Italy before 1914

Origin of the Italian State

The unification of Italy is known as the Risorgimento. It occurred between the years 1859 and 1870.
The Italian nationalists saw the unification as a great triumph which helps to increase the sense of
nationalism within Italy. However, the critics of Risorgimento saw it as a product of diplomatic
manoeuvres led by politicians who were distrustful of the people. From this view, it could be said that
Italy was a seriously flawed state from the beginning.
The Unification of the Italians by the Liberal Government
Political
Liberals politicians didnt think ordinary people had the ability to participate in the government. They
believed in having a parliament, but it should only be chosen by the wealthy and educated elite. They
believed the time for ordinary people to have a say will come later, when wealth and education
spread. However, most politicians didnt think the spread of wealth was a priority. They considered
balancing the budget and building up Italys military power were far more important.
While the constitution managed to guarantee basic individual rights (i.e. free speech and religious
freedom), very few people were allowed to vote, meaning popular wishes of the public were not
reflected in the parties, creating a sense of alienation. During an important vote, some politicians
would try to win support through bribery of former opponents jobs, favours and services were
offered for their constituencies. The situation in the Assembly was described as a pandemonium by
Crispi because it was utter chaos. This political manoeuvring was known as trasformismo and
created the impression that politics were all about deals, increasing the sense of separation between
ordinary people and the Italian State.
Corruption was also prevalent, particularly in local governments. Prefects were appointed to make
sure government-supported candidates won elections. Bribery and inefficiency were widespread,
furthering discrediting the Liberal system in the eyes of ordinary Italians.
A gap between legal Italy and real Italy was thus created. Ordinary Italians knew little of what was
going on beyond their everyday lives. Italy was not their country, but rather a power that forced them
to pay tax and impose military service. There was no sense of nationalism among the people.
Economic and Social Development
The Italians industry had always been limited by its lack of resources such as iron and coal. The new
government attempted to unite Italy economically by abolishing internal tariffs and establishing a
single Italian market. This harmed what little industry it had in the South, as it couldnt compete with
the advancement of the North. The rapid growth of industry in the North thus further strengthened the
economic divide between North and South Italy, a huge predicament.
The Italian government placed heavy emphasis on balancing budget. They also inherited large debts
from the wars of unification, thus raising taxes to pay off these debts. However, taxes were imposed
mainly on the poorer citizens of Italy. Workers attempted to strike for higher wages, but the
government supported employers and refused such demands.
The government did consider education an important issue. By 1911, the number of illiterate Italians
decreased significantly.
Catholic Church

The Catholic Church exercised great influence in Italy. The Pope had not only been the spiritual head
of the church, but also the ruler of Papal States covering many regions of central Italy. However, when
Italy was united, these lands were taken away from him, and were left with only the Vatican City.
Thus, the Pope denounced the new Italian State and considered liberalism a sin as it allowed religious
freedom.
The gap between the church and state became an unavoidable predicament in new Italy. In 1874, the
Pope instructed Catholics not to participate in the new state by not voting. However, by early
twentieth century, the tension between them diminished when the Pope became worried about the
advance of Socialism as the Marxists criticised the church and rejected Catholicism. In 1904, the Pope
encouraged Catholics to vote if it meant defeating the Socialists.
Quotes on Italy
Bismarck: large appetite but little teeth
The Great Wars Impact on Italy
The significant impact of war on Italy was obvious when Italy remained deeply if not further
divided. It led Mussolini to break away from his socialist past and create conditions which enabled
Fascism to gain power.
The Two Key Battles
Italy was fighting Austria-Hungary in the Southern Front for three years during the war. For majority
of the time, it was stalemate, but there were two key battles that influenced Italys history.
The first battle occurred in October 1917, where Italy suffered major defeat at Caporetto due to low
morale. The government encouraged soldiers by promising reforms in Italy after the war, thus
expectations were raised.
The second battle took place in October 1918 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire was on the verge of
collapsing. Italy triumphed at Vittorio Veneto. It was a smaller battle, but the Italians remembered this
victory vividly. They expected major rewards for their success, thus expectations were raised once
again.
The Attitudes of Soldiers During War
The soldiers who fought in the war were mostly peasants from the South. They didnt understand why
the war was being fought and were bitter about the shirkers the industrial, wealthier workers left
at home making money as they are risking their lives for their country.
Historian Quotes on Impact of War
P. Morgan:
Italys involvement in the First World War was the first great collective and national
experience for literally millions of Italians
the Great War did not bring about national integrity and unity
Italys wartime experience was extremely divisive
Italys national war was waged in an atmosphere of civil war
Clark:
by November 1919 they were more divided than ever
combatants against shirkers, peasants against workers, patriots against
defeatists.

 war left other major legacies...thirst for justice...officers drunk with patriotism and
greedy to command
Post-War Years
A Mutilated Victory
In the Treaty of London of 1915, Italy was promised territorial gains at the expense of AustroHungarian Empire. However in the St. Germain Treaty of 1919, Italy was prevented from gaining
some of the territories as promised. After the peace settlement, the Liberal government was burdened
with the blame for the a mutilated victory. Italians grieved for their 600,000 dead soldiers, war debts,
and huge increase in cost of living. Many believed Italy had been cheated.
Occupation of Fiume
After witnessing the Liberal governments failure to stand up for Italy and its rewards, the nationalist
poet dAnnunzio seized Fiume and ruled it for a year.
Until 1919, Fiume belonged to Austria-Hungary. Majority of its inhabitants were Italians. Although
Fiume was mentioned by the Italians in the Treaty of London 1915, it was not promised. The Italian
government failed to gain Fiume at the Versailles Settlement so dAnnunzio took matters in his own
hands.
In September 1919, dAnnunzio, along with 300 ex-soldiers seized control of Fiume. The Italian
government did nothing in response, which reinforced its already weak image and willingness to
submit to violence.
In Fiume, dAnnunzio delivered heroic speeches to mass audiences from his balcony, often they were
chanted in rhythmic war cries. His followers wore black shirts and adopted the skull and crossbones.
They brought back the Roman straight-arm salute and discussed a march on Rome. Overall,
dAnnunzio put on a great display, even if it was only make-believe.
In December 1920, Giolittis new government reasserted its authority and sent in troops. dAnnunzio
and his veterans fled. Subsequently, Fiume remained under international supervision until Mussolini
took over in 1923.
This incident showed that force could be used to achieve political aims in post-war Italy. This
emphasised the governments inadequacy to ordinary Italians, especially when they could compare
dAnnunzios vigorous actions to the inadequacy of the government. dAnnunzio became the inspirer
of both ideology and symbols of Fascist Italy.
The Life of Mussolini
Early Life
Mussolini was brought up in an environment where class conflict, anarchism, and republican political
views were prominent. His father was a blacksmith and his mother was a schoolmistress. From a
young age, he absorbed revolutionary ideas from his father. Mussolini always emphasised that he was
a man of the people because he was one of them.
At school, Mussolini was a troublesome student, often getting himself involved in fights. He was
eventually expelled, but remained the brightest student, especially in History, Literature and Singing.
He decided to become a teacher.
Character

At a young age, Mussolini was disobedient, self-willed, and moody. He lost his temper easily and was
restless and ambitious. He once said to his mother, one day, I shall astonish the world. As he got
older, he became a forceful and persuasive orator with a power voice, vigorous gestures and dramatic
phrases. He was able to appeal to his audience and arouse emotion by building up a series of
disconnected sentences. He created an image of virility and had violent relationships with women to
add to that image.
Jobs
Later, Mussolini became an elementary school teacher for 6 months. He experienced humiliation due
to his lower middle class background. In 1902, he escaped to Switzerland to avoid his debts while
working a series of jobs briefly. During his time there, he developed foreign contempt for Italians and
helped organise Italian migrant workers. In 1904, he was conscripted into the army and surprisingly,
responded well to military discipline. Mussolini was known as a journalist and strike organiser in
1906, gaining wide support through his oratory and writing. However, he was expelled from Trentino
in 1909.
Marriage
In 1910, Mussolini lived with Rachele Guidi, a peasant. They married in a civil ceremony in 1915.
Politics
In 1910, he became the secretary to the Socialist Party in Forli. Mussolini was on the extremist end of
the party and put all his effort into provoking a Socialist revolution. He was quickly given the
nickname Ematt, meaning madman. In 1911, he organised a protest against the Libyan War and
blocked the movement of troops to Libya for 3 days. He was jailed for five months. It seemed as
though Mussolini frequently needed to resort into violence. In 1912, he demanded moderates who
sided with Giolittis government to be expelled from the Socialist Party. He became editor of Avanti!
and helped to increase the circulation of the Socialist newspaper within 2 years.
Influences
Mussolini was inspired by:
Marx Socialism
Sorel the need for Elite; role of violence
Nietzsche role of a superman who can impose his own laws
Le Bon how a brave leader could channel power of the crowd
Prezzolini need to create a modern assertive Italy
Quotes on Mussolini
Faenza school:
a lively intelligence, and unusual memory but a character quite out of the
ordinary...passionate and unruly...opposition to every rule
cannot tolerate an injury...wants revenge...rebels against every punishment
Angelica Balabanoff
knew little of history or of Socialist theory...his mind was completely
undisciplined
Mussolinis radicalism...the reflection of his early environment and his own
rebellious egoism
a passion to assert his own ego...a determination for personal revenge

Inspector Gasti:
emotional and impulsive...bold organiser and personally brave, makes quick
decisions...less firm in his beliefs
most ambitious...wants to lead and dominate
Reporter in 1912:
hes going to get somewhere
It can be concluded that Mussolini was intelligent, brave, and passionate. However, he was also
ambitious, rebellious, and vengeful. Mussolini did not have the particular discipline to have a
strong set of beliefs and morals.
Mussolini on the First World War
The Italian Socialist Party was against Italys entry into the war. They saw the war as an imperialist
struggle at the expense of the lives of working class people. However, Mussolini despite being in
the party became impatient and was eager to participate in the war. He saw the war as an
opportunity to destroy existing political structures, provide new exciting revolutionary options, and
enable him to achieve personal glory.
Mussolini was eventually expelled from the Socialist Party for promoting war effort. He set up his
own newspaper called Il Popolo dItalia which claimed to support Socialist ideas but advocated
Italys entry into war at the same time.
Mussolini conscripted himself into the Italian army and fought bravely. He was well-equipped despite
not being involved in any serious fighting prior. He had to leave the army when an accident left him
with 40 pieces of shrapnel in his body. He remained in the hospital for 4 months.
After recovery, Mussolini returned to editorship his newspaper. He witnessed the defeat at Caporetto
and claimed Italy needed a strong leader. His newspaper no longer concerned itself with class beliefs,
but rather calling out to anyone who was prepared to fight and save the nation.
It was clear that Mussolinis Socialist ideas would eventually fade and evaporate. His focus was no
longer on the distribution of wealth, but rather its creation.
Quotes from Mussolinis Autobiography
Mussolini on his Character
The reality of experience is far more eloquent than all the theories and philosophies in all the tongues
and on all the shelves
Like Hitler, Mussolini valued personal experiences over something abstract and intangible such as
theories and philosophies in books.
Mussolini on being a Journalist
I became the public crier of this basic partisan warlike conception.
I have never flattered the crowd nor wheedled anyone; I spoke always of costs of
victories sacrifices and sweat and blood.
I was better prepared to fight my battles than when I was bound by the dogmas of
any political organisations.

As a journalist, Mussolini became the voice of the people. He advocated war effort and victories, but
never made it sound easy. He no longer believed in a certain political ideology; he believed only in the
triumph of Italy.
Mussolini on being a Soldier
I liked the life of a soldier. The sense of willing subordination suited my
temperament.
It was my opportunity to show serenity of spirit and strength of character.
I wanted to be a soldier, obedient, faithful to discipline
Once a man sets up to be the expounder of an ideal...he must constantly...fight
battles for the doctrines that he teaches at any cost until victory to the end!
I faced atrocious pain; my suffering was indescribable...I had 27 operations in one
month, all except two were without anaesthetics.
Mussolini was ambitious and temperamental. He wanted to show people a different side to him he
was willing to transform and create another image of himself. He appeared obstinate and determined
in the sense he believed every man should stick fight for their ideology until the very end, which was
contradicting to his actual character. However, it was clear that Mussolini was brave and did not fear
pain.
Mussolini on Italy
The final victory was not only a victory of a war...it was a victory for the whole
Italian race. After a thousand years we were again giving tangible proof of our moral and
spiritual valour...Our love of country had bloomed again.
Mussolini recognised the lack of nationalism among the Italians. He perceived the victory at Vittorio
Veneto helped to unite all Italians after thousand of years since the destruction of the Roman Empire.
He believed war had brought the Italians together, as they were all fighting for their country out of
love.
Mussolini on Aims and Political Evolution
I spoke and thought and conceived of the whole Italian life...as an expression of a
whole people.
My political evolution has been the product of constant expansion...further away
from the rigid structures of sociological theories
The organisation of Fascismo...it has youths spirit...many years of productiveness
for the future.
Mussolini often referred himself to man of the people or other similar ideas. He claimed to think
about Italians as a whole. His political ideas were also constantly changing; there was no clear
structure, as he didnt like to be bounded by certain dogmas. Like many dictators, Mussolini saw the
importance of youths, and believed they would be key to pushing Fascism forward.
The Brief Summary of Development of Fascism
Stage 1
In March 1919, Mussolini set up a fascio di combattimento from ex-soldiers. The fascists claimed
they would provide a new leadership amidst a national revolution. They were a movement and not a
party. The fascists sought support from patriotic Italians.

Their programme expressed radical social views, originating from their experiences of war. Therefore,
they also provided a nationalist and Socialist alternative to the PSI (Italian Socialist Party) who were
seen as traitors.
Stage 2
The movement attracted a mixed collection of people who were dissatisfied with the status quo. Its
main form of publicity was Mussolinis Il Popolo dItalia. In April 1919, the fascists burned the
Avanti! offices and harassed the Socialists. Due to the programmes radicalism, Mussolini only
received 2% of the vote in Milan, failing miserably. The radical vote actually went to the PSI.
Stage 3
By the summer of 1920, the industrial and rural elite were worried about the Socialist threat, as well
as the governments incompetence to respond to the threat. They saw Fascism as protection from
Socialism, and began to fund the Fascists squad who were fighting Socialists.
Stage 4
An opportunist, Mussolini wanted to use this fear of Socialism to achieve his aims and attain power.
He wanted to appeal to people frightened by the Socialists. Thus, he played down his left-wing ideas
and shifted his programme to the Right.
Stage 5
In late 1920, Fascism escalated, especially in rural areas of North and Central Italy. Local leaders
(Ras) set up their own squads of Fascists. They attracted many of the agrarian elites and small
landholders harmed by the Socialist local government. People were generally worried about a
Socialist revolution and saw Fascism as their only form of protection. The anti-Socialist violence
made Fascism a popular movement.
Stage 6
Original Fascists (ex-soldiers) of the programme were concerned about the growing rate of
bourgeoisie (middle class) joining the movement and Mussolinis move to the Right. Thus, many
dropped out of the movement. Several ras also protested. However, as the movement grew, they
realised the importance of Mussolini for unity and strength.
Stage 7
Realising Fascism was becoming a major force in the country, Prime Minister Giolitti hoped to absorb
the movement and reduce its influence. He included the Fascists in May 1921 election. The Fascists
gained 35 seats and Mussolini entered parliament. Giolitti hoped to tame the Fascists by offering
Mussolini a post, but Mussolini refused to join the government as a low-ranking junior partner as he
was becoming more ambitious.
Stage 8
Tension was growing between the Fascists. Some wanted to gain power legally, while others wanted
to seize it. Mussolini was worried about the growing Fascist violence that would threaten his position
as a respectable member of parliament and his control over the movement. On August 2nd, 1921,
Mussolini signed pact of pacification with the Socialists, but backed down again when the Ras told
him to. In November, he formed the new right-wing National Fascist Party, which recognised
Mussolini as the ultimate Duce.

Stage 9
By 1922, the Socialist threat was fading. Mussolini was now under pressure from the ras to seize
power, as well as realising that if Fascism did not gain power, it would soon break up as Socialism
was no longer a major threat. He hoped to use ras pressure on the government to become Prime
Minister legally. In September 1922, he announced his support for the monarchy.
Stage 10
The Fascists planned the takeover of local government and a march on Rome to seize power.
Meanwhile, many elites argued that the Fascists should join the government, which Mussolini would
only agree to if he becomes Prime Minister. On October 29, King Victor Emmanuel invited Mussolini
to form a government. The Fascists marched into Rome to celebrate their victory.
Development of Fascism from 1919 to 1921
Origin
In March 1919, Mussolini made a speech in Piazza San Sepolcro, Milan, appealing to hundreds of
men and women. He told them the establishment of Fascism was necessary due to the incompetence
of the people who govern and that if the regime is to be overthrown, it must be we who occupy its
place...therefore we create Fasci.
Originally, Fascism was not intended as a party, but a movement appealing to all Italians and to
promote nationalism. There was no clear political ideology within the programme, and Mussolinis
approach was a mix of socialist and nationalist ideas.
Fascism was a means to an end for Mussolini to gain power. He waged war against Socialist in
particular not because it is socialist but because it has opposed nationalism when they refused to
support war effort in 1914. At this stage, Mussolini still advocated republicanism and remained hostile
towards the Church. He also established a paramilitary group, consisting of ex-soldiers, to strike at
Fascisms enemies.
Fascisms appeal didnt come from its policies, but rather the movements desire to restore Italy to its
former glory that is Ancient Rome. The movement remained small in 1919 as the programme was
viewed as a left-wing, and most left-wing support went to the PSI.
Support
Mussolini exploited the fear of Socialism from the middle and upper classes during the Biennio Rosso
in 1919, thus moving the Fascism to the right. He lost some early supporters, but they were quickly
replaced by young, lower-middle-class from universities, civil service, and respectable bourgeois
families. The movement grew as the ras formed local fasci, which held different ideas than Mussolini,
reducing Mussolinis overall influence in the growth of Fascism. However, Mussolini remained
important in providing a nationally recognised leader.
Ex-soldiers
They supported Fascism because they were angry and humiliated. They didnt receive the rewards and
compensations they thought they deserved after their small victory in the Great War.
Petty Bourgeoisie
The Fascists also won support from rural lower-middle class from small farmers in Romagna,
Lombardy and Venetia. These farmers had only recently improved their position and extended their

landholdings, thus they were scared Socialism would threaten these gains. There was also resentment
over the power of Socialist Land Leagues as they bullied farmers to hire labourers when they were not
needed. Thus, the farmers welcomed Fascism who were prepared to fight against Socialist power. The
agrari (large landowners) also financed any movement that would resist Socialism.
Large number of students and youths also joined the movement for adventure and action. They were
bitter about the rising wages of unpatriotic workers and lack of prospects. Fascism also appealed to
semi-criminal elements of Milan and other towns.
As Fascism grew, demoralised workers also found that they had to join Fascist syndicates to get
employment.
Overall, there were main two groups that contributed to the growth of Fascism: the ones who actually
supported the movement, and the ones prepared to support it for their own ends with no real
commitment. However, the two groups were similar in the sense that they were both looking for
change.
Quotes
The Milan prefect: industrialists supported the Fascists in order to fight against the
government...hinder its activity which was harmful to industrys interests.
Liberal newspaper La Stampa: demobilised ex-officers who have sought and not
found employment...desperation of forgotten heroes
Liberal newspaper La Stampa: bands of ex-revolutionaries who had become war
enthusiasts in 1915...anxious to recapture a position of command
Fascist Lanzillo: Fascism has mobilised its forces from the twilight zones of political
life, and from this derives the unruly violence and juvenile exuberance of its conduct.
What Fascism Offered
D. Mack Smith: Fascism was not a doctrine, not ideas, not ideology, but was really a means for
winning power by a single man.
In 1920, Mussolini began to drop his radical policies. Fascism would be a movement and party
pledged to: restore Italian power, develop the economy, abolish harmful state controls, and reestablish strong leadership instead. The abandonment of republicanism was thus announced in
September 1922. The emphasis was now placed on nationalism, active foreign policy, and a strong
state.
What Mussolini promised in:
June 1919

November 1921

universal male and female suffrage

no specific commitment to political structure

8-hour working day and guaranteed minimum

wage

8-hour working day with the exception of

agricultural and industrial requirements

workers participation in the National Councils

of Labour for management of industry

corporations to express national unity and

increase production

common education for all

schools to train elite and to provide Italys future

soldiers with physical and moral training

liberty of opinion and conscience

citizens freedom limited in the interests of the

nation
abolition of obligatory military service

obligatory military service

heavy tax on capital and confiscation of

unproductive income

taxes proportional to income, not confiscatory

nationalisation of all arms and munitions

factories, confiscation of 85% of war profits

nationalised firms privatised; encouragement for

national wealth through individual initiative;
government spending cuts

the confiscation of all property belonging to

religious organisations

no reference to Church property

a foreign policy of peaceful competition among

the civilised nations

complete unification for Italy with a major role

in the Mediterranean

The Use of Violence

ras Balbo: we had to strike terror into the heart of our enemies...burn down and destroy the houses of
all the Socialists in Ravenna
Fascism depended heavily on violence for its growth. The history of Fascism is thus a history of
violence. They smashed the organisational framework of the Socialist movement and attacked their
party, union buildings and members. It was estimated 2000 opponents were killed by Fascists between
1920 and 1922.
The Success of Violence
Its success was mostly due to the cooperation of elite and agents of the government, whom were so
disgusted by the weakness of the government, they chose to cooperate with the Fascists instead.
Giolittis inclusion of the Fascists in his government also served to weaken opposition to Fascist
violence. Authorities generally preferred to tolerate and collaborate with Fascism rather than against it
that by 1922, there was hardly any segment of the Italian establishment not ready to collaborate with
Fascism either for nationalist or anti-Bolshevik reasons, or both, says Cassels.
Fascisms Position by 1922
By 1922, the party had about half a million members and quarter of a million Blackshirts. Fascism
virtually controlled several regions. Their violence helped to smash Socialism, and thus attracted
support from the elite and other worried groups. They had a great aura of power, which was beyond
their numbers.
The Fascists also benefitted greatly from their opponents weakness and divisions. They had been
allowed to develop into a serious threat due to the weakness of the Liberal government who offered
no firm leadership in the face of economic and political crisis. The Liberal, Socialist, and Catholic
opponents also failed to cooperate against the growing threat of Fascism. In July 1922, the moderates
of PSI and PII agreed to join with the Liberals, but Giolitti had refused and the plan collapsed. The
politicians were unable to put aside their animosities for united action.
After 1920, Socialism was weakened due to Fascism. As Socialism declined, there should be a decline
in Fascism as well because there was no longer a need for it. However, that was not the case, as
people believed what they wanted to, rather than the reality that was the declining influence of

Socialism. People remained scared of Socialism, and this was confirmed in August 1922 when the
Socialists called a legalitarian general strike to protest against Fascist violence.
The strike collapsed after a day due to a lack of support, but the Fascists took credit and used this as
an opportunity to confirm how vital they were.
Despite its obvious success, Fascism was by no means an unstoppable movement yet. There were
diverse elements within the party and different views, especially when it came to methods of
achieving power.
How Mussolini Gained Power in 1922
By 1922, Mussolini was under great pressure from the ras to seize power while he was still
considering trying to be appointed legally.
For a long time, the Fascists had been gaining control of the local government. Since September 1922,
there were widespread rumours of a Fascist march on Rome. Alongside this, many politicians were
thinking of incorporating Mussolini within a new government with two to five Fascist Cabinet
members.
On October 16, Mussolini and other leaders of Fascism met in Milan and decided it was time to seize
power. A Fascist Congress was held in Naples to organise the march. They would first seize public
buildings in northern and central Italy, and then assemble outside Rome on October 27. Mussolini
proclaimed, Either the government be given to us or we shall take it.
Despite the plan and general enthusiasm, Mussolini was having doubts about the march and hoped
that he would be appointed legally, but was unable to resist the more aggressive Fascists. Thus, he
hoped that the march would intimidate the King into appointing him.
As part of the plan, the squads were told to avoid conflict with the army. On the night of 27 October,
local Fascists tried to seize control of key government and public buildings. It was a mixture of
success, and the frightened prefects sent reports to Rome of the Fascists advance.
However, many squads failed to meet at their assembly points on time, as their lines were sabotaged,
stopping their trains. This led to them being in bad shape, poorly armed, drenched by rain, and
resulted in poor morale.
Amidst this, Prime Minister Facta, after failing to take a stand against Fascism, resigned, but was
asked to stay on. He requested King Victor Emmanuel to declare martial law, allowing the army to
take crush the revolt. The king was weak and overestimated the power of Fascism. He feared the
Fascists might replace him with Duke of Aosta, his rival and cousin, who sympathised with Fascism.
The King also received conflicting reports about the attitude of the army and feared he might provoke
a civil war.
At 2am, the King agreed to declaring the martial law. However, eight hours later, he changed his mind
and wanted to compromise with Mussolini instead. Facta resigned and the King persuaded ex-Prime
Minister Salandra to lead a government which included Mussolini. Salandra failed to gain support and
Mussolini insisted he could only be Prime Minister or nothing. With no other alternatives, the King
sent a telegram on the October 29, offering Mussolini the job as Prime Minister.
The Fascist squads travelled to Rome to celebrate their victory. This was the real March on Rome,
where no fighting had actually taken place.
Mussolinis Establishment of Dictatorship

Problems Faced by Mussolini in November 1922

Only four Fascists in the Cabinet, and he was one of them
Only 35 Fascists in the 535-member Chamber of Deputies
Won the support of only 7% voters
Achieved power only through violence and terror
Faced the same problems that the previous government failed to solve
No clear policies and little experience
Supporters were divided
Consolidation
Realised the support of the elite was more important
Squads were less important
In November 1922 Parliament granted him limited emergency powers for one year to
deal with the countrys problem
Concessions to the Church; favorable measures to industrialists and agrarians
Asserting Italys rights abroad
New militia
Mussolini extending his control over the Fascist movement
Why did so many Italians support Mussolinis government?
Pope Pius XI: Mussolini alone has a proper understanding of what is necessary for his country in
order to rid it of the anarchy
Giolitti: Mussolinis is the only government that can restore social peace
Conservative-Liberal Albertini: He has saved Italy from the Socialist danger which had been
poisoning our life for 20 years.
The Times: Italy has never been so united as she is today...Fascismo has abolished the game of
parliamentary chess...simplified the taxation system and reduced deficit to manageable proportions
Matteotti Crisis
On 30th May 1924, Giacomo Matteotti prepared a 30 minute speech in the Italian Chamber of
Deputies, denouncing the Fascists use of violence during the recent elections and called for
annulment. He was interrupted continuously and it took him 2 hours to finish his speech. Eleven days
later, as predicted, he was blocked by a gang of ex-squadristi who stabbed him repeatedly. His death
wasnt confirmed until two months later, when an investigation was conducted and was traced back to
the employees of Mussolini.
Mussolini now faced a crisis. There was a widespread belief that Mussolini was personally involved,
leading to fierce criticism and protests. People tored up the Fascist membership cards and
Communists called for a general strike.
This crisis raised an important question for the Italians which did not occur to them 2 years ago: what
exactly did Mussolinis government stand for? Was it a terrorist regime, or was it a strengthened form
of parliamentary system?
Mussolinis Response
Mussolini was paralysed by depression and unsure of what to do, It is impossible to remain in power
with a dead man at ones feet. Fortunately for him, Mussolinis opponents were once again extremely
divided.

Some people expected the King to dismiss Mussolini, however the King wanted no part of it and
wanted others to take the lead. Many elites still considered Mussolinis government the best option
they had, and thought this crisis would make him easier to control. Mussolini also faced pressure from
his own party, where the Fascist radicals believed if Mussolini lost power, they would lose their
chances of a Fascist revolution.
Thus on January 3, 1925, Mussolini addressed the Chamber of Deputies and took the responsibility of
Fascism. He announced he would act within 48 hours to establish a dictatorship, which was followed
by a series of arrests and measures against opponents. A new secret police, the OVRA, was also
established. Other parties were banned.
Significance of the Matteotti Crisis
It marked the turning point of Mussolinis regime. Until 1925, his ministry had appeared as just a
strong form of constitutional government. This crisis allowed Mussolini to set up a dictatorship.
The Development of Dictatorship
Oct 1922: Mussolini appointed Prime Minister
Nov 1922: Government wins vote of confidence in Parliament; voted emergency
powers to reform administration and tax system
Dec and January 1922: Fascist Grand Council and Militia set up
Feb 1923: Nationalists join Fascist Party
July 1923: Acerbo Election Law
April 1924: New elections; government wins 66% votes
June 1924: Matteotti murdered
Jan 1925: Mussolini takes responsibility for violence; established dictatorship
followed by series of arrests
Dec 1925: Law on power of Head of Government; given greater control of press and
purge of civil service
Nov 1926-Jan 1927: Exceptional Decrees increase repression; secret police OVRA
Power and Repression
Compare to Nazi Germany and Stalins Russia, few people died in Mussolinis regime. The was
estimated only 400 people were killed legally and through murder.
Fascist violence was more prominent between 1920 and 1925, when Mussolini relied heavily on
violence for votes. The use of violence seemed to cease after the Matteotti crisis, but repression did
not. Historian Morgan said: Repressiveness was not the most distinctive feature of the Fascist...but it
was an essential and inescapable component of it. Polices power was extensive and sought to create
a climate of fear.
Types of Repression
Special Tribunal
Censorship
The secret police OVRA
Exiles
Deaths
Controls
Political prisoners
MVSN (militia) and squads
Police: Without an efficient police the dictatorship would not be able to continue to exist.

Exiled Socialist: The real organisation on which the system is based is the secret manipulation of
fear.
Opposition in Fascist Italy
Rosselli Brothers
Carlo and Nello Rosselli came from a wealthy Tuscan Jewish family. They became horrified by
Fascist violence. Carlo was in particular politically radical and joined the PSI, participating in various
anti-Fascist propaganda. He helped opponents escape to exile and was arrested in December 1926, but
escaped to Paris.
In Paris, Carlo helped set up the radical anti-Fascist group Justice and Liberty. They publicised
conditions in Italy, smuggled propaganda leaflets into Italy, and helped secret activity there.
During the Spanish Civil War when Italy sent troops to assist the Franco, Rosselli organise over
30,000 anti-Fascist Italians to join an anti-Fascist crusade in Spain. They helped to inflict the defeat
on Mussolinis troops at Guadalajara in March 1937. Rosselli publicised this humiliation.
Thus on June 1937, Mussolini exact his revenge. The Rosselli brothers were murdered by French
Fascists when Nello was visiting Carlo. Their murder was ordered by Foreign Minister Ciano.
Ineffective Opposition
Anti-Fascist Pento: I doubted that we could succeed. We were so few and the tyranny so strong
Historian Clark: Without institutions or organisations, the Italian anti-Fascists were...usually
persecuted, and always harmless...Perhaps the real reason for anti-Fascisms failure was that the
Fascist regime seemed tolerable and was even popular
Propaganda
Fascism and Ancient Rome
Mussolini: Italians, you must ensure that the glories of the past are surpassed by the glories of the
future.
Italys Roman past was used as an inspiration and justification for Fascist policies. The symbols of
Ancient Rome were everywhere. Classical buildings were built, and medieval buildings were
demolished to allow better viewing of the classical Roman ruins. The regimes exploitation of Ancient
Rome was not surprising considering the nations inferiority complex and previous disunity.
Many references were made to Ancient Rome and its leaders. Mussolini in particular liked to allude
himself to Augustus and Caesar, who established order out of chaos, built up Italys military, and led
the country to imperial glory.
Mussolini: Rome is our point of departure and our point of reference. It is our symbol
Extract from a schoolbook: Caesar has come to life again in the Duce
The Development of Propaganda
Historian Tannenbaum described the Fascist regime as in some ways the reign of journalists and
their attempt at propaganda as amateurish. Newspaper were the most important form of information

and propaganda in the 1920s. Mussolini was determined to suppress criticism, and then ensure the
press followed the official Fascist view.
Propaganda had a slow start, but soon covered all aspects of Italian life. This included the radio and
film. Parades and sporting events were also held to promote enthusiasm and heighten national pride.
Despite their attempt, the Fascists never achieved the similar impact of Goebbels's propaganda in
Nazi Germany. However, they did try to imitate the Nazi regime and endeavour to indoctrinate all
aspect of culture by 1935, transforming from a press office to a ministry. The Fascists launched a
major propaganda campaign during the Abyssinian War to encourage war effort. In 1937, the press
office was renamed Ministry of Popular Culture to symbolise its effort of bringing all Italians
together with Fascism.
The Italians gave the ministry a satirical nickname: Minculpop, suggesting the limiting effect
propaganda had on people. This was confirmed when the Fascists failed to gain support for the
German alliance and the governments anti-semitic policies in late 1930s. In reality, it was not
surprising giving its bureaucratic inefficiency.
However, some Italians truly believed the Fascists reduced crime, vice and poverty within Italy.
Mass Media
Hostile newspapers were attacked by the Fascist squads. By 1923, a law is established where prefects
were responsible for censorship. The Fascist party organised boycotts of critical newspapers and
arrested hostile journalists that by 1926, the last of the opposition party papers had been suppressed.
Mussolini was more concerned about the content of the newspaper than the ownership of the
newspaper. He would ban reporting of most crime, disasters, unemployment, and disorders. Foreign
papers were forbidden, and Mussolinis Press Office would send out detailed instructions on the
correct version of events.
Pro: Fascist Party newspaper never had more than 10% circulation, but its greater variety permitted in
newspapers meant readership grew, meaning more people would read the newspaper
Con: underground anti-Fascist newspapers were circulating
Radio
Unlike Nazi Germany, the emphasis was not placed on radio initially as Mussolini was skeptical of its
value. From 1924 onwards, the radio network expanded rapidly and was controlled by the state. The
content of the programme was mainly music (classical, American jazz, and drama) with two hours of
official broadcasts. The broadcasts had a stern and martial tone, making as much impact as its content.
Mussolinis speeches were also broadcasted live through loudspeakers.
Pro: Dopolavoro (OND) ran community listening meetings to spread Fascist ideas to people of rural
areas and the illiterate people
Con: Few people had radios since they were very expensive; people could listen to the radio privately,
where they had access to foreign radio stations
Cinema
The government was slow to realise the potential of film. In 1924, a government agency called LUCE
(LUnione Cinematografica Educativa) was created to produce documentaries and newsreels.

In 1920s, the Italian cinema was dominated by Hollywood films, thus in 1934 the government
intervened. A Director General in the Culture Ministry was appointed, encouraging film production
and restricting Hollywood imports by providing subsidies and training.
In 1937, the IRI (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) helped fund Cinecitta, which aided the
revival of domestically produced films. Thus the Italian had a mixture of state-produced
documentaries, privately produced Italian films, and American imports.
Initially the government valued the commercial success of film rather than its potential propaganda
role. There were very few explicit propaganda films apart from newsreels. However, films did stress
Italy as a modern, technologically advanced country with social harmony.
Pro: increasing number of Italians went to the cinema as Dopolavoro showed films, offering them
escapism, a false sense of security, and national pride
Con: not many propaganda films and no emphasis on propaganda in films
Posters
They were the most visual means of propaganda, using simple slogans and striking images of the
Duce.
Pro: important for indoctrination of illiterate people
Mass activities
The Fascists organised a series of parades which imitated the Soviet May Day. It served to inculcate
discipline and collective identity in participants, but also to impress observer.
Historian Whitford: All instilled in their participants a sense of belonging to a whole greater than the
sum of its parts...know his or her place in its clearly defined hierarchy...the state itself was seen both
as a work of art and a perfectly functioning machine.
Sports
Sports were encouraged and emphasised upon to stress active participation and help to instill
discipline. It also socialised the people and secure their commitment to the regime.
Many stadiums were built to impress the masses. Successful national teams were also seen as a way
of increasing national pride.
Fascist newspaper editor: Sport is...will prepare citizens in peacetime to be heroic soldiers for
Fascism in war time
Area of the mass
media

How effectively was it used for propaganda purpose?

State ownership 5-0
(5=complete,
3= considerable,
0=none)

Newspapers

State control of
content 5-0
(5=complete,
3= considerable,
0=none)
4

Effective propaganda
use 5-0
(5=effective,
3= some use,
0=not used)
3

Radio

Cinema

Posters

Rallies

Sports

The Impact of Fascism on Youths

Values
The ideal fascist despises fear, loves the hard life, and serves with faith, passion and
happiness
Youths chanted I believe in the genius Mussolini, in our Holy Father Fascism
Schools and Universities
The emphasis on Fascist ideology on school curriculum didnt occur until the 1930s. During the
1920s there was no major change except that Mussolini focused on reassuring the elite by appointing
Gentile as Education Minister, who in particular stressed the idea of fewer but better schools.
Gentile ignored the 30% illiteracy rate and discriminated against women, causing a significant
decrease in pupils during the earlier years of Fascist rule.
When Mussolini realised the importance of emphasis on Fascism on education, the government
introduced a standard textbook known as the libro unico. Mussolini claimed this was necessary in
order to instill a doctrine of a real awareness of their duties as Fascist citizens. Like most totalitarian
regime, teachers were also required to swear an oath of loyalty to the government.
The main difference between Italy and other totalitarian state is the lack of purges. Unlike Stalin or
Hitler, Mussolini did not purge teachers and intellectuals which was necessary for the regime to
achieve its aims. Perhaps the regimes tolerance is also a contributing factor to its collapse.
Main Changes in Education
Curriculum:

Cult of Mussolini
Students given a copy of Life of Mussolini by Pini
School began with raising the flag and songs about the Duce
Government intervention
Libro unico introduced in 1928
Military education in 1935
Lessons in Fascist culture in 1936
Anti-semitism taught in schools in 1938

Teachers:

Public employees who did not support regime were dismissed in 1925
Teachers took oath of loyalty in 1929
Membership of Fascist Association made compulsory for all teachers in 1931
New teachers had to be member of the Fascist party in 1933
Dismissal of Jewish teachers and students in 1938

Fascist Youth Movements

Other than education, the rise of youth organisations played an important role in indoctrinating youths
with Fascist beliefs. They helped organised a range of activities, and many young people were
attracted by the facilities rather than the propaganda message.
The party also established its own organisation called ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla) or Balilla.
The regime faced some rival youth organisations ran by the Catholic Church. After much tension, the
government finally restricted Catholic action youth groups in 1928.
The intensification of indoctrination only truly began in the late 1930s.
GUF was another youth organisation that catered to university students. Many only joined for career
or social purposes. The organisation also held contests such as the Littorialia in 1934 to 1940 to help
train a new elite on politics and art.
Quotes
The Fascists believed the young must know how to obey, to acquire the right, or rather, the duty of
commanding...they must despise an ideal life of comfort.
The Fascists believed one must intervene to correct, and if necessary, scold and silence anyone who
holds an offensive attitude towards the regime.
Limitations
The Fascists were in power for a long time, meaning Italians born between 1910 and 1930
experienced Fascist propaganda at school. However, the strong position of Catholicism in Italy also
served to limit the spread of Fascist youth movement.
Fascism on Women
Role of Women
The Fascists believed war is to the man what motherhood is to women and that women must
obey...in our state, she does not count. They condemned intelligent women because intellectual
women are a monstrosity and childbearing is womens natural and fundamental mission in life.
Treatment of Women
Employment
During World War One, women were needed for industry and rearmament whilst their husbands went
to war, thus job opportunities increased for them during this period of time. However, after the war,
measures were taken to restrict these opportunities again as unemployment rose rapidly. Beginning
from the 1920s, women were excluded from teaching jobs, and in 1933 the state limited state jobs for
women to 10%. Despite not wanting women to work as the Fascists believed this would serve to
distract them from childbearing, they did not challenge womens importance in agriculture and
accepted that millions worked in the industry. In fact, several laws were passed protecting women at
industry work.
Education
Women were trained to stay at home to serve their role as a mother and housekeeper. They were
excluded from most secondary schools. This is contradicting, as lack of job opportunities led to an

increase in women at university, meaning there were perhaps more educated women within Italy than
there had been before during a time where women were oppressed.
Personal Life
The Fascists preferred women who were sturdy and well-rounded to suit the role of childbearing.
They criticised cosmetics, high heels, trousers, or anything they deemed to be representative of the
modern, American woman. This is also paradoxical, as cinemas showed many modern Americans
films where women were exposed to its modernity and could catch glimpses of the American lifestyle.
The Fascists also had an ambiguous attitude towards women in sport. While they believed sport
encouraged nationalism, discipline, and health, they also saw it as a distraction from childbearing,
encouragement of lesbianism and female liberation.
Politics
Women were generally not allowed to participate in politics or to vote due to the Fascists belief that
mobilising women politically might distract them from their primary role at home. There were women
who were able to set up female Fascist groups such as the Fasci Femminili. These groups remained a
vehicle for the state to spread their policies.
Women were also able to serve in committees like ONMI, a state organisation designed to help
mothers. They were encouraged to engage in charity work, attend rallies, and help in propaganda and
social work, but could not campaign for their own policies.
During the 1930s, the Fascist Party tried to reach out to the people and set up the Massaie Rurali
for peasant women and the Section for Factory and Homeworkers.
Childbearing
Mussolini once said reaching his target of 60 million Italians would be the real test of his Fascist
revolution, showing the importance he placed on childbearing. Like most dictators, he wanted a larger
population for reasons of national power; for more soldiers to fight his wars and more Italians to
populate his expanding empire. This began what was known as Battle for Births.
Strangely enough, the policies on women were one of the few policies that the Catholic Church and
the Fascist Party could agree on. Both parties blamed declining birth rate of female vanity,
individualism, pleasure-seeking, unholiness, and corrupting desire to be modern.
The Battle for Births
The aim for Mussolini was to reach 60 million from 37 million by 1950. He undertook a series of
measures such as propaganda and campaigns; advocated better health care; marriage loans and tax
relief given to those with more than 10 children; annual award ceremony and medals for the most
prolific mothers to encourage women to give birth and reproduce.
He also criticised bachelors and put many external pressure on them by increasing their taxation,
banning abortion, limiting contraceptives, making divorce illegal, and reserving civil service jobs for
fathers only.
Results
Despite the efforts of the state, birth rate did not increase but rather decline. Population only rose to
47.5 million in 1950 and did not meet the expected 60 million. The rate of marriage also fell. This
could be a result of womens awareness of female liberation and advancement and financial

difficulties. This is seen in let the priest feed the kid, if hes so keen on making babies and
Mussolinis not the one to raise it.
The Historian Gregor believed the propaganda on women all appear to have been unsuccessful and
Grazia said Fascisms organisation of women rested on a fundamental paradox therefore was
ineffective. The regime failed to implant its reactionary attitudes among women, partly due to the
growth of culture broadened attitudes and aspirations. The two key policies of the regime in relation
to women (increase in birth rate and reduction in paid employment) were not achieved.
Fascism and the Church
Union
Usually in a totalitarian regime, a powerful alternative set of beliefs would be eradicated. But this was
not the case in Fascist Italy. Mussolini allowed the acceptance of the Catholic Church because he
thought an agreement between these two states would be worth it.
The Catholic Church was powerful, and Mussolini thought an alliance between them could potentially
mean the Church encouraging people to look to Rome for leadership, which was a source of pride for
the Italians. He also thought it would boost the Fascist regimes international image.
Although the Church was worried about aspects of Fascism, the two states also shared similar beliefs
such as: need for order, hostility towards Socialism and materialism, role of women and family
values.
The process of reconciliation was slow and took 3 years. The Fascist state and Church signed a
political treaty known as Lateran Pacts which recognised the independence of the Vatican, a financial
agreement giving the Church compensations, and a Concordat which regulated Church-state relations.
Timeline
Early measure in 1923:
Religious education in elementary schools
Crucifix restored in schoolrooms and courts
The Lateran Pacts in 1929:
Political treaty
Vatican City made sovereign state
Pope recognised Rome as capital of Italy
Financial Convention:
Church given 30 million pounds as compensation for lands lost at unification
Church became largest holder of state bonds
Concordat

Catholicism recognised as the only religion of Italy

State veto over major Church appointments
Religious studies in schools
Church marriages recognised by state
Church control divorce
State accepted existence of Catholic Action

Later relations:
1931 quarrel over Catholic Action
1938 quarrel over anti-semitism

The Church took part in many aspects of Fascism. Priests participated in ONB activities like 1938
Campo Dux meeting, where mass began with Fascist anthem, then a call for the divine to aid
Mussolini. Ceremonies usually ended with a prayer for the Duce.
Priests and party officials also cooperated in campaigning against modern dancing, short skirts, and
decadent films. The slogan Per il papa e per il duce became prominent which stressed the unity of
Church and state. Clergy would give Fascist salutes and the Church would welcome crusades against
heathenism and Bolshevism in Abyssinia and Spain.
However, some radical Fascists saw the signing of the Concordat a betrayal of Fascist aims. Some
priests were also concerned about their close affiliation with the Fascist state that during 1930, there
was a protest saying good Catholics could not accept Fascism.
There were also two major quarrels between the Church and regime in 1931 and 1937. In the first
quarrel, the government thought Catholic Action was interfering and closed down several of its
branches. The Pope responded by condemning the regime. A compromise was reached where Catholic
Action would have to run religiously and become more decentralised. The second quarrel was about
anti-Semitism, where the Church criticised the regime for infringing Christianity.
Although Mussolini benefited politically, the Church ultimately made more lasting gains. The Church
was able to instill more Christian rather than Fascist values, which helped to undermine the impact of
Fascist propaganda.
1930s was a flourishing period for the Church, where the circulation of the Vatican newspaper
LOsservatore Romano and activities of Catholic Action grew. This allowed the Church to weaken
the influence of the state and provide an alternative environment for the Italians. The students
federation, FUCI, also helped the Church emerge as a major political force.
Overall, Mussolini apparently saw religion one of the deepest of spiritual manifestations and that
Fascism respects the God of ascetics, saints and heroes.
Summary
The Concordat greatly boosted Mussolinis popularity but hindered his attempt to forge a loyal Fascist
state. Due to influence of the Church, many Italians encountered an alternative perspective. To the
Italians, an alliance between state and Church was Mussolini solved the Roman question. Historians
like Pollard stressed the fundamental philosophical incompatibility between Catholicism and
Fascism and others like Miccoli stressed how their alliance was not merely tactical and reflected
an essential consonance.
Radicalisation of Fascism
Reform of Customs
In 1938, Mussolini tried to abolish the use of friendly form of you and the use of handshake. This
was the Reform of Customs. This may seem ridiculous, but marked the fundamental shift of the
regime in the late 1930s.
From the beginning, Mussolini wanted to change the way Italians thought and make them proud of
being members of his Fascist Italy. He hoped this influence would make them work harder, fight
better, and reproduce more. In mid 1930s, Mussolini and some Fascists despaired for their
countrymen because most Italians failed to take on board the Fascist spiritual revolution. Mussolini
called this a bourgeois mentality. Mussolini thought they were too materialistic and too attracted to

Western democracies and needed toughening up. They must learn to be less sympathetic in order to
become hard, relentless, and hateful.
Anti-Semitism
Initially there was very little anti-semitism in either Italy or the Fascist Party. Jews only made up less
than one per cent of the population. For sixteen years Jews received the same benefits and restrictions
for the Fascist government as other Italians.
However, in 1935 Mussolini introduced racist decrees, which was seen as a reflection of his
subservience to Hitler. Mussolini chose to imitate Hitler and attempt to honour the Nazis by copying
the Nuremberg Laws. Anti-semitism could also be seen as a general radicalisation period for
Fascism.
Jews in Fascist Italy
1920s

50,000 Jews in Italy

As of 1938, 10,000 Jews were members of PNF
Two Jewish government Ministers: Finzi and Jung
Mussolini had two Jewish mistresses
Mussolini criticised Hitlers anti-semitic policies

Some Fascists like Farinacci were anti-semitic

Attack on Abyssinia in 1935 encouraged racism

Decrees banning mixing races in Abyssinia in 1936
Axis alliance with Nazi Germany in 1936
Racist degrees in 1938
Jews banned from mixed marriages
No Jews in civil service
No Jewish children in state schools
Jews not to have Aryan servants
Foreign Jews expelled

Mussolini wanted to strengthen relationship with Hitler

Development of racist feelings after Abyssinian campaign; became racially aware
Several Jews prominent in protesting against attack on Abyssinia
Jews involved in opposition groups i.e. Rosselli Brothers
Fascism became more radical
Internal pressure from racist Fascists like Farinacci

Resented by many; deeply unpopular

Turned many influential people against the regime
Pope publicly critical of the PNF

Significance

How Mussolini was being influenced by Germany

Show harmful effects of Abyssinian campaign
Show radicalisation of Fascism
Show limited impact of Fascism

However,
Mid 1930s

Reasons

Effects

Contributed to declining support for Mussolini

Concern from elites about direction of regime
Regime lost touch with the Italian people

Mussolinis Economic Policies

Mussolini was very fortunate because the economy improved during the early years of Fascism. This
was mostly due to a general European economic recovery; Laissez-faire policies; threat of Socialist
revolution coming to an end; and weakening of trade unions.
Initially, Mussolini appointed de Stefani as his Economic professor. Stefani adopted Liberal policies
and reduced government intervention. He tried to stimulate investment and reduce public spending.
Taxes on war profits were abolished. Many industrialists were pleased with this.