Facades: structural (non/load bearing), l/weight, h/weight, glazed/opaque, pre-fab/site

assembled, constr. method/material such as masonry, conc, curtain wall, profiled metals, built
up walls. Load bearing walls: wall is structural support for floors and roof. Use heavyweight
materials such as brick, stone; can get differential movement between faade and structure
minimised. Framed b-dings: walls form non-loadbearing cladding, can use l/weight materials:
stone brick, curtain walling, rainscreen, metal cladding, concrete; associated increased
differential movement. Walls are self-supporting masonry or curtain walling; normally limited
to low rise b-dings. Windows: b-ding component for closing an opening in a wall that will
admit light and may provide ventilation. Normally a factory produced unit that has one or
more openings bounded by a perimeter frame. Extensive window assemblies pass in front of
floor slab as a form of curtain walling. Curtain wall: a form of mainly vertical b-ding envelope
which supports no load other than its own weight and the environ.al forces which act on it.
Standard system walls: readily available set of components that can be used to construct a
wall, system allows variation of spans and finishes to provide some variation of appearance.
Existing test data can be used to demonstrate performance. May need more tests for some
applic. Bespoke walls: wall system using components designed for a specific project, may
use standard components assembled in novel way, greater choice of materials and geom,
more expensive, longer lead time in design and testing of system. Stick system: system of
framing members used to form a grillage, commonly alum. steel used for fire resist., timber
used for appearance/thermal performance, design of system incls gaskets and jointing
details. Delivered to site as pre-cut and machined sections. Frames fixed to floor
slab/structure. Opaque and transparent infills, glazed-in. Stick wall constr.: two-storey
continuous mullion, supported at foot, wind load carried at each floor (and at foot), vertical
movement possible at first floor and roof, can add additional sections but limited by
compression in mullions and movement accommodation. Or single-storey mullions, hung at
each floor, mullions connected by spigots, ease of constr. although vertical movement
possible at each spigot. Assembled sequentially or ladder frames installed with intermediate
transoms. Why use a stick system? Architectural intent of narrow framing members and
horizontal or vertical framing emphasis, economical, flexible, short lead time. Consequences:
external access requ.d, large amount of site work, performance is labour dependent, slow
rate of assembly, lifting equipment may be requ.d, site storage requ.d, performance of wall
may be affected by fit out, limited accommodation of structural movement. Unitised constr.
narrow storey-height factory assembled unit. Usually delivered to site with glazing/infill in
place. Units then lifted into place and fixed to floor slab/structure. Why? Architectural intent,
higher quality, less dependent on site installation, faster erection, can use standard or
bespoke systems. Consequences: may requ. craneage, site storage depending on method of
erection, increased lead time, external access not normally requ.d, performance may be
affected by fit out. Panelised constr.: large factory assembled panels, usually bay width and
storey height (concrete or steel frame), can be delivered to site with glazing/infill in place,
panels lifted into place and generally fixed close to primary structural columns, seals between
panels are site-applied or prepared in factory. Why? Architectural intent, lack of site storage
and site labour, greater pre-fab, faster erection. Consequences: craneage, size limited by
transport and lifting equipment, lead time and generally bespoke but may use standard
components. Structural sealant glazing systems: glass bonded to frame using structural
sealant, live loads on glass transferred through sealant, glass deadweight usually transferred
by mechanical means, used as part of stick, unitised or panelised, used in vertical or sloping
mullions. Why? Architectural intent, drainage of sloping glazing, improved thermal
performance. Consequences: structural sealant must be factory applied by specialist,
common to bond glass to secondary support frame which is necessary for stick systems and
requ.d for repair of unitised systems, sometimes retaining devices specified in case of sealant
failure, glass safety issues. Bolted glazing: toughened glass panels bolted to support system,
various types of support structure possible such as brackets fixed to primary structure, steel
secondary structure, curtain wall framing system, cable nets and glass fins. Bolts can have
countersunk heads to be flush with the glass surface and can bolt to laminated glass,
glazing units. They can be used vertically, horizontally or at any angle. Joints between panels
sealed on site with silicone sealant. Why? Architectural intent for transparency and light
transmission, can use standard components but can be totally bespoke. Consequences:
glass safety issues, appropriate expertise by contractor, lead time for specialist glass and
design co-ordinated with structure. Slope glazing (within 75 deg of horiz.) can be sealed
and unsealed system, constructed using framed systems or bolted glazing. Patent glazing
traditionally two edge supported unsealed glazing relying on drainage and flashings for
weathertightness, sometimes used to incl lightweight four edge sealed glazing systems.
Unsealed systems requ. slope of 15 deg to horiz., framing members incorporate drainage
channels, and used where internal environ. is not fully conditioned e.g. transport
interchanges. Why? Architectural intent, lighting, shelter to external areas. Consequence:
glass safety issues, access for constr. and maintenance, shading, performance of glass
coatings. ETFE foil cushions: requ.s continuous supply of air to keep cushion inflated,
reduced weight to be supported, large spans reduces to amount of supporting structure,
eliminates risk of falling glass. Other options: profiled metal cladding system types vertical
site built up, horizontal site built up, structural liner tray. Mullion transom joint: need to
facilitate constr., permit sealing, transfer vertical, horizontal and turning effect from eccentric
loads, accommodate movement. Types: fixed cleat, overlap, spring cleat. Mullion joint: spigot
transfers horizontal load, may allow vertical movement or may transfer axial load. Sealing
may requ.: cover piece on front of mullion, rubber moulding at front of mullion, wet applied
sealant. Built-up walls: constructed in a series of separate layers/operation backing wall,
insul, membranes, windows, external cladding incl. rainscreen and external insul. Usually
constructed from standard components. Backing wall: solid (masonry or concrete), frame
(site-assembled or pre-fab) or curtain wall. Infill wall: stud wall (steel/timber), solid (masonry),
wall spans between floors, movement joints at top of wall. Continuous back wall: stud wall
(steel), solid wall (masonry or concrete), wall spans between floors, movement joint at top of
wall unless wall loadbearing. Requ. of backing wall: support cladding, resist loads from
occupants, provide air barrier that is continuous over faade and at floors, provide vapour
control layer to retard the passage of water vapour through the wall. Rainscreen cladding:
wide range of materials used, alum. extrusions commonly used for support system using
standard profiled or profiles designed to support specific panels, windows fixed in openings in

the wall. Insul used such as mineral wool, phenolic foam both mechanically fixed.
Waterproof/breather membrane normally behind insul. Rainscreen supports rails can use
simple T or L rail with face fixing, more complex shapes can be used for conceal/proprietary
fixings. Storey height rails fixed at one point with restraint at remaining brackets, increasing
span minimises cold bridging at brackets and potential for penetrating membranes. Using
vertical and horizontal rails requ.s wider cavity, allows
panels to hook onto rails, permits concealed fixing of
flat panels. Rails spanning between floors can be
steel or alum. rails and requ.s robust rails and
brackets. Rail sections joined by spigot to allow
movement. More common for refurbishment where
concrete floor provides more reliable fixing. Why?
Architectural intent of large opaque areas, wide range of materials, wide range of cost, used
for both new-build and refurbishment/repair projects. Consequences: wall split into packages
therefore co-ordination of packages requ.d, standard components but performance depends
on interfaces, external access requ.d, craneage depends on degree of prefab., completion of
back wall and windows can allow internal work to proceed during rainscreen erection.
Render on insul systems: insul attached to support wall with adhesive or mechanical fixings,
insul can be polystyrene and mineral wool, cavity (normally behind insul) recommended for
framed back walls. Render can be mineral, polymer modified cementitious, resin and
reinforcement can be metal lath, glass scrim, glass fibres or a decorative finish. Terminology:
ETICS External Thermal Insul Cladding Systems, EWIS External Wall Insul Systems,
EIFS Exterior Insul Finish System. Why? Architectural intent for larger opaque areas or
wide range colours, economical, used for both new-build and refurbishment/repair projects,
cold bridging minimised and thermal mass inside of the insul. Consequences: wall split into
packages and requ. co-ordination of packages, performance depends on interfaces, external
access requ.d, completion of back wall and windows can allow internal work to proceed
during completion of external wall and has a poor record in some countries. Weathertightness
airtightness, water penetration resist. and wind resist.. This is applied to wall systems,
windows/doors, interfaces such as gaskets, sealants and membranes. Rain control strategies
can incl: deflection, barrier perfect (face-sealed), such as glass sealant, or imperfect.
Imperfect can be storage e.g. stone/permeable material -rely on rain stopping, allowing
drying out, or cavity (secondary defence) break path through and drained at the bottom.
Requ.s inner air barrier, drained/vented. Ventilated and pressure moderated, spaced opening
to cause convection. Water can be evaporated into air current. Pressure moderated
regulates pressure so water isnt sucked into cavity. B-ding and airflow overhangs can trap
water being lifted by air flow. Downdraughts drive water down. Intensity of rain on a faade
if rain continues for long enough, water will begin to flow across the wall causing heavy
wetting. Rain only wets the surface when the wind blows it, the wind will divert the water to
the perimeter of the b-ding. Gaskets/joints in windows/frame are the most likely places for
water getting in. Not necessarily perfectly sealed. Water leakage = water + openings +
forces. Want to remove any one of the following to eliminate leakage. A) Gravity b) Kinetic
energy (effect of wind) Heavier than air, therefore hits b-ding or splash from horizontal
surface C) Surface tension drips along surface. D) Capillary action can lead to algal
growth (water stays for longer) e) Air currents (gusts) F) Pressure diff. Traditional Wall
Constr.. Solid (masonry, stone, brickwork, blockwork) external walls: rendered finish
protecting exposed face of wall. Imperfect rain control barrier storage. If too permeable, add
render; can be dense, impermeable therefore susceptible to cracking from shrinkage. Lime
renders are better. Cavity external walls: allow water to drain out of cavity. Weep holes, at
bottom of wall, for drainage. Damproof tray leading water to the outside of wall. Concrete
(panel) constr.: fully (front) sealed single stage approach. With sealants issue with water
ingress, although theoretical watertights but installation dependent. Potential double sealant
with drainage mechanism (front and back with with intermediate drains at end and
intermediate length). Concrete is fairly impermeable. Rainscreen walls: air gap between
panels. Overlap panels to prevent water in. Dont rely on layer being watertight, rely on cavity
behind. Water penetration resist.: water entry to the cavity is governed by: joint geometry and
gap width of the joints. Pressure equalisation to reduce water in cavity (not common). Wetting
of the air barrier may be reduced by: increasing cavity width, draining quicker/effective
removal of water, provision of waterproof layer common practice. Water removed by:
drainage, ventilation. Drained-and-ventilated (ventilation opening top, air gap in wall,
drainage/ventilation opening at bottom). Drainage removal of liquid water needs sufficient
quantity to overcome surface tension effects. Drainage opening of at least 6mm min no
capillary action from surface tension. Driven by gravity. Obstructions avoid. Sufficient
clearance between components. Continuous level or downward path to outside. Ventilation:
removal of trapped water by evaporation, requ.s free flow of air due to wind action or stack
effect, opening at top and bottom of section and of sufficient size. Pressure-equalised: air
gap, cavity barrier and regular vent openings in separate zones. Pressure equalisation (Pin =
Pout) can be achieved if (2% change): large enough opening, tight enough air barrier,
compartmented cavities, vertical cavity closers at: 6m spacing and 1.5m within 6m of corners.
Horizontal cavity closers at: each storey height, 1.5m from parapet.
Panel joints: sealed joints -min. air gap 25mm, closed joints 25mm based on sealant
degradation over life of b-ding, labyrinth joints 38mm, baffled 38mm, open 50mm. Waterproof
membranes: Infront of insul protects insul but more vulnerable to damage. May be difficult
to install. May trap vapour if not breathable. Want to prevent some insul from getting wet
change thermal properties. Breathable membrane allows moisture vapour to get out, but is
resistant to the passage of liquid water. From high concn to low, can be degraded by UV
radiation. Behind insul gives one single membrane to provide
vapour, air and water barrier. Possible position if insul unaffected by
water. Foil-faced insul: waterproof layer,
extra foil tapes at joint, effectiveness is
workmanship dependent, may trap
vapour. Vapour tight membrane e.g.
polyethylene, epdm: put on warm side
of
insul, may trap vapour if placed in wrong
location. Things to incl: weep hole, drip feature,

sealant joint needs to be secure and robust, good membrane seal. Watertightness of
windows: front-sealed rely on gaskets being perfect sealed. Outer seals subjected to
combined wetting and wind. Issue with single glazing and condensation from wet sealant.
Misting of glazing water into cavity and condensation occurs. Drained and ventilation
drain cavity out. Pressure equalised sealed compartment already part of b-ding, gaskets
must be airtight, additional sealant sometimes used. Drainage recommendations: 6mm
clearance between glass and frame, 8 or 10mm diameter hole, 20 x 5 or 25 x 5 mm slots.
Pressure-equalisation: inner seals provide air barrier, outer seals provide primary water seals.
Cavities made into compartments. Each compartment connected to the exterior by protected
openings. Curtain walls: front sealed risk of gaskets not being perfect. Drained-andventilated or pressure equalised are typically used. Drainage at transom slots in pressure
plates and cover caps. Potential streaking and staining down pane of glass. Drainage through
mullions spouts at internals, drainage paths can be very long, normally drained every 2 or 3
storeys. Incls holes for ventilation (top) and slots for drainage and vent (bottom). P.E. System
need compartment seal at intervals to break up wall. Need air seal at transom and mullion
junction. Slots in pressure plate and bottom of cover plate. Performance requ.ments incl:
pressure plate screws and internal clip in beads to be sealed, sealants or gaskets at the
mullion transom joint. Slope glazing considerations: water accumulates at back of transom,
drainage via mullions (rafters), cover caps chamfered to allow drainage over face. Unitised
curtain wall 3 gaskets and cavities for drainage. Outer, intermediate and inner seals.
Horizontal plate to direct water back out the front. Spec of weathertightness: prescriptive
requ.ments standard details, secondary defence system, gasket requ.ments etc.
Performance spec: lab testing to prove design, site tests to check workmanship and to prove
detail design. Why test? Proves system will work. Difficult to predict, test, validate: gasket
joints, deflection may impair seals, overloaded drainage systems, complex/innovative design.
Not used for: sealant joints normally due to workmanship issue. But can still do on-site
tests. Test after detail design before manufacture. Product test tested system on market,
test certificate. Project tests build a section of wall and test. Rely on these results. Used for
large projects and bespoke design. Can take about 3 months so risk of delay. Curtain walls
are always tested. Rainscreens not really test. Assessed for criteria. Windows always
tested (Esepcially where they integrate with curtain wall). Interfaces get tested (unless on
rainscreen). Test procedures: pressurise box, water spray and measure: air pressure, air
leakage, water flow, deflections. Joints and interfaces. Envelope interfaces: panel to panel,
glass to panel, window to wall, wall to wall, wall to roof. Copings have differential thermal
movement. Joint types: open, membrane, gasket, sealant. Again product and project specific
detailing. Membranes are frequently used to seal: windows to walls, walls to walls, walls to
roofs. EPDM is commonly used but a range of breathable materials is also available. Bonding
or clamping is requ.d to provide a seal (mechanical). Membranes may be fixed by: site
applied adhesive, laminated bonding strip, clamping into a rebate, use of components with a
race. Designs for around windows lead to different types of adhesive bonding strips.
Gasket. Packing material material firmly held between contact surfaces on two components
who joint is to be sealed usually held in compression but can be held in tension if
appropriately designed. Clamped relies on compression to maintain a seal. Elastomeric
component: EPDM (most common), chlorophene (Neoprene), silicone, TPE. Factory
extruded and in well-defined joint. Should be constant section and strength not very flexible.
Gaskets functions: limits air and water infiltration, allows relative moment, absorbs structural
loads, prevent glass (brittle) contacting frame (flexible). Dynamic gaskets: open and close
functionality. Requ.d to provide a good seal under low compression. High compression forces
in the gasket will requ. large operating forces to close the window or door. A good seal under
low compression (openable). Different shapes allow for range of movements static gaskets.
May act in combination but only one gasket should determine the location of the opening
window or door. Dynamic gasket shapes O-gasket, P-gasket, flipper gasket. Static window
gasket- Glazing installation sequence: 1. Push-in or slide-in gasket placed, 2. Glazing
installed, 3. Bead installed, 4. Wedge gasket inserted to provide compression of both
gaskets and lock bead in position. Gasket size and compression: colour coded for easy
reference. Different sizes give different compression in gap. The gap width will depend on:
glazing THK, tolerance of frame and tolerance of gasket. Need way of holding in place: slide
in, wedge, push in. Gasket shapes: wedge (crescent and e gasket), push-in (crescent and e),
slide-in (brush and fir-tree). Hollow or closed-cell gaskets: soft, closed-cell and Firm, dense
(rubber). Material selection dependent on: compression set (recovery under various
pressures), ozone/weathering/UV/pressure resist., tear resist. (needed for windows), cost of
compound, durability. Can incl: EPDM (most common), chloroprene (better tear resist., may
be used for opening joints), silicone (more expensive, may be used where coloured gasket
requ.d), TPE (used for plastic windows, high compression set (not good), can combine with
pressure plate and beads, may be used for co-extruded gaskets for pvc frames).
Compression set (permanent deformation) = original recovered. Low is good. Gaskets have
to remain compressed to form seal, have to remain compressed under wind load. Failure to
compress gaskets may lead to failure of seal or gasket retention. Initial compression should
allow for wind load and compression set. If compression is too high, glazing units may be
damaged during installation. Need to be oversized (1-3%) to allow for stretch in installation
and compress over time. Wet applied sealant: General Purpose mastic oil based + additive,
flexible, skin on surface, become hard over time, less flexible (lose volatile material). Rubber
mastic longer flexibility. Others are extruded out of a tube, chemically react to form a solid
material. Lots of type of each dependent on additives, filler (dependent on spec). Polymer
gives sealant its flexibility. Catalyst increase rate of hardening. Life cycle 5-25 years. Sealant
needs to be replaced during b-ding life also effect by UV causing degradation. Silicone is
most durable. Movement joints flexible material than can accommodate material.
Movement joints: designed to accommodate movement: expansion/contraction and shear.
Designed for: movement accommodation and rate and frequency of movement. Joints in
concrete long shrinkage and moisture movement, therefore use plastic sealants. Joints in
metal frame, short term response and elastic deformation. Silicone for frame elastic
material. Sealant modulus (applied to elastic materials). Low modulus for flexibility, low
stresses and forces and high cost. High modulus for high stresses when extended, potentially
large forces in the substrates, high stresses at the adhesive interface and holding things in
position. Low modulus is more expensive as it contains more polymer. Sealant extension

(consider tension and compression stretching until full cure). Rapid = hours. Intermediate =
days. Slow = weeks. Compatibility with substrates: staining (common with stone cladding
which is expensive) seepage, mainly into porous stones, seepage across non-porous
surfaces that collects dirt, irregular washing depending on the rainwater flow pattern.
Sealants that produce acetic acid (in silicone acids) during cure are not suitable for use with:
some metals (lead), concrete, limestone, marble. Reaction with materials and effects bond.
Surface treatments: paints may contain flow promoters that prevent adhesion, similarly for
hygroscopic surface on glass, silicone sealants may be compatible with self-cleaning glass.
Chemicals within the sealant may react with other polymeric materials including sealants and
gaskets. Sealant installation process: clean, mask, prime, fit backer-rod, apply sealant, tool.
Sealant joint failure (cohesive) causes: irregular depth, too shallow at centre due to over
tooling, sealant not suitable for requ.d movement and low temps, lack of bond breaker.
Sealant joint failure (adhesive) causes: failure to prime, wet dirty or friable surfaces,
excessive (elastic) sealant depth, adhesion to backer, lack of release tape, sealant not
suitable for requ.d movement and low temps. Sealant joint failure (general) causes:
insufficient sealant, surface puckering due to early movement, surface tearing due to early
movement. Brackets reqi.: transfers loads from cladding to structure via support or restraint,
accommodate induced deviations (tolerances) and inherent deviations (movements),
durability resist. to corrosion, compatibility of materials, inspection and maintenance and
resist fire and quick and simple to install and adjust (buildable). Design and manufacture of
brackets nearly always bespoke, ease of manufacture, cost, materials and variations and
repetitions of use on a project. Adjustment location: at the bracket to frame/slab interface,
within the bracket, at the bracket to wall interface. Adjustment mechanisms: cast in channel
fixings dependent on workmanship and contractual issues, site drilled holes possible
clash with reinforcement, site welded cleat not preferred, slotted holes serrated
interfaces, friction grip bolts, threaded bars hangers and wind restraint, packers shims of
suitable material (incl. bearing, corrosion), packing to acceptable max. distances, two way
adjustment requ.s small packer in neutral position. Adjustment of brackets prior to cladding
insul cannot allow for panel/stick tolerances. Adjustment at the time of cladding installation
cannot take account of subsequent one off movement. Adjustment post cladding installation
requ.s the ability to jack the panels. Movement accommodation should be present after
installation, total allowance in a movement joint is for tolerance and movement, allowable
position post installation depends on subsequent load and temp. Accomodation of movement
can be in the form of sliding and flexing. A secondary truss may be provided for stiffer support
point and adjustment of position. Other aspects of buildability: positions of brackets, ease of
installation and adjustment, site modification and site design of structural components. Glass
primary manufacture: raw materials mixed and raised to 1500 degC in furnace. Broken glass
(cullet) from the plant may be added. Glass formed by float process, cast (rolled) process and
drawing. All glass is gently cooled after it is formed to avoid locking in thermal stresses
which is annealing. Float glass manufacture flattest with least distortion, large production
runs, 95% glass production, THK 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 19 and 25 mm and sizes up to 6m x
3.2m. Cast rolled glass manufacture can produce patterned, plate, wired glass manufacture
and THK 4, 6, 7 mm and smaller sizes. Drawn glass manufacture small production runs,
antique appearance, plate glass. Glass can be manufactures as basic glass, body tinted
glass this has a through body tint achieved by the addition of metal oxides to the melt, it
has reduced light transmittance and increased light absorption that leads to overheating.
Coated glass coatings are deposited on to the hot glass and are called hard or pyrolytic
coatings. Coatings can incl low-e, low reflectance, self-cleaning, coloured. Secondary
processing: shaping cutting, edging, drilling, thermal treatment toughening, heat soaking,
heat strengthening, bending, soft coating low-e, colour, low reflectance, solar control,
fabrication laminating, printing, fritting and IGU manufacture. Glass is edge worked: to
avoid concentrated edge stresses, for safety if edges are exposed in service and for
appearance. Annealed glass: (one of the weakest) used for vertical glazing where safety
glass not requ.., used for roofing when area underneath is infrequently used, best optical
quality and can be processed into other products. Breakage: breaks into large dagger like
shard, dangerous to fall through, and if it falls. Thermal fracture: temp diff caused by solar
radiation heating centre of pane and shading from frame at edge. Safe temp diff is 40C for
annealed glass. Risk increased for: increased intensity of solar radiation, solar control glass,
internal back up constr., internal blinds, shadows, glass edge damage. Risk of fracture
normally assessed. Can be modified by toughening to increase initial strength and produce a
safety glass, heat-strengthening to increase initial strength, laminating to increase post-failure
strength, produce a safety glass and modify other performance characteristics.
Toughened glass can be strengthened by: chemical toughening chemical modification of
the surface, used to strengthen thin glasses (up to 3mm), has a tough surface and limited use
in constr., or thermal toughening thermal pre-stress locked in to the glass, giving a stronger
safety glass. Toughening process: annealed glass is heated to 630C, then cooled rapidly by
surface quenching with air, surface hardens before the centre and is pulled into compression.
Pre-stress: failure occurs if the compression zone is penetrated, for instance by scoring.
Pros: safer breakage mode, stronger than annealed glass, reduced risk of thermal fracture,
structural uses, thinner glass may sometimes be used, same modulus as annealed glass.
Cons: has to be cut and edge worked before toughening, limitations of size (4x2m readily
available and 6x3m possible), not as flat as annealed glass, cannot be drilled, susceptible to
nickel sulphide failure, subject to anisotropy. Roller wave issues in toughened glass incl
orientation and magnitude, flatness tolerances need to be agreed to minimise disputes.
Nickel sulphide (NiS) inclusions are inherent in all basic glass, are subject to a batch effect,
occur once in 4 tonnes of European glass and formed from nickel from contaminants and
sulfur from fuel. More likely in thicker glass. Alpha and beta states of NiS. The Beta form
changes to the Alpha form during toughening of the glass, reversion of the Beta state some
years later causes the inclusion to expand and trigger a failure. When failure occur (Double
Dee, butterfly effect) proof is requ.d by SEM. Heat soaked toughened glass (HSTG): this
process accelerates the conversion of NiS inclusion, 99% of panels with inclusion will failure
during this process. Glass is held at 290C for 2 hours. Features of HSTG: reduces the
incidence of NiS induced failure to 1% of that in non heat soaked glass, mechanical
properties are unaltered, depends on the accuracy of the heat soaker, breakages can occur
for reasons other than NiS. Heat strengthened glass is produced by the toughening process

but: it is cooled more slowly than toughened glass, the

resulting induced surface stresses are lower, more
difficult to control the process as stresses cant be
too low or high. Pros: stronger than annealed glass,
reduced risk of thermal fracture, reduced risk of NiS
failure relative to toughened, breaks into large
pieces and flatter than toughened glass. Cons:
Breaks like annealed glass (large shards), not as flat as annealed glass, may be subject to
anisotropy, risk of NiS failure. Actual glass strength depends on: inherent strength of basic
glass, induced compressive surface stress and duration of load. Toughened 120N/mm2,
heat strengthened 70N/mm2, annealed (basic) glass 45 N/mm2. Laminated glass (LG)
comprises two or more panes of glass with interlayers of polymeric material between them.
Laminated to modify: environ.al performance (acoustic, UV and fire performance), post-failure
behaviour, appearance (colour, pattern, decorative wires). Initial strength of lam glass is lower
than
equiv. monolithic pane. The interlayers used for post-failure
strength are: PVB is in flexible 0.38 mm thick
sheet
and used for most laminated glass and most
economical form of laminated glass. PE
(polyester) is a cast in place resin and is
used for
curved glass and toughened glass with irregular
surface. Ionoplasts are stronger and stiffer than PVBs but more expensive. The interlayers
used for environ.al performance are: PMMA is a soft resin when cured and reduces noise
transmission through the glass, but provides no post failure strength. Intumescent materials
for insul fire rated glasses. LG is also used for bullet resistant glazing. Mechanical
performance of LG: weaker than monolithic of same type and THK, strength reduction
depends on duration of load and type of interlayer, post failure behaviour depends on type
of glass, interlayer and method of fixing and temp. LG breakage glass fragments remain
attached to the interlayer, safety glass incls PVB layer, security glass incls thicker PVB layer
or multiple layers. Laminated glass with at least one ply of non toughened glass will normally
remain in place if fully framed. Delamination can occur if: exposed to weather, edge covered
in water, incompatible sealants, interlayer is compressed locally during manufacture, exposed
in high temp. Delamination resist. depends upends upon interlayer, minor delam is unlikely to
affect safety or structural performance. Wired glass: steel wire mesh embedded in glass,
weakest glass type, used for fire resistant glazing (thin wires), used as a safety glass (thick
wires), available as rough cast wired glass or polished wired glass. Glass remains attached to
wire on breakage. Wires can break if glass subject to severe impact. Danger of cutting injury
if broken and contacted or if penetrated. Glass can fall if subject to strong impact. Wires can
corrode at cut edges and fractures. Insulated glazing units (IGUs) sealed cavity with dry air
or gas improves insulaltion. Air/gas is dried during manufacture but moisture may leak back
in, this will cause condensation and prolonged condensation may cause staining or corrosion
of coatings, dual seal requ.d. These dual seal units can be recognised by a visible second
seal of different colour. The use of edge tape (foil) is not recommended as it prevents
inspection of the seal and edge damage and may trap moisture. Safe use of glass:
Considerations incl: injury from impact with glass, manifestation to reduce risk of impact,
containment to prevent falling, post-failure behaviour (incl. overhead glass). Build regs requ.
for impact: glazing with which people are likely to come into contact while in passage in or
about the b-ding, shall if broken on impact break in a way which is unlikely to cause injury
(i.e. safety glass) or resist impact without breaking (i.e. small or thick panes) or be shielded or
protected from impact. Requ for manifestation: transparent glazing, with which people are
likely to come in contact with while moving in or about the b-ding, shall incorporate features
which make it apparent (does not apply to dwellings). Glass in critical locations should be: a
safety glass or glass that does not fail under impact or a glass that is shielded from impact.
Grading of glass () where is the highest drop height class (1,2,3) at which the product
either does not break or breaks safely, is the mode of breakage (A, B or C) and is the
highest drop height class (1 =1200mm ,2 = 450mm,3 = 190mm (same as ) at which the
product provides containment. Breakage classes: A Numerous cracks appear forming
separate fragments with sharp edges, some of which are large (annealed or heatstrengthened glass), B Numerous cracks appear, but fragments are held together and do
not separate (laminated, safety wired, film-backed annealed glass) and C Disintegration
occurs, leading to a large number of small relatively harmless fragments (toughened glass).
Comparison of safety glass: 4mm toughened float glass (TFG) 1(C)0, 8mm TFG 1(C)2,
12mm TFG 1(C)1, LG with >0.76mm PVB 1(B)1, LG with <0.76mm PVB 2(B)2 and SWG
3(B)3 . Safety glasses Class 3 generally satisfactory, Class 2 requ. in doors and
door side panels where smaller dimension great than 900mm. Impact resistant glass robust
AG or HSG. Small panes of glass at least 6mm THK, typically in doors normally have
sufficient strength irrespective of the glass used. AG is allowed but may not be the most
appropriate solution. If shielding is requ. it should be dimensioned as shown left. If glass door
can be secured open then they must be shielded against collision. Manifestation requ at two
height logos or emblems 150mm high or a continuous band of width 50mm, must contract
visually with background in all lighting conditions, frameless glass entrance doors, must be
clearly differentiated from a glazed screen by a high contract strip at top, and on both sides.
Glass in barriers (balustrades or glass walls) requ: resist static load (strength and deflection),
safety on impact, containment under impact, safety from falling glass. Containment: BS 6180
permits monolithic TG but TG does not provide reliable containment after fracture. LG with
0.76PVB or equiv. preferred, although for glazing units 2 panes of TG may be acceptable
subject to a risk assessment, and risk to people below should be considered. Glass overhead
that breaks: will fall if it not vertical and not restrained, may fall if it is vertical and not
restrained, glass may be selected to minimise the risk of failure, constructed to fall safely
and glazed to remain in place when broken. Overhead glazing: consider sloping and vertical
glazing, considers any glass that is not nominally vertical to be sloping, limits on approp.
Glass types for sloping glazing, no established limits on glass type for vertical glass
growing reluctance to use mono TG, requ.s a risk assessment (and potentially testing),
contractors may have company policy. Overhead slope glazing (upper pane) requ: strength to
resist thermal fracture and static loads and impact, and, safe breakage if subject to
maintenance access. Options for this could be TG, HSTP AG, WG, LG. Fire performance of

curtain and rainscreen walls: curtain walls are not generally fire resisting but precautions are
requ.d to restrict spread of fire, such as: firestops between curtain wall and structure, reaction
to fire of surfaces, combustibility of materials. Rainscreen walls it is also necessary to restrict
fire spread in cavities using cavity barriers. Response of material to heat source:
combustibility, spread of flame, release of heat and affects: development of a fire, spread of
fire up height of and between b-dings. Combustibility based on small scale laboratory tests.
Fire resist. for non loadbearing, insul will prevent transfer of heat and integrity to prevent
the passage of flame and smoke. Requ.d to restrict fire spread between b-dings and to
protect escape routes. Not normally requ.d for curtain walls if adequate space separation
provided. Assessed by large scale lab tests. Fire performance of b-dings (build regs): prime
concern is safety of people, Approved Doc B, fire engineering provides alternative approach.
Insurance concerned with limiting property damage. Client may be concerned with
business continuity and potential extra/special requ.ments for high important b-dings. Build
regs: assumes fire will occur, make requ. for controlling fire spread internally and externally.
Five heading for fire safety: Means of warning and escape, internal fire spread (linings),
internal fire spread (structure), external fire spread, access and facilities for the fire service.
Fire escape, and its provision are a requ. Route should be protected from fire, radiant heat,
smoke. May requ. fire resisting faade where route is close. Overhead slope glazing (lower
pane) requ: strength to resist thermal fracture and static loads and impact, residual strength
to remain in place and retain upper pane and resist (reduced) loads, alternatively could be
design to fall safely (if not requ. to resist load). Options are LG, WG or TG if less than 5m
above ground, of limited pane size and THK up to 13m above ground but not normally
recommended. TG for use overhead should heat soaked to min. risk of NiS induced fracture.
Broken TG should be retained by a lower pane or fragmented by a mesh to prevent glass
falling as clusters. Performance of LG depends on glass type and method of support: at least
one pane must not be toughened to give residual stiffness, two edge supported glass may
fold and slide out of frame, interlayer of bolted glass may tear around fixings. Overhead
vertical glazing (inner pane) may need to be safety glass and provide containment and
resist thermal fracture and mitigate blast effects and resist wind load. Overhead vertical
glazing (outer pane) may need to resist thermal fracture, resist wind loads, resist cradle
impacts, minimise effect of blast, minimise consequences of failure. For commercial b-dings,
solution has been HSTG outer pane and LG inner pane. LG becoming preferred option for
outer pane especially for large pane sizes. Risk assessment (RA) can be used to evaluate
risks and ensure that all parties understand their responsibilities. B-ding performance risks:
dissatisfaction with appearance, failure to provide security, excessive glare and solar heat
gain and noise, and, difficulty with cleaning, maintenance, repair, replacement and
demolition. Financial risks: cost of glass, glass replacement after completion due to glass
breakage and non-performance, disruption cause by remediation, loss in b-ding value and
business, claims for injury. Safety risks: breakage of glass, falling/flying glass, falling
against/through glass. Assessment for safety: consider possible glass configurations,
performance under normal and abnormal conditions, how and when the glass may break,
consequences of breakage will the broken glass fall? Will it fall en masse as a clump of
fragments? How far will it fall? Where will it land? How many will be present? What can be
done to limit risks? What are residual risks? Party/parties carrying residual risks. Glazing
carries only loads applied directly to it (wind, snow, barrier loads, access loads, self weight)
and failure is local to pane. Structural glass transfers loads and if it fails the loads in other
elements will increase in glass fins, beams, and progressive collapse may occur. Glazing
assemblies: Suspended glazing sheets of glass bolted to metal patch fittings, frameless
glazing faade, joints between adjacent panels sealed on site with silicone sealant and glass
fins transfer wind loads to the structure. Supported glazing: glass panels bolted to special
brackets directly fixed to elements to the b-ding structure, dead load carried through cables or
roads, four to eight bolts per panel, various types of support structure possible. Glass shells:
triangular glass plates connected by non-structural framing members, works by shell action
and in-plane forces. Requ. for safe design: structure design to resist applied loads (stress
and deflection), accommodate movement (to avoid loads from restrained movement or
designed to resist induced loads, fail in a safe manner where structure should give warning of
failure, redundancy should be provided to prevent disproportionate collapse, hazard from
breakable component should be limited. Progressive collapse failure of one component due
to structural overload or weakness and malicious behaviour, should transfer loads to other
components and should not cause failure of further components. Post-failure behaviour
(glass roof) individual panes of glass should fail safely, and should not fall and in a floor
(trafficked roof) the applied load should still be supported. Breakage test LG 2 x 10mm
HSG with 1.52PVB, both panes broken but still supports 0.5kN/m2. Glass fin hanging in
clamp, tightness is important dont want glass to fall even once broken. Annealed glass is
perfectly linear elastic and stronger than no experience in practice because of
flaws/imperfections on surface) therefore we work at 1/1000 th of theoretical strength. Internal
stresses: Holes create complex stress patterns and these stresses can be assessed by
tests. Glass is an i) consistent material where the stresses vary massively (unlike steel or
alum.). Not all glass is the same patterned is weaker during the chill process (+ enamelled)
due to uneven temp. Glass strength depends on duration of loading, area of glass, environ.
and age of glass. Stress corrosion (static fatigue) account for time dependency and effect
incld in codes. Soda lime silicate glass and borosilicate glass (45N/mm2) and then thermally
toughened soda lime silicate glass (from float 120, patterned 90, enamelled 75) and heat
strengthened soda lime silicate glass (from float 70, patterned 55, enamelled 45).
Strength of pre-stressed glass: Surface pre-stress due to toughening or heat-strengthening
(90-120 N/mm2) strength depends on characteristic strength of annealed glass and
induced surface stress. Strength is not affected by surface defects or stress corrosion until
the pre-stress is overcome as no surface cracks exist. Built-up sections (large to small
deflections) layered (0% composite action), monolithic, composite (0-100% action). LG
strength: short term load (wind) the interlayer is stiff and the glass behaves as is monolithic,
longer duration (snow or dead load) PVB or resin interlayer may creep and glass will be
less stiff than monolithic and ionoplast interlayers produce stiffer laminates. Load sharing in
IGUs: no composite action, stiffness of a pane depends on cube of THK, load shared in ratios
of 1:1 to 1:4 or more, using thicker glass for outer pane will reduce visual distortion. Glass
plate analysis: elastic bending behaviour may be assumed provided the deflections are less

than the THK of the glass and the glass pane is then modelled as an elastic plate. For
greater deflections membrane action occurs: the glass is still behaving elastically with
linear-elastic properties but necessary to model the variable geometry.
Behaviour is dependent on: the THK, height and breadth of the glass,
support conditions, stiffness of the glass. Non-structural glass: incl 2 or
4 sided frame, point support rigid or flexible structure and structural sealant glazing. 4edge support: glass acts in bending spanning in two directions, reduces deflection
of glass
to min., design incls design charts in standards and
structural
analysis (large deflection theory). 2-edge support:
glass
acts in bending spanning in one direction,
deflection greater than 4-edge support,
occurs at patent glazing, floor-to-ceiling glazing.
Floor-to-ceiling (2-edge) vertical edge is
finished as a silicone seal on the edge, thicker
glass is requ. but benefit is appearance. Point supported glass deflection greater than 4edge, concentrated stresses at fixings, stresses reduced by rotation at fixings and suitable
bearing materials, various types of connection monolithic, LG and glazing units. Spider
supports which are in turn supported from a mullion. Connection types: linearly supported
(edge clamps), local edge supports (edge clamps), local point supports (simple bolt,
countersunk bolt, undercut anchors, corner patches, plate clamping glass to cable net,
articulated bolts), structural silicone sealant. Connecting to IGUs: connecting through two
panes of glass is possible but has implications for sealing and guarantees, connecting to the
inner pane has the same problems as it makes the edge seal is load carrying. Glued
connecters glues can be stronger than the glass and lead to a plucking failure of the glass.
Glass-fins can be used to transfer in-plane loads and can be carried by frictional connectors
or bolts in bearing. Frictional connectors bolts clamp the connector plates against the glass,
friction generated between the plates and the glass transfers the in-plane loads and the bolts
do not contact the glass. Patch plates rely on friction and are not suitable for glazing units,
problem with LG as the laminate is compressed. Laminate creeps the tension in the bolts
reduces and the load capacity of the connector is reduced, this can be overcome by placing a
metal insert in place of the laminate around the holes. Bearing connectors glass and plates
slip until they contact the bolt, load transfer is by bearing of the glass on the plate and bearing
of the plates on the glass, the hole may be lined with a softer material, the bolts is in shear
not tension. Nylon insert can be site drilled to give a precisely positioned hole irrespective
of manufacturing tolerances and the nylon bush will distribute the loads around its interface
with the glass. Support systems: suspended assembly (glass fins or steel structure as wind
restraint), glass beams and glass columns and struts. Transmission, absorption and
reflection: all radiation on a pane of glass is reflected, absorbed or transmitted. Reflectance
and absorption are properties of the glass. incident radiation = reflectance + absorptance +
transmission (%). Reflectance depends on surface properties of glass or coating if present
varies depending upon the angle of the incident light which is usually measured and specified
for normal incidence of 0deg. Absorptance depends on the glass type tints may be added to
the glass. Absoptance causes glass to heat up until heat loss from the glass is in equilibrium
with the rate of abosrptance. Heat loss from the glass occurs by conduction to the frame,
convection and radiation and this contributes to the total transmitted radiation. Solar (g) factor
and SHGC: The g-value is often used to specify glazing performance, calculated as a
proportion of the incident radiation on the glass, defined as the sum of the direct
transmittance and the absorbed radiation entering the room by long-wave radiation and
convection from the glass. Manufacturers normally quote: reflectance, total visible
transmittance and total solar heat transmission (g-value). For multiple glazing, radiation
reflected from an inner pane will be incident on the inner face of the outer panes and multiple
reflections will occur. Secondary reflections also increase the energy transmittance and are
incld in the total transmittance. Emissivity ratio of the actually emitted energy to the energy
that would be emitted by a black body at the same temp. Net radiation is the radiation emitted
less the radiation received from other surfaces. (If all surfaces are at the same temp then no
radiative transfer occurs). Solar radiation the aim is to moderate the entry of shortwave
infra-red energy to control solar gain while admitting visible light to reduce the need for
lighting energy. Glass coatings for solar control rely on two physical phenomena to produce
their performance the absorption and transmittance characteristics and interference effects.
Coated glasses are selected to distinguish between short-wave radiation and long-wave
infrared. Ordinary glass high absorptance of long-wave radiation, lass gets hot and losses
heat by convection and radiation. Hard-coat low emissivity = reflectance and transmittance
total nearly 100%, band in which short-wave radiation is transmitted is much narrower and
centred on the visible part of the spectrum, higher performance much greater selectivity
and has lower transmittance of short-wave radiation. Selectivity measure of the efficacy of a
control glass may be designed as light transmission/g-value. Reflective coatings have to be
positioned to reflect solar radiation outwards. Tinted glasses and high absorptance coatings
will get warm and should be used as the outer panes. Reflective solar radiation will cause
glasses to become hotter if it passes through the glass as both incident and reflected
radiation. The use of low-e coating on surface (outer face of inner pane) will reduce the
amount of energy radiated inwards from the outer pane. Soft coatings have to be protected
within the glazing cavity and should be placed surface 2 or 3. Low-e coatings: effective
whether placed on the emitting surface or the receiving surface, can be on either surface 2 or
3 to reduce radiation across the cavity. If a mid-pane used low-e coating should be on surface
3. The use of a double low-e coating on surfaces 2 or 3 will give only marginal improvement
over a single coating. Heating dominated climate low-e on surface 3, cooling on surface 2.
Solar control films: polyester films may be applied to the glass to reduce the solar
transmission, reduce the emissivity, minimise discomfort glare. These can be applied to the
internal or external surface of the glass or glazing unit. Less durable than plain or hardcoated glass and is typically used as a retro-fit. Thermal fracture of annealed glass may occur
if a sufficiently high temp differential is created across the glass and the greater the
absorptance of the glass the hotter it is likely to become. Coatings and films also increase the
temp of the glass if they reduce heat loss by reducing radiation from the surface and reflect
radiation back through the glass. Shading devices may be provided for any of the following
reasons: reduction of solar gain, control of solar glare, control of sky glare, to achieve a

particular aesthetic. Vertical devices

less dense packing
will admit direct
light, direct sunlight
may cause glare. Dense
packing may reduce or eliminate vision out.
Light may enter the
room
as
light
reflected from the blades. Partial
shade degree of shading varies across
width at any time of day,
average g-factor may be
calculated, can be an economical
solution. Variable spaced horizontal bar the
use of variable spaced bars allow for better vision out. Blinds are angular selective and only
block light from a range of incident angles. They can provide solid shade all day if they have
rotating slats. Horizontal slats can be set to block sunlight from low altitude, need no further
adjustment throughout the day. Vertical slats can only block sunlight from a range of
azimuths, need adjustment through the day. Roller blinds reduces incidence from all angles
but have to be raised at times of the day. Vertical slats only work at certain sun positions,
glare may still enter at some horizontal angles, requ. adjustment throughout the day, deny
vision at some viewing angles. Horizontal slats work over a range of vertical shading
angles, deny view of the sky, may allow vision out below the horizon, may be set once to
prevent all glare. Roller blinds depends on light transmission and fabric structure. External
blinds are most effective at reducing solar gain, may provide shading against glare and may
be controllable but may be difficult and expensive. Internal blind may reduce glare, protect
privacy, do not reduce solar overheating and normally controllable. External blinds convect
heat to outside. Internal blinds convect and radiate heat to inside and causes glass to get
very hot and does not solve solar gain problem. Blinds within an IGU are normally horizontal
and controllable for tilt and raise/lower mechanism, they are less prone to misuse than
internal blinds and more difficult to maintain. Mid-pane blinds: collect heat within the IGU or
cavity, glass gets hot with risk of thermal fracture, low-e coating requ.d on surface 3 of IGU or
inner glass and cant be used with tilt or horizontal pivot windows. Shading that limits
unwanted solar gain also limits useful daylight. Vertical shading devices may be beneficial as
daylight is most needed when the sky is overcast and the light is coming from above.
Alternatively control glasses may be used with shading devices or alone. Aim is to reduce the
incident solar radiation and may be done by shading part of the glass area using solid
shading (no direct radiation passes) or partial shading (fritting and grillages). We can ignore
shallow angles of incidence as reflectance is then greater thansmission in these situations.
Un-shaded area admits radiation light and heat. Consider minimum area of daylight and
average area for solar gain. Shadow pattern of a shading device will depend on: the
geometry of the shading device, the optical properties, orientation of the faade and the
position of the sun. Overhangs, awnings and light shelves: overhang works best on a S, SE
or SW windows and other orientations can be beneficial if overhang is deep. Deeper
overhang blocks more radiation, little benefit in increasing the overhang depth to more than
0.8x the window height. If window is tall and narrow, increasing the width may better than
increasing depth. Vertical fins least effective for E and W windows, unless very large. Most
effective on N windows. Colour of fin is important dark reduces reflected radiation. Louvres
with horizontal slats: mounted externally, horizontal louvres are particularly effective at
blocking solar gain but they block a lot of daylight. For S and SW/SE orientation, louvres will
tend to block most solar gain and allow some view out. For other orientations, a more tilted
louvre is needed for optimum blocking of solar gain. Not best for N windows. Vertical Louvres
and louvre blinds provide more shading than horizontal for N and NE-NW windows, provide
less shading for other orientations. Glare is the presence of visible light at a level that causes
discomfort. Intense levels of light may be additionally reduce the ability to see objects. Glare
may be caused by direct, reflected or back lighting. No absolute level of light that causes
glare. Principally the contrast between the glare source and the object being viewed. Two
types of glare: direct light on the working surface can be overly bright and cause eye-strain
and be much brighter than a computer screen and washes out the screen, and diffuse light
back-lit silhouettes and glare from diffusing panels. Internal glare particularly occurs for
overhead glazing, and also in conventional windows if the sun if low enough. Winter mornings
and evening are a potential problem. Outdoor glare: sunlight reflected from mirrored and
other highly reflective surface may be a danger to motorist and pilots and be a nuisance in
the landscape. Solutions: internal blinds (occupant control). Reduction of glare: controllable
opaque shading device provides good protection in blocking glare and venetian blinds,
translucent shading devices provide some protection but may become a bright patch itself
defusing glare and lght-coloured fabric blinds, transparent shading devices do not work so
used as least tinted glass. Reflected glare isnt considered in sunpath diagrams. Coated
glasses: Why? Prevent the passae of some part of EM spectrum, modify the colour and the
reflectance and produce self-cleaning glass. Coatings are thin coatings of metals or metal
oxides, cause interference of the EM waves. Others are thicker and work by absorbing EM
energy. Hard coatings can be: self-cleaning, reflective, low reflectance, coloured, solar
control, low-e, data-stop. Soft coatings: reflective, low reflectance, low-e or solar control. Hard
or pyrolytic coatings are applied to the glass by chemical vapour deposition as it is produced
on the float line. The hot glass passes beneath a metal or metal oxide vapour which is
deposited on and fuses to the glass surface. The coating cannot be removed from the
surface without damaging the glass. The production is continuous as the glass ribbon passes
and Is not easily controlled. This can lead to variations in coating THK and it is not possible to
produce high performance glasses by hard coating them. Local variations in colour may
occur as a results of variations in the coating THK. Hard coats are fused to the glass surface
and remain so if the glass is subsequently reheated to toughen, heat-strengthen or bend the
glass. Durable and may be used on single glazing or an external surface of an IGU. Long
shelf life with a typical emissivity of 0.15 to 0.20. Hard coatings may show a pink pattern as
they may reflect red as well as infra-red. Pros and Cons: less expensive, simpler to procure,
may not give best performance such as higher U-values and SHGC, lower quality and slight

haze problems at certain angles. Soft coatings are applied to the glass after it has been
manufactured using physical vacuum deposition or sputtering. The glass is placed in a
vacuum chamber and the target of metal or metal oxide is bombarded to eject material from
it. This forms a vapour cloud that condenses on the glass surface at ambient temp and is not
fused to the glass. The coatings can be separated from the surface of the glass by scraping
or adhesion. Soft coats may be damaged by abrasion and moisture. Soft coats have to be
protected by being assembled into an IGU shortly after manufacture and it is necessary to
remove the coating around the margin of the glass (edge deletion) and bond the spacer bar
directly to the glass. Because of the low adhesion to the glass, it is not acceptable to bond to
the coating. Soft coated glasses cannot be toughened, heat strengthened or thermally bent.
Coated glasses are prone to problems of appearance iridescence or colouration. The
sputtering process creates coated glasses with much higher performance. Firstly the coating
THK can be more tightly controlled to give more uniform and consistent performance.
Secondly multiple coatings may be applied one on top of the other. In practice up to 14
coatigs have been applied to a single glass surface. Each coating is its own reflector/fitter
and the effects are cumulative. It is therefore possible to define and fine tune the
performance of the glass and typically emissivities of 0.04-0.08. Pros and cons: may give
better performance, better optical clarity with less colour haze, higher quality, must be used in
an IGU, edge deletion requ., more expensive, limit the spec of the glass, complex to procure
parties involved and lead times. Hard/soft coating: early sputtered coating were very soft.
More recently harder coatings have been produced by sputtering. They are still called soft
coatings to convey the idea that they have the high performance associated with soft
coatings. They would be better called hard/soft coatings or semi-soft coatings and they do not
offer the same high level of environ.al performance as some soft coatings. Hard/soft coatings
are more durable, they have longer shelf lives and some do not need protection within an
IGU. Some of these coatings will withstand thermal processing such as toughening, heat
strengthening and bending. Manufacturers should be consulted on processing as this has to
be done with some care to avoid marking the surface. Practical considerations: Spec
(Approach 1): if the shading device is fully detailed by the architect: specify the requ.d g-value
and light transmission of the glass. Approach 2: If the shading device is to be detailed by the
specialist contractor: specify the equivalent g-value of the glass and shading device, specify
the requ.d light transmission of the glass and shading device. Shading device, particularly
horizontal brise soleil may obstruct access for constr. and maintenance. Access for
maintenance: glass is cleaned by squeegee working through the vertical blades, difficult and
time-consuming and inward opening windows would allow cleaning from inside.Structural
aspects: brise soleil have to be either integrated with the curtain wall or a free standing
structure. This requ.s discussion between architect, specialist contractor and structural
engineer. Horizontal brise soleil: loading (SW, wind, snow and access) can either be
cantilevered from floor slab or mullions or pinned to mullions and tied, or supported by cable
from top. Cantilevered from floor slab: mullion bracket penetrates through wall, potential
thermal bridge, brise soleil may not be at optimum height. Cantilevered at mullions: additional
bending load on mullions (may be large), rigid connection to mullion may introduce a cold
bridge, height of brise soleil is flexible. Pinned to mullions and tied: small additional bending
load on mullions, pinned connection to mullion may avoid cold bridge, height of brise soleil is
flexible and could be hinged (retractable) for maintenance. Supported by cable from top: no
additional bending load in mullion, pinned connection to mullion may avoid cold bridge, height
of brise soleil is flexible, support cable may be anchored to ground to resist wind uplift. Free
standing: no additional load on mullions, height of brise soleil is flexible, separate contract
package and more expensive. Internal fire spread controlled by reaction of fire to internal
surfaces (incl. facades), compartmentation which can be achieved by use of suitable internal
wall and floor constr. and requ.s consideration of junctions with external walls and restriction
on cavities. External fire spread controlled if the external walls are constructed so that the risk
of ignition from an external source, and the spread of fire over their surfaces, is restricted by
making provision for them to have low rates of heat release, or, if the amount of unprotected
area in the side of the b-ding is restricted so at to limit the amount of thermal radiation that
can pass through the wall, taking the distance between the wall and the boundary into
account. At least a 1m away from next b-ding is over 18m. External walls within 1m of the
boundary requ. fire resist. from both sides. External wall more than 1m from the boundary
requ. fire resist. from the inside only. Fire resist. periods depend on b-ding use and height.
There are limits on the amount of unprotected area (e.g. glazing) permissible which depend
on distance from the boundary. For walls far enough from the boundary there is no limit on
unprotected area. Performance of curtain walls: alum. soften and melts, weaken @ 200, melt
@ 550 600 and failure (test) at 30 min. However, glass probably fractures first; typical
period to disruption of a wall is 15 min, although research claims it can survive longer. Fire
resistant glazed facades requ.: fire resistant glass and appropriate frames. Junctions with
compartment floor: (build regs state) where a compartment wall or floor meets an external
wall, the junction should maintain the fire resist. of the compartmentation. At the junction of a
compartment floor with a curtain wall, the external wall should be restrained at floor level to
reduce the movement of the wall away from the floor when exposed to fire. The requ. to
prove fire stop between curtain wall (b-ding envelope) and floor applies in all countries. Fire
stops are to have same fire resist. as compartment wall/floor and requ.d to restrict spread of
heat and smoke. Fire stopping material utilise: mineral wool for thermal insul, foil or spray
applied membrane for smoke control and sealants may be used in small gaps. Detailing fire
stops: positively fixed in position, positive pressure from fire cell, weight of water from fire
fighting, loss of support from failure of fixings, use steel ledge or spikes. Fire stops
compressed to form seal and joints are taped to give smoke seal. They must be able to
accommodate movement of floor and wall. During the fire: floors may sag but this is likely to
be after failure of the curtain, and the expansion of curtain wall may cause it to bow as there
is initial expansion will cause inward bow and if alum. softens the wall may bow outwards.
Fire stops effectiveness is increased if faade is composed of fire resistant material; noncombustible insul but need to control smoke, non-combustible facing on panels with
combustible insul, and insul removed to allow fire stop to penetrate to back of glass.
Brackets: AD B requ.s curtain wall to be restrained to prevent movement away from the floor
in fire and not intended to requ. fire resisting brackets. Combustibility of materials: extensive
fires have occurred around the world where combustible cladding notably polyethylene cored

ACM has been used. Regulations requiring the use limited combustibility materials vary, the
requ.ment for limited combustibility materials may be extended to cover all significant
materials. Thermoplastic insul: main type is polystyrene but it melts, may form burning
droplets causing fire spread. Fire can then spread in void form by melting insul. Therefore not
commonly used in curtain walls and rainscreens but used in external insul systems.
Thermoset insul: Polyurethane, polyisocyanurate, phenolic foam form char. Foil faced
phenolic foam satisfies class 0 and is widely used in rainscreen walls, used in b-ding above
18m based on performance test. Mineral wool: incl. glass and rock wool, may not be classed
as non combustible due to resin binder but generally satisfies requ.ments for limited
combustibility. Glass wool melts at a lower temp than rock wool and not suitable for fire
barriers. Higher thermal conductivity than foam plastic and requ. greater THK to achieve Uvalue may need to increase wall THK. AD B requ. cavity barriers at: perimeter of cavity,
around window opening, on line of compartment walls and floor, at max spacing of 20m when
the materials within the cavity are non-combustible. Closure in a cavity should provide 30
mins of fire resist., and 15 mins insul. Rainscreen cavity is a moist zone and fire barriers
must be durable. Cavity ventilation: requ.ment for rainscreen walls the ventilation path shall
comprise an air gap 25 mm min. dimension immediately behind the rainscreen (limit depends
on type of joint), and the path shall not be reduced in cross section by more than 50% by fire
barriers and rails. There could be potential conflicts between fire barriers and
ventilation/drainage of the cavity that need to be resolved with intumescent barriers and
barriers coordinated with joints. External fire spread: attempt to simulate real fire situation
following unexpected fire spread in real fire situation. Permitted by build regs as alternative to
prescriptive requ. for: reaction to fire, combustibility of insul and cavity barriers. Rainscreen
performance: external panels likely to be lost allowing fire to enter cavity. Alum. cladding rails
are likely to suffer loss of strength. Barriers are likely to be requ.d to prevent fire spread in
cavity. The performance of insul depends on the type of material. Fire resistant glasses incl:
may be monolithic or laminated, may provide insul and/or integrity and may provide additional
benfits such as acounstics, safety etc. Performance in a fire depends significantly on pane
area, frame constr. and glazing method. Integrity only glasses can be monolithic or laminated
glass, and this does not incl annealed and heat strengthened glass but may incl toughened,
wired and borosilicate glass. In a fire toughened glass will behave in a similar manner to
annealed and heat-strengthened glass but can withstand fire for longer periods due to greater
strength and can provide up to 60 min integrity, can be used monolithically or as piles in
laminated glass and panes in IGUs, and requ. minimal edge cover and worked edges as a
precaution against thermal failure. In a fire wired glass may crack but presence of wires holds
glass together, ordinary wired glass = 60 mins, safety wired glass = 120 min. Wired glass has
easy identification as fire resistant glass, can be cut to size on-site, cheapest fire resistant
glass available and presence of wires may impair appearance. Borosilicate glass: stresses
reduced due to lower coefficient of thermal expansion, can be heat strengthened or
toughened, can provide up to 90 min integrity, can be used in butt glazing with intumescent
sealants to provide up to 30 min integrity, and can be used with frame designs incorporating
larger edge cover than most other monolithic fire glasses. Insulating glass units: have some
fire performance as the individual panes of glazing material, inner pane normally fire resistant
glass, outer pane can be any glazing material in order to provide uniform external
appearance, solar control etc. Seals may need to be specially formulated for fire resist..
Intumescent materials swell when heated and intumescent glazing is glass laminated with an
intumescent interlayer which both expands to provide insul and become opaque to prevent
radiation. Intumescent glass fractures in heat but remains in place and level of fire protection
depends upon number of intumescent interlayers. Most glasses are a safety glass and
provide good acoustic insul. Needs to be UV resistant for external applications and edge
needs to be protected from water. Blast resist.: gas blasts (deflagration) incl. gas or powder in
industrial accidents, and gas in dwellings or bomb blasts (detonation) terrorist action. Gas
explosion: blast pressure outwards requ. provide blast relief panels in industrial situation,
windows fail outwards in dwellings, prevent progressive collapse. Blast pressure inwards
requ.: blast resistant windows in industrial situation and prevent progressive collapse.
Heavyweight cladding systems: panels with great mass have inertia and impart smaller
forces to the fixes/support structure, stiffer/stronger panels are less likely to fracture but
impart larger forces to the fixings/support structure, pre-cast concrete panels generally fail at
their fixings. Lightweight/glazed cladding: glass fractures and panels separate from frames,
failure of the infill limits the loads on the frames and fixings. Zone of effect: flying glass is a
major cause of injuries in an explosion, safe stand-off from truck bomb laminated glass =
50m, toughened glass = 100m, annealed glass = 150m with damaged caused within this
region. Window and glass performance is designed to give: no breakage or acceptable
breakage. Range test: Toughened-toughened pvb laminate test performance: massive
deflection of the laminated glass causes large membrane stresses in the pvb interlayer, glass
has pulled from frame, deeper glazing rebates are used, performance depends on clampinig
and/or bonding of the glass edge. Laminated glass test performance: laminated glass has
pulled the frame away from the wall, the frame of an opening light may be pulled away from
the fixed frame, performance depends on fixings and hardware. Worst to best blast resist.:
Thin annealed, toughened, laminated, and annealed/toughened or toughened/laminated.
Risk assessment: no significant risk glazing selection unaffected or b-ding not considered a
target but potential for flying glass due to explosion at some distance glass selected to
provide blast mitigation, anti shatter film may be used for existing glazing or b-ding
considered at risk of direct attack blast specified in terms of charge size and distance,
glazing design to provide blast resist. using blast enhanced glazing in enhanced frames or
secondary glazing may be used for existing b-dings. Blast mitigation: laminated glass in
normal frame, for glazing unit inner pane min 6.8 mm laminated annealed glass, outer pane
min 6 mm toughened or 6.8 mm laminated annealed. Sizes to apply to max. pane 1.5m x
1.2m and specialist advice requ. for larger panes. Internal clip in beads may requ. mechanical
fixing of beads. Blast resistant: laminated glass in blast enhanced framea, for glazing unit
inner pane min 7.5 mm laminated annealed glass, outer pane min 6 mm toughened or 7.5
mm annealed laminated. Frames with 35mm rebate and gaskets or 30 mm rebate if bonded
or clamped. Fixing of frames to surrounding structure must be designed to take blast loads.
Resist. to intrusion: opportunistic burglar will break in any property and doesnt care which,
uses light tool and can be deterred by slowing them down or a determined burglar (bandit)

attacks a particular property using larger tools with determined effort. Hierarchy of security
glass performance in ascending order: single toughened glass, single annealed glass, IGU
with one pane annealed, wired glass, polycarbonate, laminated glass, laminated glass with
multiple piles. Security/Anti-bandit glazing: BS EN 356 Test: 3 x 4.11 kg steel ball, variable
drop height (1.5m, 3m, 6m, 9m), must resist penetration, glass 1100 x 900 mm, higher
performance glasses tested with a mechanical hammer and axe to cut 400 mm square hole
from concrete of test panel, record number of blows. Durability maintenance of acceptable
performance. Service life period of time after installation during which a b-ding or its parts
meets or exceeds the performance requ.. not necessarily as new performance. Design life (intended/expected service life) as intended by designer. Demonstrable design life service
life predicted from test or previous experience. Guaranteed life period of manufacturers
responsibility, not the service life or design life. The design life of the b-ding must be agreed
by clients and normally default of 60 years. The design life of components may be less:
depends on function, maintenance strategy and ability to replace/repair. Durability of curtain
walls: primary components all components with a predicted service life not less than the
design life of the curtain wall without the need for maintenance, other than regular cleaning,
secondary components: all components with a predicted service life less than the design life
of the curtain wall, assuming regular cleaning and maintenance in accordance with
information provided by the curtain wall supplier. Cladding system needs to be developed
with approx. 50 year design life in mind, elements of constr. that requ. replacement within the
stated period (e.g. glazing units, sealants, gaskets etc) shall be nominated by the cladding
contractor and their replacement periods clearly stated. Within the design life period the
assembly shall meet the performance requ. of this spec without maintenance in excess of
cleaning, minor repairs and renewal of sealants. Materials which cannot meet the design life
shall be identified and details provided of the method of replacement. Primary components:
framing components, brackets and fixings, panels and their fixings, thermal insul, vapour
barriers, flashings, gutters, copings, sealants that are inaccessible. Secondary components:
internal linings, exposed finished to metal, operating hardware, glazing, gaskets and
sealants. Design for maintenance: methods of access shape of b-ding, ability to support
access equipment, storage for access equipment, landscaping of surrounding area, need for
cleaning staining/rain washing, materials can help this finishes or self-cleaning glass,
attachment, access methods windows cleaned from inside, wash poles or external access,
inspection part of planned maintenance, condition survey, forensic inspections for material
failure, accidental damage, vandalism, repair replacement of glass where individual panes
or large areas, internal glazing limited by size and weight, re-sealing where access is needed
to large zones of cladding, gaskets with glass removal or access needed to large zones of
cladding. Maintenance involves servicing of blinds/shades, signage, external lighting and
aerials. Safe access suitable for work to be carried out by personnel and for materials
handling, needs to reach all area including underside of glass roofs or around obstructions,
safe means of getting to access equipment, collective protection preferred, emergency
evacuation. Access equipment, height ground based up to 4 floors, suspended above 8
floors Outreach requ.d for sloping/stepped faade and to overcome obstructions. Spread
access platforms Limitations to use are for floor/ground/roof loadings and movement of
equipment into and within b-dings, erection/ease of use are based on availability of trained
operators. Access methods requ. work restraint preventing falls by restraining movement,
fall arrest reduces consequences of fall, need immediate rescue to counter suspension
trauma, requ. testing and inspection. Access to glass roofs have issues of fragility, potential
surface damage and slip resist. and need to satisfy client, insurers and safety legislation.
Different glass roof types 1 designed for walk on access, 2 designed for walk by access
with risk of accidental falls, 3 protected from human impact but subject to impact from
objects. Fragility ability to withstand foreseeable loads, this incls impact loads. For thin
layers of brittle material, impact load may become critical. For brittle materials such as glass,
failure is unpredictable and non-fragility may requ. multiple glass layers or the ability to carry
load when broken. Requ.ments for access to glass roofs: safety of people on roof non
fragile surface is preferred but could use harnesses or nets with fragile roof, safety of people
below roof non fragile surface preferred but could evacuate area below fragile roof during
maintenance, procedures may differ to different activities. Fragility testing of glass roofs: soft
body test, hard body test, static load test on broken glass and tests need to be carried out at
appropriate temp and by a competent person. Suggested glass for type 2 roof: 9.5 mm
laminate comprising 2x4 mm plies of heat strengthened or annealed glass and 1.5mm
interlayer of pvb or ionomer. 11.5mm laminate comprising 2x5mm plies of heat strengthened
or annealed glass and a 1.5mm ionomer interlayer. Gantries internal or external. Cradles:
rail supports may penetrate roof penetrating, can support rails on top of roofing but insul
needs to be able to support weight of system, designed for no uplift on rails hence
counterbalance weight requ.d which increases with cradle outreach and need sufficient space
for rail gauge plus clearance gauge increases with outreach. Large b-dings may requ. more
than on cradle, can be designed to facilitate glass replacement but increases counter weight
and roof load and outreach can be varied by articulated or telescopic booms. Cradles may
need to reach below overhangs, requ. restraint if drop more than 40m, guides/restraints
requ.d for sloping facades. Manually operated equipment limited to 5m. Industrial rope
access. MEWP mobile elevating work platforms and can be truck mounted, spider, trailer,
scissor, teleboom or articulated boom.Degradation mechanisms: physical (frost or
movement), chemical (corrosion, sulfate attack, UV attack of polymeric materials), biological
(mould growth or rot). Influences on durability: material being considered, interaction with
other materials, design, manufacture, fabrication, installation, indoor and outdoor environ.,
operating characteristics, maintenance level. METALS. Main forms of deterioration
corrosion, life expectancy 100 years or more depending on metal, methods of protection
select durable metal/grade, use of protective coatings, design for durability design details,
maintenance cleaning, lubrication, repainting. TIMBER. Main forms of deterioration: fungal
decay, insect attack, UV light, moisture movement, adhesive failure of board products, life
expectancy depends on location and maintenance, methods of protection durable
species, preservatives, coatings, design details, maintenance repainting. GLASS AND
CERAMIC. Main forms of deterioration alkali attach, mechanical damage, also deterioration
of coating, failure of glazing units. Life expectancy 100 years or more for glass, 25 years for
glazing units, methods of protection correct use of materials, maintenance cleaning,

replacement either isolated or total. CEMENT AND CONCRETE. Main forms of deterioration
reinforcement corrosion, sulfate attack, frost attack, alkali silica reaction, life expectancy
100 years plus, method of protection correct use materials, maintenance cleaning. BRICK
AND TERRACOTTA. Main forms of deterioration frost attack, efflorescence, bond of tiles,
life expectancy 100 years of more, methods of protection correct use of materials,
maintenance repointing and cleaning. STONE. Main forms of deterioration frost attack,
salt crystalisation, acid rain, unsound particles, life expectancy 100 years or more, methods
of protection correct use of materials, maintenance cleaning. PAINT FINISHES. Main
forms of deterioration loss of adhesion, loss of gloss, fading, embrittlement, chalking, life
expectancy 5 to 30 years, methods of protection correct use of materials, selection of
colour, maintenance cleaning and recoating. RUBBER AND PLASTIC. Main forms of
deterioration UV embrittlement, life expectancy 20 to 30 years, methods of protection
correct grade of material, maintenance cleaning and replacement. SEALANTS AND
ADHESIVES. Main forms of deterioration UV stiffening, effect of movement, life expectancy
up to 25 years, maybe more for silicones, methods of protection correct grade of material,
correct use of materials, maintenance replacement. Material compatibility bimetallic, alkali
from concrete corrosion of alum. and etching of glass, interaction of polymeric materials,
corrosion due to wood acids. Chemicals within sealants may react with other polymeric
materials including sealants and gaskets. Alkali corrosion all alum. components in direct
contact with cementitious surfaces should be isolated, this is particularly a problem with
freshly poured concrete. Finishes should be protected from splashes of concrete and similar
alkaline b-ding materials. Design considerations spec, supporting structure, ease/frequency
of component replacement, exposure, co-ordination, redundancy, design details such as
paint on arrises, bending to tight radii and design of sealant joints. Manufacture, fabrication
and installation considerations: workmanship, supervision, protection, dimensional accuracy,
weather, storage, handling and transport, and fabrication. Indoor/outdoor environ.
considerations: temp, water/humidity, chemicals, atmosphere, flora, fauna, fittings, loads,
abrasion, solar radiation and frost. Operating characteristics impact, vibration, vandalism,
frequency of operation, ease of operation, type of b-ding usage. Maintenance level
characteristics cleaning materials, access to faade, access to component, damage during
maintenance, incomplete or inappropriate repairs, maintenance programme. Sustainability
acting in such a way that future generations may do the same. This raises issues of depletion
of resources and impact on climate change, manufacturing bi-products and waste, and
environ.al impacts at site. Possible to generate energy using renewables. Energy use
depends on b-ding geometry, methods of constr., location and occupancy. Service energy
or constr. energy = embedded energy. Measures of energy energy per floor area, energy
per occupant, or energy per unit of activity. Role of faade: solar gain and radiation losses, air
leakage, insul, daylight, EE and service life of the b-ding. Faade is more dominant for
smaller b-dings. Larger b-dings may requ. air con and have higher energy use. Rating
schemes BREEAM, LEED. EE is the energy used to provide a material or component, it
may be measured as cradle to gate, site, grave. Cradle to grave is a difficult concept as the
designer is not in control of use and decommissioning. Cradle to gate ignores waste and may
underestimate transport. Need to incl energy of material made not material used!EC carbon
used rather than energy used. Taken as more significant measure in terms of combating
climate change. EE/carbon depends on choice of material, source of material transport
energy, plant energy (incl. EE), service life life in this use, recycling or re-using. Discount
cycle: recycled second use, recyclable re-usable. Project based view if material is 100%
recyclable/re-usable, industry based if it is impossible to recycle/re-use all material at an
industry level. EE (MJ/kg) from low to high timber, concrete, insul, glass, composites,
metals. EE for curtain walls mullion per unit length of profile (graph below) EC is the same.
Alum. has a large range which arises from different assumptions about the recycling rate and
energy source. Alum. is less dense than steel, timber is less good when compared in use as
it used as a solid profile. Variation in materials: Sourcing of materials how they are
abstracted and transported, what energy sources are used, efficiency of process how
efficient are processes like toughening and heat soaking, how well is the oven insulated. EE
depends on: energy of initial production, proportion of re-cycled material used, energy of
reforming. Alum.: 70% re-cycling rate in UK, EC assumes electr is used to smelt bauxite. In
practice this is hydro-electr and this could be used elsewhere to displace other forms but is
remote from cities. Glass: 38% re-cycling rate for glass in UK, energy for re-forming is
approx. 50% of energy to form virgin material. What can we do: reduce use of materials, use
alternative materials, use more efficient processes, minimise waste, use recycled materials,
design for deconstr.. Alternative materials: wide choice of materials but we are constrained by
performance we can use timber frames for fenestration but durability is often an issues,
cellulose insul may be used in housing but is not fire compliant in facades, and some
materials are perceived as cheap. The EC in toughened heat soaked glass is highly
dependent on the efficiency of the plant. Industry-wide averages will disadvantage some
materials and not drive for greater efficiency down the supply chain. Waste minimisation
methods incl: design and recognising manufactured sizes, right first time wrong materials,
poor workmanship, damage, manufacturing waste bi-products, failures, damage, overordering. Examples: glass cutting small pieces allows optimisation, a cutting schedule may
run across several small jobs, works for common glass THK such as 4mm glass across
several houses. Alum. extruded as continuous profile but shipped as 6m lengths, can cut
shorter at extruder for large numbers of repetitive components. Timber can be made
continuous by finger jointing to give zero wastage out of an infinite length. At the design
stage, we could requ. design for disassembly and recycling/down-cycling. Metal rainscreen
panels have a high probability of recovery and recycling. Mixed metal products and bonded
components are less likely to be recovered. Glass recycling: monolithic easy, wired
difficult, LG possible for thinner glasses, IGUs depends on glasses and edge seals.
Improving potential: fewer bonded joints, sealants and adhesives that may be re-melted,
glass-to-glass edges on IGUs, using gaskets rather than wet applied sealants. Glass is used
as: packaging, automotive, furniture, architectural. If glass from packaging has a 70% re-use
rate then there is scope for using re-cycled architectural glass to make the missing 30%. If
this is greater than the glass available from constr. then all glass from constr. may have a
secondary use (down cycling). Similar consideration for alum.. Currently no material is recycled in to architectural glass, and there are problems with contamination (nickel and

sulphide). Alum.: all materials should come from an earlier cycle of use, currently 70% is
recycled across all sectors. Transport energy raw materials, products and waste are
transported. LEED sets a 50 mile target for source of materials. Glass manufacturers are
generally further spaced than this. MODEL EXAM and Answer (2013) Q1a) Describe the
principle of stick system constr. and the principle of unitised constr.. (You should illustrate
your answer with sketches) A1a) Stick constr. is a site assembled form of faade comprising
structural framing profiles, mullions and transoms. The normal form of constr. is storey height
mullions with transoms spanning between them to form a grillage. Structural grillages of
different geometry may be used. The b-ding envelope is completed by installing glazing and
opaque panels in the grillage. Unitised constr. involves prefab. of structural framing members
and infill panels in a factory. Completed units are delivered to site and the only site operations
are mounting the unit on the structure and sealing the joints. Unit dimensions are determined
by the storey height and width of a glazing bay. They are normally storey height and one or
two glazing bays in width. Q1b) What are the adv. and disadv. of each approach to
constructing a faade? A1b) Stick systems allow a more flexible programme of design and
constr. and have shorter lead times. However, they take longer to construct at site and
involve more operations and more person hours working at height, this has health and safety
implications. The quality of the wall is highly dependent on site workmanship. Unitised walls
are safer to install and many of the joints and seals are made in a factory to higher quality
than may be achieved at site. However, planning and design take longer for a stick wall. A
unitised wall may be installed onto a b-ding very quickly but the wall has to be stored
between manufacture and installation. Q1c) For each approach to constructing a faade what
materials may be used to form the structure of the faade? A1c) Stick curtain walls may use
framing profiles of alum., timber or steel. Unitised walls may comprise a structural frame with
in-fill panels or structural panels. In the former, the framing profiles are of alum., timber or
steel. Structural panels may be concrete, timber or insulated metal panels. Q1d) Describe the
architectural appearance of a b-ding particularly suited to the use of i) a stick system and ii) a
custom unitised wall (Add sketches) A1d) A stick system is suited to: surfaces with little relief,
variable dimensions, non-rectangular in-fills, faceted and free-form architecture. A custom
unitised wall is suited to: repeating details, rectangular panels, heavier forms of constr.. Q2a)
Why is it important to adopt a system level approach rather than a material level approach
when considering the EE of a systemised b-ding envelope? A2a) Considering the environ.al
impact at a material level will give results that relate to a unit weight or volume of material.
This approach will completely ignore the functionality of the material. Adopting a system level
approach will show the volume of material requ.d and so the actual impact at project level.
For instance, metals are shown to have lower impact than alternative when used as structural
framing members than as window frames. Adopting a system level approach incls the
interaction between materials and the increased service life that may be achieved; the
material service life is usually governed by the system service life. For instance timber
mullions and transoms have longer service life if an alum. external cap is used to give
weathering protection. Q2b) Describe how service life of components affects the impact of EE
for a systemised b-ding envelope? A2b) EE is often considered as an upfront impact of

constructing a b-ding. However, it is more meaningful to consider the EE discounted over the
useful life of the b-ding. Replacing b-dings less frequently obviously has environ.al benefits.
The service life of a b-ding is heavily influenced by the durability of the faade with b-ding
looking tired rather than falling down at the end of life. The service life of the faade will be
determined by the shortest service life of any non-repairable or non-replaceable component.
Failure of such a component will mean that the full service life of the other components is not
realised. Q2c) When assessing the EE of glass and alum., what are the consequence of
considering: i) using recycled material ii) assuming the material will be recycled A2ci) Recycling of alum. uses only 10% of the energy requ.d to produce new alum.. The recycling of
glass uses 55% of the energy used to produce new glass. Considering the use of re-cycled
material reduces the EE in alum. relative to that of glass. ii) Assuming that the material will be
re-cycled has different implications for alum. and glass. Glass is never re-cycled once it has
been installed in a b-ding to avoid impurities in the manufacture of architectural glass. Instead
it may be down cycled to packaging or inert filter. Assuming alum. will be re-cycled gives it an
advantage compared to materials that will not be re-cycled. In effect, the initial energy of
producing new alum. may be discounted over more than one cycle of use. Note that alum. is
more like to be re-cycled if it is easily separable, as say metal rainscreen panels, than when
mixed with other materials in a composite panel. Q2d) What steps may be taken at the
design stage to simplify the recycling of a fully glazed stick system curtain wall? A2d) The
wall may be designed such that: the wall can be easily disassembled. Larger glass panes
and fewer framing components. Disassembled by working on the floor slabs. Materials are
easily separated: monolithic glass is used in preference to laminated glass, glass is secured
in a rebate by gaskets rather than by bonding, alum. is anodised rather than painted. Q3a)
Describe how the following methods of reducing loss through a glazing unit work i) Gas filling
of cavities ii) Use of low emissivity coatings iii) Use of warm edge spacers A3ai) Filling the
cavity of a glazing unit with an inert gas such as argon or krypton alters properties such as
the thermal conductivity, viscosity and specific heat capacity, which in turn will change the
conduction and convection across the cavity. The optimum cavity width will vary depending
on the gas used. ii) Low emissivity coatings reduce the long-wave infrared radiation
exchange across the glazing cavity, therefore reducing the heat loss. It also results in a
warmer internal surface. Iii) Warm edge spacers are designed to reduce the influence of the
thermal bridge caused by the traditional alum. spacer bar in a glazing unit. They will reduce
the amount of conduction heat loss around the perimeter of a glazing unit which will result in
a small improvement in the U-value and more importantly an increase in the minimum
internal surface temp, and therefore a reduction in the condensation risk. They may be
plastic, foam based or thermally broken metal components. Q3b) Describe how hard and soft
coatings are applied to glass. A3b) Hard coatings are applied to the glass by chemical vapour
deposition as it is produced on the float line. The hot glass passes beneath a metal or metal
oxide vapour which is deposited on and fuses to the glass surface. Soft coatings are applied
to the glass after it has been manufactured using physical vacuum chamber and the target of
metal or metal oxide is bombarded to eject material from it. This forms a vapour cloud that
condenses on the glass surface at ambient temp and is not fused to the glass. Several coats

may be applied one on top of the other by this process. Q3c) What are the limitations of using
hard coatings? A3c) The production is continuous as the glass ribbon passes and is not
easily controlled which can lead to variations in coating THK. Due to limitations on accuracy
of THK of coatings, it is difficult to produce high performance glass by hard coating them.
Hard coated glasses are prone to problems of appearance in the form of iridescence and
colouration for example they may show a pink pattern as they may reflect red as well as
infra-red. Hard coating are single coatings and therefore if a self-cleaning or low reflectance
coating is to be applied then it is not possible to also apply a low emissivity coating. Q3d)
What are the adv. and disadv. of using soft coatings? A3d) Adv.: the sputtering process
creates coated glasses with much higher performance. Firstly the coating THK can be
more tightly controlled to give more uniform and consistent performance, in terms of
emissivity and reflectance particularly with spectrally selective coatings. Secondly,
multiple coating may be applied one on top of the other. In practice up to 14 coatings have
been applied to a single glass surface. Disadv.: Soft coats may be damaged by abrasion
and moisture and therefore have to be protected by being assembled into an IGU shortly
after manufacture. Because of their low adhesion to the glass, it is not acceptable to bond to
the coating and it is necessary to remove the coating around the margin of the glass (Edge
deletion) and bond the spacer bar directly to the glass. Soft coated glasses cannot be
toughened, heat strengthened or thermally bent. Q3e) What factors may affect the decision to
use: i) coated glasses in preference to external shading devices ii) external shading devices
in preference to coated glasses. A3ei) Coated glasses may be used in preference to shading
devices to: increase area of b-ding on a tight site to increase floor area, to give an uncluttered
architectural appearance, to facilitate external maintenance, to give greater daylight in the bding. Ii) External shading devices may be used to: allow the use of glass free from
discolouration, to signal an ecological or high tech approach to the b-dings performance.
Q4a) Describe the diff. between a face sealed faade and a faade with secondary defence
A4a) In a face sealed faade, a single air and water seal is placed on the outer face of the
faade as the only barrier to water leakage. This is a flawed concept of watertighness. In a
secondary defence system, the outer face of the faade is designed to limit the ingress of
water in the wall. A secondary water seal and air seal are placed at the inner surface of the
wall. This is a concept of water penetration control. An inner seal will be more durable than an
outer seal as it is not exposed to weathering. Q4b) For drained and ventilation alum. curtain
wall comprising mullions and transoms and wholly glazed. I) Describe the water seals in the
wall, their location and their function ii) describe two ways of draining water from the wall iii)
Describe the air seals and their position in the wall iv) How will the seals and drainage be
different if the wall is to be pressure equalised. A4bi) An outer seal is placed between the
glazing and the pressure plate to limit the ingress of water. This may be gasket or a sealant.
An inner seal is placed between the glazing and the framing profile to prevent the passage of
any water that passes the outer seal. Ii) Water may be drained from each glazing bay at the
transom through drainage holes in the pressure caps (transom drained). Alternatively, water
may be drained from several glazing bays through the transoms into the mullions (zone
drained), this is less easy to arrange for long transoms and the water has to be drained from

the transoms at intervals. Iii) The drainage holes will allow air to enter the framing profiles and
the air seal will be a gasket placed between the glazing and the framing profile. This is also
the secondary water seal. The seal should be continuous and additional seals are requ.d to
prevent air leakage through the transom to mullion joints. Iv) If the wall is to be pressure
equalised, each glazing bay has to be
separated from adjacent
bays by air seals, it is then only possible to
adopt a
transom drained solution to remove water. In a
pressure equalised wall the drainage opening are
larger to act
as
vents and the pressure within
the
cavities is greater. This
requ.s
an air seal with higher performance.Q4c)
Describe the layers and their function in a
ventilated rainscreen wall A4c) The rainscreen
contains open joints for ventilation and drainage but is designed to limit the passage of water
into the cavity behind it. The cavity in the wall is intended to intercept water passing through
the rainscreen and drain it back to the outer face. A back wall acts as the support and will act
as or incorporate an air barrier. An insul layer is placed in the cavity or incorporated into the
back wall. A breather membrane may be incld to prevent wetting of cavity insul. A vapour
control layer may be incld to control vapour movement and condensation. Q4d) Taking a
whole life view of a project, why might a client: i) requ. a faade with a secondary defence ii)
accept a face-sealed faade A4d) A Client may requ. a faade with a secondary defence as it
is more robust and will be more tolerant of weathering and wear of components throughout its
life. This will add value to the b-ding at times of changing ownership and will make the b-ding
more attractive to any tenants. A Client may accept a face sealed faade because often it will
cost less to construct. A Client may reason that
this saving will offset any future
cost of repairs. A Client may be looking to sell the
bding soon after constr. or make tenants
responsible for repairs. Frameless glazing
systems are always face sealed. However, the
simplicity of their constr. mean that the location of
water leaks can be easily identified and rectified.