque walls and roofs should be studied if fuel economy and human comfort are to be achieved, 2. Importance of Heat Conservation. One of the requirements for the comfort of people ‘occupying indoor spaces during cold weather i a constant temperature of room air consid- erably higher than that of the outdoor air. Heat supplied to the room for this purpose is constantly dissipated by transmission losses through the surfaces ofthe enclosure. Itis lost also by the escape of warm air through mi- niute openings, such as the cracks between window sash and frames. The airis forced out NOTE: Tables 93 tough 9.14 are grouped at the end of this chapter for eefeence, Pages 135-172 138 by cold outdoor air infiltrating through simi- lar openings on the opposite (windward) side of the room. Loss of warm air may occur also when controlled ventilation operates 10 change the air in the room at established rates, Since fuel must be purchased to offset these losses, a careful study of infiltration, ventilation, and transmission rates is part of every architectural design. Among the criteria for the selection of exterior construction, thermal transmission is one of considerable importance because every square foot of material carries a permanent upkeep cost for fuel over the years. The index for comparison is the U-coeffcient of trans- mission. The method of establishing this value for selected walls is developed in the following articles. For the purpose of inter- preting the relative merits of the walls shown in Fig. 9.1—the U-coeffcient is defined here as the number of British thermal units per hour (Buuh) that pass through I sq ft of wall, floor, or roof under actual conditions at the building when the difference between the inside and outside air temperature is 1° F under a steady rate of heat flow. A few examples of walls are illustrated in Fig. 9.1. Undue consideration for fuel savings only might suggest the elimination of all glass and the use instead of insulated walls such as A ot D, which have minimum heat losses Although this might be an unsound decision, it is nevertheless urged that, in the case ofHeat Loss 139 a, to Wood sng Mad sheathing rapes 2 ton Fraser Fig. 9:1 Approximate comparison by." U-coef ens ofthe heat transmit. ting rates of some opaque and tansparent enclosing wall, opaque walls, insulation be freely used, Its cost is quickly repaid by fuel savings. The economic advantage of double and triple glazing may not be quite as promising, but it should be considered. The proportion of glass to opaque materials must obviously be judged by many qualities in addition to those relating to heat. It should be pointed out, however, that while glass is quick to lose heat under critical conditions, including the ab- sence of sunshine, it is most receptive, when correctly oriented, to the passage of solar energy into the building during sunny hours. This may largely offset the excessive fuel use which occurs during cold and dark hours ‘Structures enclosed largely in glass must have big heating plants assuring a high rate of ing when it is required, yet, if properly designed, need not be extravagant in over-all fuel consumption. 4 bree t & Block eae past insulation aed past in & wood fer coment ben transits heat 4 ties ask =D Glas single or utile wth um ||| Sessaees on wanes ‘Sines as fa ae ¢ Poorest (thermal) of these pcosures wansmts heat simost TBs as fasta the best. 3. Nature of Heat Flow. Beginning with the ‘combustion of fuel in boilers or furnaces, heat flows by various methods to warm the oc- cupied spaces and thence to outdoors by transmission through exterior room surfaces or by the loss or expulsion of warmed air through openingsin the building. Theanalysis and evaluation of the transmission through combinations of building materials leads to the finding that the rate of heat flow is related to the passage of heat through these assem- bled materials by conduction, convection, radiation, or combinations of them (see Fig, 92). tis evident that a reduction in the rate of hheat loss can be achieved by the use of in- sulating materials having slow conduction rates, the interposition of one or several air spaces and the reduction of radiant transfer by the use of reflective linings in air spaces.0 ‘An airspace in 3 wall, Loner temperate 43 Tighe trperatare ‘aie spac in a rot Higher temperature owe temperate ‘An ar space in 9 for lgher temperature nei ar 3 composite assembly of bldg ‘trial In pace at beste ‘Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings ‘A single solid materia illustrates the wansfr of heat from the warmer to the cooler particles by conduction (1). As air is warmed by the warmer side ofthe ar pace it ies, Asi falls down along the cooler side it transfers heat to this surface (2). Radiant nergy (3) is transferred from the warmer tothe cooler surface. The rate depends upon the relative temperature ofthe surfaces and upon the ‘emisive and absorptive qualies. Direction is always fom the warmer 1 the cooler surface. ‘The convective action (2) in the air space of oof similar to that ia a ‘wall although the height through which the ai ses and falls is usually Jess. The radiant ransfers up i this ease because its direction i always to the cooler surface. ‘When th higher temperature is atthe tp of horizontal airspace the ‘warm air i tapped atthe top and, being less dence than the cooler air atthe botiom, will not low down wo tansfer is hen othe cooler surface. ‘This results in litle flow by convection. The radiant transfer in thi case is down because that isthe direction from the warmer surface t0 the cooler This example ofa wall in place Mustrates the several aettiods by which eat is lost trough a composite &s- sembly of materials Conduction al varying rates in diferent materils is accoumted for in Ie, Ib, 1. Coa vection curren (2) and radiation (3) cary the eat across the airspace. Heat is conducted from the room sir by warm air currents that strike the inside wall. Heat is conducted ‘avay from the exterior surface ofthe wall by the action of the wind Fig. 92 Nature of heat flow though materials ir spaces and assembled structures, Conduction 1” Inside surface conductance 4 Convection 2 Outide surface conductance 5 Radiation 3 Greater thicknesses of the selected solid ma- terials helps, but there can be little control of the internal convection or the inside and outside surface conductance losses. 4. Heat Flow through Homogencous Solids. Conductivity (unit conductance), is desig- nated as k and defined as the number of Btuh that flow through one square foot of material one inch thick when the temperature drop ‘through the material under conditions of steady heat flow is one degree Fahrenheit. Conductivity is established by tests and is the basic rating for a material. When conduct- ance C is referred to, in a homogeneous ma- terial, itis fora thickness other than one inch. ‘The other conditions remain the same.Heat Loss Figure 9.3 compares the: conductivities of a dense and a light material. It also shows the method of computing the thermal resist- ance, R. of | in, of material. Ris the recipro- cal of the conductivity. This is 1/k and is stated as the number of hours needed for 1 Btu to flow through the material. For thick- ua {nsilation, the resistance'of an air space is not related primarily to thickness, but is deter- mined by many factors including position of the space, direction of heat flow as shown in Fig. 9.2, and the nature of the surfaces lining, the space. Radiant transmission across the space is much reduced by the use of shiny nesses other than I in., the conductance C material sueh as aluminum foil. Its sufficient decreases (k/x) with the increase in thickness. tovuse such material on only one of the sides. The resistance, R, increases directly (x/k) Using it on. both makes for very little im- ‘with the increase in thickness. In each case provement because the reflective material will x stands for the thickness of the material in accept or emit only a small amount of heat inches. relative to that transmitted by the common 5. AirSpaces. Figure9.4 showshow air spaces rough building materials. Thicknesses of the may be introduced into the structure to re- air space is generally evaluated for} in. and duce the U-coefficient and to aid in retarding 4,in. The increase of thickness does little to heat flow from the building. Fig.9.Sevaluates improve the resistance except in spaces in their effectiveness and indicates that three air floors with heat transmission downward, in spaces with reflective lining and properly which case there is little convection. Table 9.5 installed are about equivalent to 3 in, of shows the many variables involved, not the insulation. Unlike conventional batt or “fil” least of which is emissivity. For our purpose, inns ‘empl in ints ‘example ‘Sand and Gravel Concrete Fig 93. Example of conductivities (R) fOr 1 in thickness, conductances (C) for say thickness (Cin in this example) and resistances (R) for glass fiber, a material of low conductivity, and con- tretc, a material of high condvetvity. See Table 9.3, page 135. Lore: Standard unit of asea Log f. Standard nt emperatare diferent 1° F.ae ‘Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings @ © "Fig. 94 Refcotive insulation. Multiple layer aluminum foil blanket () as shipped. (8) Installed ‘between roof joists. (2) Vapor barrier on the warm side. (2) Air spaces enclosed by reflective (Gow emissivity foi. Suitable in jist or stud construction. Other types are avalable in ation 10 the to shown, ‘we may consider that reflective lining has an emissivity of 0.05 (effective thermal emission) and common building materials have an emissivity of 0.82. An example of the value of reflective lining is seen in referring to Table 9.5, For a vertical space through which the heat flow direction is horizontal, and assum- ing an air space temperature of 50° F and fa temperature drop across the space of 30° F, one finds that for an emissivity of 0.05 (reflective) the thermal conductance is 0.36. For an emissivity of 0.82 (nonrefiective) the ‘thermal conductance is 1.04 under the same conditions. The reflectivesined space will conduct 0.36/1.04 = 033 or about one third as much heat as a space with no reflective lining. It is important to know that a sheet of reflective fol in direct contact on both of its sides with other materials has no signi- ficant value in heat flow retardation. It must face an air space. 6. Effects of Air Motion. When a wall or zoo is in place to enclose a room under conditions resulting in heat loss from the space, the 03 a3 1 ace v=02t 02 02 g ! zi a padiiss |. z u=0273 : Soa 301 peal tea u=00%) c °+—t t Oe ei es o 1 82 3 Number o che of Number ofr spaces inulaton (i= 027), ded (e005), introduced Fig. 95 An example ofthe value of insulation and ait spaces. I, toa selected and wninslated wall having a U-coefcient of 024, 3 in. of insulation are added or i3 airspace with emiiity efecive lining) of 05 are introduced, the hourly heat les through the wall can be reduced by about 70 percent, See Table 84, Section B, page 159, and Table 8, Part A, page 16S.Heat Loss gentle motion of the nominally “still” air within the room and the more active motion of the wind outside of the room both act to increase the rate of heat loss. The room air is, of course, higher in temperature than the inside surface of the room. The convection currents within the room cause the warmer air particles to collide with the cooler surface. ‘The resulting surface conductance, called f, ( for imterion), is least on the floor and in- ° creases slightly for the walls and ceiling. The outdoor air temperature is less than that of the outside surface of the structure. When the wind blows these cooler air particles against this warmer exterior surface, the heat loss rate is increased. This conductance factor is called Ff (0 for outside). The factors are for the number of Btuh passing through 1 sq ft of surface for 1° F difference in temperature. Thickness is not involved. In using Table 9.4, one will most often use the column for nonreflective surfaces (com- mon building materials) since few of the outside or inside surfaces in buildings are highly reflective, Emissivity (€) is therefore listed a5 0.90. It is seen that, for still air (inte- rots) fis 1.63 for ceilings and 1.46 for walls. ‘The value of f, is found to be 6.00 for a 15 mph wind and 4.00 for a7 mph wind. 7. Transmission Through Building Units. Itis only coincidental when building materials or products are produced in exactly 1 in. thick- ness, Determining the conductance factor C of homogeneous materials not 1 in. thick was treated in Art. 4 and Fig. 9.3. For instance, the conductance C value for a 4in. thick wall of face brick is k/x = 9/4 = 2.24 Btuh for 1 sq ft when 1° F temperature difference exists. A } in. layer of gypsum plaster with sand aggregate and a k-value for 1im:) of Fig. 96 Method of computing resistance and conductance ofa manufactured com- posite building product. Conductance C {the reciprocal ofthe wot resistance Ry K values from Table 93, pages 155-158 3 5.60 would have a conductance of 5.60/0.50 11.20 Btu, In each instance the resistance is the reciprocal of the conductance. ‘Table 9.3 lists not only conduetivities k but also conductances C for homogeneous mate- Tals of thicknesses other than 1 in.. Their resistances, I/kand 1/C are also tabulated. Tn addition, the table shows C values for products such as hollow concrete block. The C values’ of composite products of two or ‘more materials may be obtained from litera- ture of manufacturers who usually publish 2 these values. They may also be calculated as shown in Fig, 9.6. They do not include the effect of surface conductances because the future placement of these products in a spe- ‘ific structure is not known. For completeness of presentation, the example in Fig. 9.6 begins with k values, but whenever convenient the resistance values may be read from Table 9.3 and then added to find the total resistance. 8. Overall Coeficients of Heat Transmission. The rate of heat flow through a roof, wall or floor is known as the overall transmission coefficient U. This and some other coefficients that affect it are defined as follows, for con- ditions of steady-state flow of heat: U = Overall Coefficient of Heat Trans- ‘mission, The Btuh flowing from air to air through 1 sq fof roof, wall, floor, or other building component in place in the structure under actual conditions for a difference of 1*F in temperature between the air on the inside and the air on the outside. It can apply to a combination of materials or to a single ‘material such as glass. ke = Conductivity. The Btuh rate of heat flow through 1 sq ft of a homogeneous mate- ial 1 in. thick for a 1° F difference in tem- ~perarare between its 2 surfaces.ry C = Conductance. The Biuh rate of heat flow through 1 sq fl of a homogeneous mate- rial or a combination of materials for 1° F difference in temperature between the exte- iors surfaces, for the thickness of con- struction stated, not necessarily per inch of ‘thickness, @ = Air-space conductance. The Btuh rate of heat flow through I sq ft of area for 1° F difference in temperature between the bounding surfaces. It is affected by position and by the emissivity E of the surfaces. f= Film or Surface Conductance Coeff- cient. The rate of heat flow in Brah through 11 3q ft of surface due to the motion of air ‘against the surface, for 1° F difference in temperature. f; is the symbol for the inside film coefficient and f, the symbol for the outside film coefficient. These coefficients reflect the speed at which the air strikes the surface. E = Emissivity, The effective thermal emission (or absorption) of the surfaces bouniling an air space, R= Thermal Resistance. Its value is ob- tained from the reciprocal of heat transfer as expressed by such coefficients as U, Cf or @ Itamay be expressed as hr/Btu for the standard square foot of surface and 1° F temperature difference. For example, a wall with a U-coefficient of 0.25 would have a thermal resistance R of 1/025 = 40. ‘The U-values in Tables 9.6, 9.7, and 9.8, modified for insulation as indicated in Table 9.9, may be used directly in heat loss calcula- Liem ‘OUUSIdE wirface eemicient (15'mph) in. face brick in. cement mortar Sin. concrete block, It wi. aggregate Air space bounded by common materials, (not reflective) 3.4-in. gypsum plaster, It wt ‘Aggregate on metal lath Inside surface coefficient (still airy ‘Total resistance, air to air, Ry ae a ene ee Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings tions. These values are developed from basic data that appear in Table 93, 9.4, and 9. ‘The U-values of other constructions may also be caleulated from these tables. Space limita tions permit only a few of the most common Usvalues to be teprinted in this book, The designer who is continuously engaged in heat Joss problems and who deals with a variety of structures is referred to the Handbook of Fundamentals 1967 of the American Society ‘of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Condition- ing Engineers, from which much of this in- formation has been adapted. Tn computing U-valucs it is evident that ‘component heat transmissions are not addi- tive. The value of the overall coefficient is always Jess than that of any of-its parts, Greater thickness, more parts, insulation, and air spaces all serve to lower the overall co- efficient of transmission. To arrive at this coefficient, itis necessary to add the resist- ances ofthe various elements, including film Coefficients. This results in a total resistance R, which may be expressed in total hours for the passage of I Bim through the construction. ‘The reciprocal ofthis total resistance, stated as Bu, is the overall U-coeffcient of trans- mission. An example will illustrate this, EXAMPLE 9.1. In Table 9.7, column E, line 5 lists a U-coefficient of 0.21 for an exterior wall of 4-in. face brick, &-in. concrete block of lightweight aggregate, furring which cre- ates an air space, and Lin. plaster of light- weight aggregate on metal lath. This U-value was calculated as follows: Resistance Values Taken Page from Table No. No. Resistance 9a 159 7 93 BS 4x 01 = 044 93 155 010 93 155 2.00 95 160 094 93 155 047 94 159 0.68 480 ‘For interior partitions, floors and ceilings, surface coefficients for still air are used on both sides,Heat Loss SOLUTION, U = 1/Ry = 1/480 = 0.209, say 0.21 Buh. (Three similar examples are given in Tables 9.6, 9.7, and 9.8: It is satis- factory to express U-values to two digits fol- lowing the decimal point, though in insulated construction one more is often shown. The U-value of the wall in Example 9.1 ‘could be much reduced by adding insulation. If it is assumed that 3 in. of glass fiber be added, Table 9.9 indicates a reduction in ‘U-value from 0.21 to 0.062. Its assumed that the air space is retained. This is checked by the following example. EXAMPLE 92 Resistance of uninsulated wall Resistance of 3 in. of insulation, 3/0.26 Revised A after insolation is added Revised Ucvalue for insulated wall = I/ revised R= 1/1635 = 0062, 430 uss 16s ‘The present availability of water-resistant rigid fiber insulations should encourage the insulation of masonry walls. This could. be- ‘come as common as the present universal use of mineral wool batts in stud and joist spaces in frame construction. Figure 9.1d illustrates this. 8. Glass, Windows, and Doors. Glass, of course, transmits heat more rapidly than al- ‘most any other material except perhaps a single sheet of metal. Except for the use of multiple surfaces with air spaces there is little that can be done to reduce this rate. The orientation and placing of glass can do much to admit solar energy during sunny hours, but since heat losses are calculated for critical, dark hours the standard U-coefficients of Fable 9.10-must be used. (Doors are evalu- ‘ated in Table 9.11.) 10. Heat Loss from Basements, Cravil Spaces, and Atties, In a later article the method of calculating the total hourly heat loss from buildings is developed. The part of this that relates to transmission losses makes use of the U-coefficients discussed. In the surfaces of basements below grade, there is no outside surface film coefficient in the usual sense because there is no wind to carry the heat away. Thus the resistance of the basement 145 enclosing surface in contact with the ground is great. Moreover the earth temperatures rise after an appreciable operating time, further reducing the heat transmitted. For these rea- sons the loss. through basément surfates below ground is nof computed by multiplying a U-coefficient by the area and a temperature difference. It has been found that the. loss from these surfaces has frequently been overestimated. An approximation of this small loss is expressed directly in the Btuh sq fof wall and floor area. The loss rate is related to the ground water temperature and is listed in Table 9.12. Ji the absence of evidence about the tem- perature of ground water, a value of 2 Btuh/sq ft is acceptable for the floor and value of 4 for the walls below grade. For walls, windows, and other construction above grade in the basement, the heat loss rate is ‘calculated in the same way as for other spaces above the ground. Unheated crawl spaces are often ventilated ‘with outdoor air in winter. Usnally, the floor above is heavily insulated and air tight. In- stead of calculating a loss from the crawl space to outdoors, it is often preferred to evaluate the loss from the room to the craw! space. For this purpose it is Safest to assign the outdoor temperature to the crawl space. ‘When crawl space vents are closed and the space heated to house temperature, there is no loss through the room floor and the heat Joss from the crawl space is computed as ‘though it were @ basement. ‘The attic appears infrequently in moderh architectural design. The loss of heat from top floor rooms to unused attics, or from rooms. (including finished attic rooms) to unused attic parts such as at peaks and at caves ‘outside of knee walls poses « special problem. Nonclosable louvers are quite generally used in such attics of attic parts to permit the circulation of outdoor air, even in winter, on the outside of the vapor barrier and insulation which enclose the room. This circulation. is good for many reasons. In winter, one of the easons is to allow the air to carry away ‘moisture that may escape from the room to the attic through the vapor barrier. If not46 removed, such moisture condenses and sometimes freezes on the inside of exterior surfaces causing structural deterioration. tis apparent, however, that if outdoor air is thus introduced within the construction, the ‘usual overall U-coeflicient which includes the effect of the exterior surface has no meaning. A caleulation is usually made of a U-coefii- cient from the room to the attic ai. This may well involve assuming still air conditions in the attic as well as in the room. In using this U-coefficient, it is often assumed that the temperature of the attic space is half way between the temperature of the room and that of outdoors. Ventilation methods vary greatly. When large louvers are used it may be safer to assume outdoor wind velocity on the attic side and, in using the coefficient, assume the attic temperature to be the same as that of outdoors. 11. Heat Losses at Edges of Slabs. See Fig. 97. Unlike basement floors which have a steady, slow rate of heat loss set by 2 reasonably constant temperature of adjacent earth or ‘ground water, concrete slabs at or near grade have losses that are affected by the proximity of their edges to the outdoor air. To prevent ‘old floors it is essential to provide rigid, ‘oisture-resistant insulation 2 ft wide. Table 9.13. gives the losses per foot of edge for ‘Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings various outdoor design temperatures, assum- {ng heated conditions indoors and details as shown in Fig. 9.7. Since unheated slabs are seldom satisfactorily comfortable, even with insulation, heat is usually introduced within the slab, Warm air in'ducts or warm water in radiant pipes ate often at 100° F or more. ‘This increases the heat loss and requires more fuel but it assures warmer floors. Values in ‘Table 9.13 differ from;U-coefficients in that they are not quoted fora 1° F difference in temperature but for conditions as existing between a normally Heated room (usually 70° to75° F)and commonly encountered out- oor design conditions. Thus, in New York City where 0° F is the.usual outdoor design ‘temperature, 100 tof fisulated (R = 5.0) but unheated slab.edge would lose 100 x 24 2400 Bruh. 12, Infiltration and Ventilation. Winter winds blow cold outdoor air into indoor spaces through cracks around windows and doors on the windward side of the house. After this air hhas been warmed by heating units near these locations, the warmed air leaves through similar cracks on the leeward side where there is usually a reduced air pressure on the out- side, creating a suction, This process is costly because fuel is required for the warming operation. Losses due to infiltration are part (0) Insulted and unheated. (6) Uninsuted and unheated (not recommended) (@ incited and ested e Fig 9.7 Bdge conditions that determine heat los rates (F) Bash pet foot of slabedge (building perimeter for slab at or near grade See Table 9.13 for values of F Insulation should be fibrous, water resistant, total of 24 in. wide end 1 or Uf in. thick, 37. Use col R = 3.5, Table 9.13, UE =55 Uae col Ra $0, Teie 913 Deaails (6) prefered, especialy in residencesHeat Loss ofthe heat loss calculations. Weatherstripping, reduces the rate of air infiltration. Houses are somewhat tighter than they were in former years. This.is good, yet there are reasons why excessive tightness should not, be sought. Moisture produced by cooking, bathing, and laundering, and trapped in a tight house will condense on cold exterior glass. Lack of fresh air will finally result in ‘unpleasant house odors. The exhausting of air by fans in kitchens and baths and at laundry dryers helps to solve problems of moisture and odor concentrations. The air ejected from the house must be replaced. If the house has very tight doors and windows, air is some- times unexpectedly drawn down through the flues of fireplaces and heating boilers, dis- turbing their combustion processes and caus- ing the introduction of dangerous carbon ‘monoxide into the rooms. In large buildings, outdoor air for ventilation is delivered to the rooms at carefully planned rates to reduce ‘odors and to replace the air exhausted by fans from congested or odorous areas. In this case aslightndoor pressure reduces the accidental infiltration that would normally oecur at the cracks of exterior openings. The air for venti- lation must be warmed before it is admit- ted, a measure somewhat impractical in houses, except in those using forced warm air heating systems. ‘There are two methods of establishing the amount of air that will enter a room by infiltration in an hour. One of these, the crack method, uses the rate of ait infiltration through one foot of crack between sash and frame or between door and frame, These “values are established by experience and tests. ‘They vary with the velocity of the wind. Since no more than two exterior walls of a room ‘can face the wind, it is suggested that, in rooms with three exposures, the openings in the two adjacent walls having the most ‘openings be used. ‘Although the crack method was long fa- vored as being more accurate; recent studies hhave indicated that the second method, the air-change method, is just as satisfactory es- pecially for small buildings and residences. See Table 9.14 It ig assumed that the air in the room ar chianges # to 2 times per hour depending on the number of walls that have openings. In ‘a room with openings on one side the air may ‘be expected to change ence per hour, Each hour @ roomful of air must be heated from outside temperature to that of the room. In very large buildings iis sometimes customary in calgulating the heat loss for the entire building, to deduct one half of the sum of the infiltration losses from all of the rooms. This is Based on the belief that air wil enter the openings on the windward side only, which représents about half of the exterior faces of the building, It is usually not done for houses or stall buildings, where the total loss is assumed to be the sum of all the room losses including. in cach case the infiltration in the room. EXAMPLE 93, Using the air change méthod, find the rate of infiltration in cu ft/hr of outdoor air entering aroom 10 x 15 ft x 8 ft high with openings on one side. SOLUTION, Table 9.14 shows that, for rooms ‘with openings on one side only, the rate of probable infiltration should be one air change per hour. Therefore the rate would be 10 x 15 x 8 x 1 = 1200 ex /hr. After the nate of flow of outdoor air into the space is established, the caleulation for hourly heat loss as a result of infiltration is as follows: the heat required to raise 1 1b of air 1° F is 024 Btu. This is the value of specific heat for air. The density of air may bbe assumed to be represented-by an average! value of 0.075 Ib per ou ft. If, for example, -the-outdoor-and -iridoor-temperatures.are-0- and 70° F respectively, the hourly heat loss jin warming the air in the room described in the foregoing Example 93 would be 1200 x 0.075 x 0.24 x 70 = 1480 Btu. Since the product of the two constants, den- sity’ and specific heat, is 0.075 x 0.24 = 0.018, the expression usually used for heat lost by infiltration is cu fi/hr x 0.018 x At = Btuh — (1) where At is the temperature difference be- tween indoor and outdoor air.us 13, Indoor and Outdoor Temperatures. In the design for a controlied environment, temper- ature is only one of many items to be con- sidered. Chapter 8 deals with the various conditions involved in the total design. Since hourly heat loss rates from buildings with known U-values depend on the temperature differential between inside and outside air, some thought must be given to the selection of appropriate temperatures. The range of ‘outdoor design temperatures in the United States extends from plus 40 in southern Flor- fda to minus 50 in Montana, as shown in Fig, 9.8, This map has been included to facil- itate a general grasp of winter conditions throughout the United States. More detailed data may be found in Table 10.1 If one considers the example of a heated residence, the indoor temperature of which is usually 75° F, the design differential Florida will be 35° F and in Montana 125° F. It is reasonable to expect that the heating system in the Montana residence should have four-times the output capacity of that in the ‘Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings Florida residence. ‘The comparative yearly fuel use is additionally related to the number of the degree days in the two locations. It should be understood that the tempera~ tures given in Fig. 98 arenot the lowest ever recorded in each locality. These will often be several “degrees lower. The récomimiehded ‘outdoor temperature for heating design rep- resents the concensus of many heating de- signers about the correct temperature as- sumption for a satisfactory system. To make the system much larger to cope with an in- frequent critical day is usually unnegessary. For instance, in Boston, Massachusetts, where the design temperature is zero, the tempera- ture has been found'to drop to minus 8° F conce in 40 years and! to minus 2° F once in 20 years. If, on these few days, the house temperature cannot be kept above 68 or 73°F, the slight discomfort will have to be tolerated. 14, Heat Losses from Buildings. The. hourly rate of heat loss from a building when the indoor temperature is maintained daring Fig. 98 Suggested outdoor temperatures for beating design. Se alto Table 10.1Heat Loss us Table 9.1. (Example 94) Values for Use in Calculations of Hourly Heat Lose of House in Figures 9.9 and 9.10. See Table 8.2, poge 152. Design Conditions Indoor temperature 70 F U-Coeffcients Outdoor temperature zero (Fig, 9.8) Wind velocity 15 mip Building Surface Materials UCoeficent Wall, lower sory 8 in. brick, 1 im rigid insulation air space, metal lath 3 in. plaster 0138 Walls, upper story Lin, wood, # in: plywood, 0084 Roof over living, dining, built-up roofing, 2 in. insulation, enity, lounge 3 in, wood 086 Roof, elsewhere bwil-up roofing, 1 in. wood, Soi 4 in. insulation, meta lath, in. plaster 00s7 Wood doors 1 in. thick 0.48 Fixed glass, insulating, double, } in. space 06s Giass in wood sash single 1.13 x 090 = 1.02 Walls Below Grade 4 Brub per sq f of wall Basement Floors 2 Btuh per sq fof floor Edge Lass, Stab on Grade with Radiant Coils 32 Btuh per linear fof edge (at zero outdoor temperature) Infiltration, air change method critically cold outdoor temperatures is the basis for the selection of a proper central heating unit. The net or minimum rating of the boiler or furnace must match or exceed slightly the heat loss rate of the building. The convectors, radiators, and air registers,.de- pending on the kind of system used, must be Of proper size in each space to make up for the heat loss in that space. Spaces are some- times grouped to give the heat loss in a se- lected “zone” of control with its own separate circulator pump, motorized valve, fan, or even a separate heating unit. EXAMPLE 9.4. An example of typical heat Joss calculation summaries is given in Table 9.2, based on coefficients in Table 9.1 which relates to the house pictured in Figs. 9.9 and 9.10. Im practice, calculations are somewhat more detailed than this, including computa- ons of the areas of all surfaces. For brevity in this example, adjacent small rooms are ‘gfouped (see Table 13.7). When selecting the heating units for these rooms; the heat losses ‘iust be calculated separately. The floor of the lower story is on the ground and is ‘warmed by radiant cols. It is correct t0.a5- sume. edge Josses in rooms such as the play- room which is level with the ground. For the cellar and the lauindry-storage space, separate elow-grade “floor losses (Table 9.12) in Bhu/sq ft were used because these spaces are a story below grade. 15. Condensation and Vapor Barriers. The air in houses has, atall times, a humidity content. During cold’ weather when windows and15011Table 92 (Example 94) Hourly Heat Loss Calculations for House in Figures 8.9 and 9.10 A. Typical Calculations for 2 Selected Rooms Space lem Upper Floor ‘Living wal Dining Glass, double Door Roof, aflration Lower Floor Playroom = Wall Door Glass, double Slab edge Infiltration Area, Volume or Length 0 288 21 600 1,800 cu fi/hr 31 21 217 34 linear ft 1,600 cu ft/hr U-Coeffciens or Other Unit x 0094 x 065 x 048 0.086 x 0018 x 0138 x 048 x 065 x 32 Bu/ft x 0018 Difference, Inside to Outside® x70 x70 x70 x70 x70 x70 x70 x70 x70 Heat Lass, Biuh 460 13,100 70 3,600 2,300 20,170 300 70 9,850 1,090 oil 3970 B. Summary of Room Totals from Caleulations Similar to Those in Section A Above and Total ‘Heat Loss for the Entire House Space Upper Floor Living-dining Library Bedroom No. 1 Summary Dressing room and baths Kitchen-breakfast Lower Floor Playroom Bedroom No, 2 Bedroom No. 3 Dressing room and baths Cellar Laundry-storage Maid’s room and bath Two-Story Space Entry, well, and Total lounge Heat Loss, Buh 20,170 4,590 9270 13070 1190 13970 4,680 11,480 14470 64,290 60,460 356 i Unless otherwise indicate, the numbers in this column are ares in equare fect 570° chown nae fpr aa heaig gh MR. Wi conn! hag, we 75° fo comfoto comply with ASHRAE standard 55-66, ee * ‘erHeat Loss doors are closed, the humidity may be re- duced by exhaust fans in kitchens and baths or it may be increased by bumidifying de- vices. The latter process was important when houses were draughty, permitting a large infiltration of dry outdoor ar, always very low in absolute moisture content, to replace the indoor air which had picked up humidity from the processes of bathing, cooking, and Iaundering. Under normal circumstances and without mechanical humidification, the rela- tive humidity in modern, tight houses is usu- ally about 35 percent at 70° F, which is quite moist enough for comfort and health. Indeed, if it were very much greater, there might be considerable difficulty caused by conden- sation on the cold surfaces of rooms, espe~ Gilly on glass. Reference to the psychro- metric chart, Fig. 12.9, will show that air at 70° F and 35 percent RH has a dew point of 41°. The moisture in this air will condense on surfaces that are at or below this temper- ature. The dew point is found by carrying a horizontal (constant moistare content) line to the left from the intersection of the 70° verti- cal line and 35 percent RAT to the saturation curve. Conversely, if the inside surface tem- peratures are known, the corresponding rela- tive humidities that can be “tolerated” may ‘Temperature Drop Marit ‘en Fe Gis, angle nox 9 one ovble 70x 98 28 ie 0.69. oper sory 10x was 153 be found, The temperatures of single glass, double glass, and an upper-story wall in the house in Fig. 9.9 are 21, 42, and 65.5°F respectively under conditions of steady-state flow from indoor air at 70° F to outdoor air at zero. The relative humidities that could be tolerated without condensation would be, respectively, 15, 36, and 85 percent. It is evident that condensation might be expected. ‘on the single glass but not on the double glass or the surface of the wall. Placing the heating elements below the glass improves this situa tion because the glass is warmed. | »| a8 aw | a| a» ae an || a a eat eteaoks [etre rae se) wef Sef te pS pind mer) ao [ef | oof a fot Espn pyran 1 Se. was | mo | cam | S| ae = ‘ets i ta pe) eam} = | me |Table 83 (Continued) asco (R) fag | stn | cnt | conte | rek |F i Usp | Tap | “ilay | oer” | sine | edad soe Dowie om | |e | | "Gm | “woe ‘Ended poms earls os) sl m@>- )e. yj a | -o | a | = tis apnda payne mee de wf Blam] ro | & (Cone | on oe 0 | te a ad ome] eee ele Mie rar we ed ‘Cn ort nae en | ston | | am foo fol | am |r wl - | om ae wy = | oe} > | im 5 ae Se ow ti em | — | ar Poste (expanded) sono | “9% | 03 = 26 @{.oe} = | oe eo] ex | = | a 2] = 35 Samo sags amis | as | ows | > ‘Sex woop te | | an | = Se} as pS ce | as = 8 erie pide) wa |e l-oa | 2 | oe <0 | os 2a = o | 0 2 = o | os 2 7Table 9:3 (Continued) | enc (Spm | Tere | ey | Se” | sme | Ste ari Dewrpin om |F | Te | | "wa" | “wor Rtn | Reta tre tw “spent wle [as] - | el - |e srroama ps | se] o | aw] co | Neem we] > [oe] o } ae | oe fem Beeld) eae ele ten Sree eye aS te ee Lipimipt nape ning gt | 20 ee SS, Sayetpe coin | to se] = | oe | i te voce a ae | % se | = » ao | = [iw | = te aa | = | mae | = Sei = | me] = | {= | wm) 2 | a See wi led cr =} sp i] Si) s |e 7 “ost s = os - 126 Seakoe te z:l-z oo | = | ieTable 9.3 (Comcluded) (tips | top | Sip | Coe” | Sime | Se et Powe om || @ | @ |"um | “wo sr 7 = fae) = | as open peace eer ene wlio] os ain Lpmeat jel s | & em engi eeaine ge] S| = | a cape 3 | & oy | Sn cee | oe | pec ie} as | = | ah Scimpoccosatna! te | |e See Sind pepe os wot =| 5 = | we Nema one sis wo | roam ‘etree ig m=) sl - bw) - | a ‘paar ag Poel | eee ee ae ‘pa | m | 3) = | ou ae my 2] s nm oes ee ade Seles Ree | eet ene ia eae wm |x ae | - | ar ‘Gotan | Vind leas i cpmte 2) el 2 | ue] = | a ot doe 6 ai apne Z| k ou | = | te Sotpetat nde ted ge | — | me] = | an | = | te sng ‘atorcene in ped - | sf - | om] - | ow Saar =| os) =] a] = | oe Aah ig ig i = [| 2] 2] ae} 2 fe ‘Woo aap 1 DT] RB) l) Bl] ole er ef pe D] Be) 5] my) = | Woot bows $310 appet =| se] 5] a) = | te Seat a here =} se} 5] Sy) lt | sale eet eee eel |e tee = Eerste S| 3) a] 2] | Fepoessdaminrcamer ge | | me) | im | | oe fe | 2 | s] = | om | = | ae ae| | 3 oe | = | ae | 2 | es] =| | oie oe fr ate 23 ‘apenas ey mate ime te ASHRAE Tech Comite 240 latin Ty einen sis pein) SE ig cmc a mo sy sp pie my ee nd ‘atin vat te mepoal of € bee runing Ce in! po. Stabe Ing Mealy Bow nate pope ting tl ng i ny. ace wee he non oe» amb hein eer) en re 0 ‘eg 39 wc ge a ae ea we "Tae efor aged ar ek ‘rf ey in eyed et pS deh te tin A en wmews, of Comme, Spied Pra Ramin fr Thora Cndne Facto Pf Abe Dh RT, No/R 2755 reps eco mine ce af he Cater he ean sea akan oa oe es Thetice, ts pl yaa sacar may vay Sopening te mndciy fn fe por ano “Eee ne tt he Re ie ns Ws ey ite em a oa a age "an cap cron cs iis om the sve ao a ct ide capt, deen met eis tak oy ters sot mg. Wald one ole cs bt eae, vn ‘Nigh i srmty Mi hand i Te weirs ef cig a tc es "Nema, eB crm wel ti, Wheto veri or er pronto ep natin dy. opi by he Amen Sty and Ae Contig Eas, ‘re ASHRAE Hock &x oe Meg Retin cig Reged perio ASH 158Table 94 Surface Conductances and Resistances for Air All conductance values expressed in Bru per (hr) (sq ft) (F deg temp diff) SECTION A, Surface Condtuctances for Still Air* i ‘Surface Emissivity, ‘Non reflective Reflective eee ¢=090 <= 020 Position of Surface Heat Flow ¢ R c r|clieR ‘Stil air Horizontal... . Upward 163 | as1 | on | 120 | 076 | 132 Sloping—45 deg Upward 160 | 062 | oss | 224 | 073 | 1. Vertical... Horional | 146 | 068 | 074 | 135 | 059 Sloping—45 deg Downward | 132 | 976. | 060 | 107 | o4s Horizontal Downward | Los | 92 |: 037 | 270 | a2 Moving air ‘Any Position) 15 mph Wind lor winter) Any 600 | 017 Ty mph Wind (for summer). Any 400 | 025 SECTION B. Reflectivity and Emissivity Values of Various Surfaces and Effective Emissivities of Air Spaces ‘Efectioe Emisiviy E of Air Space Average | “ingemis | With both efecivity | missy | sitye and | surfaces of Surface in Percent c other 090 | misty ¢ ‘Aluminum fo bright BF | 005 oas—-} — 00s ‘Attninum shes. 801095 on O12 005 ‘Aiiminam coated paper, polished 131084 o20 020 ou Sito, galvanized, bright. 010% 035 os 01s ‘Alumium paint - 3007 030 oar 035 Building materials: wood, ‘apenas, masonry, onmetlic pains S015 030 om 092 “SConductances are for surfaces of the stated emisivity facing virtual blackbody surroundings atthe same tem- perature atthe ambient air. Valuds are based on a rurface-ar temperature diference of 10 deg and for surface temperature of 70°F. (Corpuight by the American Society of Heating Reftigersting and Ain Conditioning Engineers Inc. Reprinted by pemnision ftom ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1967. 150Table 85 Thermal Conductonces and Resistances of Plane* Air Space” Air Spee im Theme Peston | Diectin Themal Cone Tama Roane 4 of | Mion | Temp Fale of BF Tole of 5 be ses | Tempe | Die Soe | me | "P| Pe Pom [om | | os fom] om [om] | os [am | 10 | om | om [os | aoe | um | aw [ape | o | oa | oe 3 | 3 | ast | om | on | io | ide] te tar | 257 Pt | ae 5 | io | Oas | 04s | 059 | ae | tis | 223 [22s | 27 | tue | aan oi. | Up @ | a | ass | ase | ose | x6 | ior | as) Zoe | tm | rae) oss & | io | G6 | Ga | ase | one | ase | 327] 226 | ize | sas | aan wo | 2 | oan | 05 | Seg | aam’| ass | im | tar | tae | 12s | tos Tia | fo | Gay | Gee | 055 | ave | Sas | ae | or | ta | tae | ade 30 | 1 [om | 036 Pass | oar | ie] aor] 201 [uso | nis | car 3 | fos | ost | ous | ase | tan | a2} 23s | Sse | uo | oss o 50 | i | oat | ase | aso | am | to | 25] 27m | Zor | 130 | aoe soge | Up 0 | a | aas | oat | ase | ar | ass | ase] ar | i70| tas | tar © | io | ass | as | om [om | tas | 2a] 22 | 205) 29 | as nso | a | 030 | ost | ase | ar | cas | Zoe | ae | are | han | te Zo | ae | Sas | oae | ols | ons | 06] 25> | 200 | dir | 29 co | wm | om [oa | oa [ow | ue | as] sz [2m | uz | ase 3 | 35 | 03 | 036 | 04s | are | ton | 255] 2a | 3oe | 23 | a6 5 | a0 |oz | 02 | om | am | os | 37] 34e | 26 | re | 101 vereat | soe | “0 | a> | 031 | om | Gam | Om | Gus | 225 | Sto | 236 | rae | rs & | Wo | oas | oar | oa7 | ost | om | aoe] 2% | 2m | 176 | ae ws | m | om | eas | oa | Ose | oss | 05] aay | 2ar | tas | tee = |__| oat | oa | of | Gas | oss | eas | tap | Sas | 2a | 1 x | 1 | om [ast [oa Jom | us| as) sae | 2 | ua | ase 3 | 0 | oa | os | oae | an | oss | er | S2r | 2ae | Tar | tor co 5 | io | oas | oas | om | us | oss | sar] 257 | 200 | ts | sor spe | pom | °O | ap | ods | ox | O57 | ase | om | Sap] aes | 2a | ate | tr © | to | 083 | 035 | O3s | ass | tas | eda | toe | 2a | dae | ar nso | 2 | 035 | aa6 | 035 | oar | oa | as | S50 | Sos | 203 | ter Zio | jo | oat | 02 | 035 | 6 | oss | tse os | 34s | 3 | 12 a Linch Thome pee Tiana! Conconee—€ Thema Rean—R gy oF” | mc | ston ais " ne a ie 8. Seco | ow | “a |" Tam Too | a2 [os Pom | om [om | 2 | [om w@ [oa fost [ows [om | us| ase| sas | 2a | ar | ame a | | ode | os | ome | 0 | ass | aaa | 355 | 255 | rae | So | 2s | 02s | 03s | ass | as | ae] tor | aan | aan | a7 = | on | oa | om [ow | ose | Ge] tor | 2 | 28 | im go [aw [ors | ox fan | um | so] am | a7 | nee | om Noss 5 So | aie | or | ost | ass | om | aar| 7 | a3 | am | te oa ‘0 | ox | 04s | 025 | ons | a6 | z2a.) 639 | 397 | 201 | 130 aso | iz | os | ozo | abe | osm | ear] tan | eas | dem | 2a 9@ | 010 | or | 30 | ast | uo | om] aoe | aa] i | am | 3 | 80s | om | eas | as | ass | sor | aoe | aan | tar | tas © | eos | oo | ais | oss | asi | r24 | sao" | 20 | 254 | ts = | ton | om | tis | as | os | rea | ia | a3s | Sam | 20 160Table 9.5 (Concluded) se se tin Pine poe ee Toma Goce Tema Rack z 7 | som | timp re Vee of 5 Air ‘Heat | Temps | Diggs om oF See | Me | | PG Pom [om | os [os [om | om] om | a2 | os [om a] wm | oat | 0x6 | or] aan | ae | anv ars Luar uae [am B |S [Sh | ete | eee | am | cir | 2 | Zoe [ tar | tas | as 3 | | ods | O5r | ose | aoe | tor | an | Sze | toe | te | aoe note | up | | [ae | oq | ess | ars | ane | 2ar | 2er | tar | tay | tas & | i] aoe | aar | aan | om | om | a | or | 217 | ta | ure oi | 3 [oa | aa | om | eer | ome | 377 | 2 | 2a | tas | too ZB |B [0% | 0m | wi | cen | ors | Seu | Sar | Zio | cas | Tae | fost | ox pos] os iar] a) am awa) aw 3% | 3 Joa | oa | ose | ams | tue) aae| azn | iar | tur) ous as Bo] [eh [0% | oe | ak | te] dia] dae | 223 | a5: | aoe so | up | | B [om | oa | as] en | om | 20] 20 | ios to | tan o | mf ese | ext | oats | ass | Sam | Zor | 2m | Ebr | ty -8 | & |G] oq | cm | og | am | 2m | au | Sm | tan | ce 2h |B |S [aS | os | O8 | om | Sor | dm | 200 | | tar |e pear pom Pea Paar Pur | am | aa Pa | 23 [oar SB | 3 [eae [sk [es [em | ten | ar] eh | ise | | aoe oe w | 027 | 029 | a43 | 070 | 099 | 269] 245 | 24) 1a | Lor vest | mse |S | Bm [ean | as | cis foe | Gar | aoe | aoe [aa | 1 | ite & | i | eae | ta | om | os | ant | a5 | aa | 25s | tas | 10 od |B YS LAE | 88 | 88 | om | tee | ae | 2 | | Lo Z| io | tas | aan | oor [ost | our | aes | aye | 2m | tos | b30 : So] wpe [om | om fom an | amr] as | a0] cae | oe | 5 [x [cas | om | om | om | Sar| Sm | 25 | tae | Son “ Bo} Lea Lak [SS | Oe | ass | am | da | Sa | i | ae oll | pw | 3 | Bf oat | mt | oar | aay | om | Soe | Se | an | ts | a & | 3 | Gar | cas | exe | ss | one | tor | o> | as | ta | Las a8 |B] [Ge | a | om | co | Ser] ae | Sor | Zee | Cae 28 |B [ae | 82 | ode | oes | oem | eer | eo | aoe | 2a to “sin Dep os Dn pre of pit Cnc Ve end 0k TA Ss y wae | ane E Dons of | en ome. | Top. Di. fea Fee i tf (we [ae [a] se ae ° * [os]. |] |) i -0 20 +100 +100 +86 +63 +34 ° w | aus | aus foe | - | = 3 g [mm | ee | tay oy] s tn ° 3 | ca | a | cst | we ok o 0 - 80 et = 64 - = 8 | raS | fas | cee | tis a] | yl) se eee | es ” wo) ais | amas [ate 3 |e ys 2 e | tm | te f te | ta | te a ° perme Oa cst ane ee need 3 Bop He te pote pts | cs a [os foe | 8 | = “Spats of wien GRhaes toaned by soderaly mot on ‘SHER udn Screed ach elspa ofennacance hat wr win =50 pret of te dat except eee rude byte eof santas opts towing Tate 95, For mane cae von the frase = values are permissible for other values of mean temperature, tempera aR as cine canal E Caactnce aca ford sad SO" F mean tepsauss were exoplned fm the ‘pret daa wang» ines corn ‘Bn many gens gen = M~ whee an emit of te ri fe rapa Ges ooln Babe 9) eee es tom te sonhip R= 1/¢ pie 1 oundig Of theondutane val 10 two ‘esaal pags tr tbasicn, ‘Sexes ton! een Standards ata pose Hoang Research Paes No 12 Howsng nd Home Finns Agency, Jo2 apes of Deco US Covemment Maung te, Wengen 2, DC). ‘ke Geacunts of horton sac wt xo conned re bat indrpedet of emperatar ieea Tas cs er ae cigesng ted A Conny agi ne Reprid oy formas OM 7 161Table 8.6 Coefficients of Transmission (U) of Frame Walls ‘These coefficients are expressed in Bru per (hour) (square foot) (Fahrenheit degree difference in tem- ‘perature between the air on the tvo sides), and are based on an outside wind velocity of 15 mph Exanple—Wall D4 ‘Resitanes usd are given low i hs {Abe or in Tale 83 or 83 Example of Substation ‘able rin Table 33 or 83 ‘Resorts ad ae gion below this comme esa) | Rep me wih ‘men (1 mph wing) =? | Seaing i) an to tad? 2 Sng oot fn Ps appa Spree eines} me as | toa eae on acta TONITE ns | Baling as 4 tng 22S a | PE Nabe in a ime om |S eypemuhgin)- oan P| Geta di to | Tt mteoctant gg) Gin) a as 1 Mase nt) a) tm — alll es 0 | sams : i PTTL] | eit 20) ERR asso ales as 12345678 tual minme eens A Veame ye LL SL] Sonmmna gina. aes ast serie Ot blip in abi | To nce ie Dewmevsih aus dit ts Cos i Aen cs Fr Mbo,SsTFO Drea Saag Tron None, | Gyp- woot | 5am ble | so. | rye | Bi, [SE tor | tare] wo nue] | ecm | 1 || OP [vee] a sar ss "ET ope [ows [03s | tat [ums Pane = wlet a telels ert a| Mew stele tete elle Rowe T= fom [om [ome | eae fuss fox] a expan in) faa] azn | oa» | ean | eas [oas aan yp th) ad apa. Tew ae ass| oso | oar | oar} 02s [ozz [oa] 5 Vad ig oy ak ys in pi Depa xt 0. joat| 0x2 | 2. | 020] 0ae _|oas = o ry ped Giaxt Me thai. pi. 3 a| 02s Moc wesas) owr| 021 | oa Jaze | o2¢ |o2z|ass| s pen Si pie (cad) Jors| 035 | ox faa} 02s foas|oai} 6 ot etoges Gicetmre 47] fine wt Gind tas|o2e | oz2 [oz] 01s jase ore} 7 wos pinta i a in) an = ao] | pstand oe) 12] oa | oz fez) ai fais lose) s Pyrond ost] 032 | oa» | 030] 025 |a2s| oa » face at i se ear | eas | eas] azz [aan aas| ee oh and tends) -Joso|os2 | eae [029] oat _|oas faas| Cc he Anca Soy of Het. Roging sd Ar-Gicing Eps, Ic anc ty perminion ftom ASHRAE Handbook of Pandiments, 1967 182‘Table 9.7 Coefficients of Transmission (U) of Masoriry Walle Coefficients are expressed in Bau per (hour) (square foo!) (Fahrenheit degree difference in temperature between the air on the two sides), and are based on an outside wind velocity of 15 mph Eeoyh m6 1 Ena of ion Raigad pone Tas a obo mr coment est) | Rant 7 wn rn a) ge 1 Dare ph wn crt | "Te apa Oe tg ie i heta ort) Yip | retro a2 5 Comet ere 1 fio | Basare Sypm @25 on 5 come nn in) tay | OOS metas dD co me oe om “= Gym ua dig @ Be i ae | RSS vor as TILL Vereen fag | 7 Mot and or 1 {ae raf Cour ah ton en rig Sr ae pmo tah tah) | nd ie |stats ms] “Tmt “Sabin | a tee \PRaS'| tint Fee [ie mer | me ‘oregon | ha oe wt [ ce | | Bot | cam] ld rasan) |e [nad a | ead || S59 | am) [oun [| sed ee Fag meting fo ee] aut | ar | ar | ae [an] aw | oe | ras] 22 Gua teind™ | 232] om | na» | oss | as | axe | aan] eae | 02s |021| am | 036 | 1 tee) [te | om | bu | ab Lae |r | ao] an | a fouslou [am | di) |15) 0m | oo |] Ga | on | ca] om | at |in) ah jon | 3 ane) es” | 28} ass | aoe | apn | as | a3 | one} a2e | azr [as| aus | ase | « eet fos | 00] | am | ob | am | on | ej at | emo anlar fon |s wa ow dams |r| om| am | a | am | am || em | ab [air] aie |om | sar eure | - 2 | Te an Gay |ar|aw | es | am | am-| 02 | o29| a2 | ox [oz|en | om nemamace Jam] ear |‘ur) on | 6m | fos | a | Soe | egy] ae | Sas Jaat| om | ox ‘eon ca) [3] 058 | ar | Rib | tar | eas | OSs} as | ae [am] ae | ae ena] | at ye i Teas | aur | ae | os | ss as | o32| 026 | aas |ast| oa | oae [x0 toms | tas] eon | aon | as | oa | ae | cag] naz | om [us| ate | oa Jin cosy (25/0 | 03 | at is | O58] am | in | he| a | aie fae ‘Bud < “ety” |az2| aso|.ose| sao | 036 | 9x2 | ane] ea | os |o2s| ax [om | fein) eaa| ss [| om | ams | aor | nar} oat | as |eae) am | ent [x 0) [fm] on | Gao | ser | oa | Gan | ear] on | eax [2s [aaa [em jar ‘To aj ulcer tit fed inno eee ing member, Te 99. ‘Coppi ye mens Sy of Meng Refund Conse Ege oe Ext ypaton a ASMA Hobos tment 163Table 98 Coafcients of Transmission (U) of Wood or Metal Construction Flat Roofs and Ceilings (Winter Conditions, Upword Fle) Coefficients are expressed in Btu per (hour) (square foot) (Fahrenheit degree difeence in temperature bbenveen the air on the two sides), and are based upon an outside wind velocty of 15 mph aot? 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HPT (ponupuog) 6 a2, 1672960 enemy on 6 uhog ml nes panedsns ayy agoqe 20 sof usawag sande a amp 18) pause 2} YOR GF SOY saHPO oH anes uu 51 pu ‘@a'9 = 3) axtoogasuon 5 “Hoot J0 sioneisduoy ureure paw Swe of are ayy B3p 3 .c€ Jo aoutepyp ainreradwoy ¥ wo pare, 0800 cio | v0 | e500 | veo | soo | soo] coo | choo] oso ai wo e600 e300 | 6600 |r900 | tooo | ss00 | oso | 6e00 | x00 | s50°0 san oro seo zoo | woo | soro coro | oro | 1s00'| s900 3600 zo Le0'0 soo | suo | vero woro | oro | 9500 | «00 nro eo zoo | $900 | ero sivo | esto | ss00 | tuo | ero 8300 Go | sao | vsr0 sero | osra | oso | seo wx10 aro 600 oso | s600 |. gor0 sero | oo¢a | 2500 | 1200 sno ozo wo zoo | seo | zero wro | occa | s900| sa00 sr zo 000 ss0'0 s6r'0 ‘tO | OFO | S90} L800 | 910 0 00 #500 co taro | oso | 9900 } 6800 suo sco 200 500 zo sro | owco | e900 | t600 vero | eo 200 500 vezo stro | ov¢o | 6800 | coo wro oro e100 9500 reco zero | osco | woo | e600 zzo seo woo 1500 1600 s0co | ooro | veo0 | toro ovo oro woo ss00 sico ceco-| oso | sco] roro oreo so so 6500 one'o eco | ros | se00-} oro oso 00 9000 0900 sac asco | zo90 | soo |. oso #80 050 on0°0 1300 ero asco | oxo | oso0 | erro soo oo a [ea u sife{f[ezfsf{s]rfletle 1° soo | oo | wo | soo | oco | evo | soo | oco | wo | « | «| i | owen az adinssug cancels | 9 shana aonolis |g .trowemg sonal saypuy—ss2.ep mL eer fo szo0ds ay 2004, fo sends any OME Se andy ay mg eoyoynsuy snaugey “ (womppuog sowuns) nag ope Wop — eu HO 1 (vapmeueg) oom = &Table 10 Coefficients of Transmission (U) of Windows, Skylights, ond Light Tronsmitting Partitions Part A—Vertical Panels (Bsterior Windows and Perttions)—Flat Glas, Glase Block, and Plastic Sheet Exterior® Description Winter Summer Interior Flat Glass Single glass us 1.06 073 Insulating glass—double® ‘in. air space 0.69 068 ost Fin. air space _ 065: ost 099 Fin. air space 058 056 046 Insulating glass—triple® ‘Fin. air spaces oa7 043 038 in. sir spaces 036 035 030 Storm windows Vin. in, air space 056 ose 04s Glass Block* 6x 6 x 4 in, thick 060 ost 046 8x8 x 4 in, thick 036 056 oe with cavity divider 048 0.46 038 12x 12 x din. thick 052 050 oat vith cavity divider oat 02 036 12x 12 x2 in. thick 0.60 ost 046 Single Plastic Sheet, 109 1.00 | __070 Description Flat Glass _—_| ‘Single glass - iB Insulating glass—double?— hin. airspace 075 ‘Pin. air space 0.70. Yin. air space 0.66 ‘Glass Block* 11x 11 x 3 in. thick with cavity divider 053 12 X 12 4 in. thick with eavity divider 051 Plastic Bubbles! Single walled Lis Double walled 070Table 9.10 (Concluded) ‘Fort C—Adjsiment Factors for Vorious Window Types (Multiply U-oalues in Farts A and B by These Fectors) Double or Window Description Single Glass Triple Glass ‘Storm Windows Al Glass 100 1.00 1.08 ‘Wood Sash—80% Glass 080 095 : 090 ‘Wood Sash—60% Glass 080 085 080 Metal Sash—80% Glass 1.00 120 1.30h *Sce Par C for adjustment for variows window types. ‘Double and tiple refer to the umber of lights of glass, ‘Dimensions are nominal For heat Bow up. “For heat low down, ‘Based on area of opening, not total suiface area. ‘Refers to windows With negligible opaque ara. Value becomes 1.00 when stm sish s separated from prime window by a thertil break. ‘Copyright bythe Amescan Society of Heating, Refiigevating and. Air-Conditioning Enginoer, Ine. Reprinted by Periision ftom ASWRAE Handbook of Fundamental, 1967. Table9.12 Coeficients of Transmission (U) for Solid Wood Doors ‘Btu per (hr) (99 fd (F Deg) Winter ‘Storm Door* ‘Summer Thicknese* | No Storm Door | Wood | Metal | No Storm Door Lin. 064 ‘030 | 039 O61 Win. oss 028 | 034 053 Hin, a9 027 | 033 oar 2in. 043 024 | 029 0.2 + Nominal thickness. Values for wood siorm doors ae for approximately 50 percent gas; for metal sionm doors values apply for.aay percent of glass. ‘Copyright by the American Society of Heating, Refnigerating and Ait- Contiioning Engineem, Ine, Reprinted by pesmision from ASHRAE . Handboak of Fundamenias, 1967. : Table 9.12 Below Grade Heat Lowes for Basement Walls Ground Basement Floor Below Grade Water Loss" Wall Loss» Temperature Beu/Sq Ft Beu/Sq Fe 0 30 60 30 20 40 © 10. 20 ‘Based on basement temperature of 70° F and U of 0.10, "Assumed rice basement fcr loss. Copyright by the American Society of Heating, Refigerating and Aire Conditioning Engineers, In. Reprinted by permission from 4SHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1967, 170Heat Loss m Table 9.13. (See also Fig, 9.7) Heat Loss of Concrete Floors at or Near Grade Level per Foot of Exposed ge Heat lss per foot of exposed slab Value of F for Unheated Slo Outdoor Design | Total Weath of of F fr Uahenied Sib Temperature, F | Insulation, In| R= 50| R= 395] R= 250 =30 and colder| 24 “| st @ =25 to -29| ey z | w@ | 6 =20 0 24 4 wo | s | =15 to —19 py w | ® 37 = 10% —18 4 | 7 | we) se sw 9 24 3) x | 5 ow 4 2 mw | so] a | m | a +5041 4 n| xs | # | w | 4 0 +1010 + 6 8 2 | se | a | 2 | 3s 50 4150411 2 a | ou a | 2 | 3 | 50 #2010 416 | Edge onty | 21 | 31 2 | 3 | 3 30 ‘Thermal resistance of insulation, 1/C. ‘Where perimeter insulation isnot required, use F = 40 for unheated slabs oF 175 for heated slabs, Slab doors having heating pipes or ducs der the lab shall be considered as hoated sds. Copyright bj the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineer Inc. Reprinted by permission from ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1967. References Table %14 Air Changes Taking Place unider Average Conditions in Residences, Ezclusice of Air Provided for Ventilation* Number of Air Changes Taking Place per Hour a 1 Kind of Room or Building ‘Rooms with no windows or exterior doors Rooms with windows or-exterior doprs on one side Rooms with windows or exterior doors on two sides ‘Rooms with windows or exterior doors on three sides ‘Entrance halls ee ‘For rooms with weatherstipped windows or with sim sash, use jthese values Copyright by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Inc. Reprinted by permission from ASHRAE Handiook of Panda. Se reno een ss = 1. Design of Insulated Buildings for Various Climares, 1. ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals, 1967, Chapters Tyler Stewart Rogers, F. W. Dodge Corp, a Division 25, 26, and 27, The East 7 Street, New York, N.Y, 10017. ‘American Society of Heating of McGraw-Hill, Inc, 330 West 2 Suect, New York, fnd Air Conditioning Engineer, 345 N.Y, 1036. 4, “Plastic Foams for Therinal Insolition™ Petcr W. 2. The Weather Conditioned Howse, Groff Conklin, Sherwood, Air Conditioning, Heating and Ventilaing, Reinhold Publishing Corp, 430 Park Avenue, New Tune, 1967, Industrial Press Inc, 200 Madison AY- ‘York, NY. 10022 feaue, New York, N. ¥, 10016