Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
The Needs of
English Language Learners
and the
Process of Learning a New Language
L1
L2
Surface level
Language proficiency alone will not determine when English language learners are
prepared to use their second language (L2) to learn with their grade level monolingual Englishspeaking peers. Previous schooling, academic knowledge, and literacy skills that second
language learners have in their first language (L1) are also strong determiners (Cummins, 1984,
Baker, 1993 ). Cummins framework may be summarized as follows:
Regardless of the language in which a person is operating, the thoughts that accompany
talking, reading, writing, and listening come from the same central engine. When a person
owns two or more languages, there is one integrated source of thought.
Bilingualism and multilingualism are possible because people have the capacity to store two
or more languages. People can function in two or more languages with relative ease.
Information processing skills and educational attainment may be developed through two
languages as well as through one language. Cognitive functioning and school achievement
may be fed through one monolingual channel or equally successfully through two well
developed language channels. Both channels feed the same central processor.
The language the child is using in the classroom needs to be sufficiently well developed to be
able to process the cognitive challenges of the classroom.
Speaking, listening, reading or writing in the first or the second language helps the whole
cognitive system to develop. However, if children are made to operate in an insufficiently
developed second language, the system will not function well. If children are made to
operate in the classroom in a poorly developed second language, the quality and quantity of
what they learn from complex materials and produce in oral and written form may be
relatively weak.
Sources:
Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Cummins, J. (1980). The construct of language proficiency in bilingual education. In J.E. Alatis (ed.) Georgetown
University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press.
Cummins, J. (1984). Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic achievement
among bilingual students. In C. Rivera (ed.), Language Proficiency and Academic Achievement. Clevedon: Multilingual
Matters.
Teacher Today, IER, Volume 5, No. 4, 1990
70
60
Average performance of
native-English speakers
making one years
progress in each
3
40
50
30
20
10
11
GRADE
7
Duration
K-6
Language of
Instruction
L1 & L2
Setting
Comp/
Enrichment
Enrichment
Language
Minority and
Language
Majority
Self-contained
classroom
L1 & L2
Language
Minority
Self-contained
classroom
Enrichment
(K-8 or K-12
would be even
better)
K-6
Participants
(K-8 or K-12
would be even
better)
Staffing
Bilingual
teacher Or
Team teach
(Eng. Dominant
teacher &
Bilingual
teacher)
Bilingual
teacher
Or Team teach
(Eng. Dominant
teacher &
Bilingual
teacher)
L2 teacher
L1 teacher
Linguistic
Outcome
Bilingualism
Biliteracy
Multiculturalism
Bilingualism
Biliteracy
Immersion
K-8
L2 (L1 gradually)
Language
Majority
Self-contained
classroom
Enrichment
Transitional
Bilingual
3 years
test out or
continued
support if
necessary
Any grade
level as long
as needed,
test out
According to
need, test out
Language
minority
(same
language)
Pull-out or
Self-contained
classroom
Compensatory
Bilingual/ESL
teacher
Language
minority
Pull-out or
Self-contained
classroom
Compensatory
Monolingual L2
L2
Resource
room
Compensatory
K-12
L2
Language
minority
(different
languages)
Language
minority
ESL teacher
Mainstream,
content area
teacher
ESL teacher
Mainstream
Mainstream
classroom
Compensatory
Mainstream
teacher
Monolingual L2
Sheltered
English
ESL Pull-out
English
Submersion
Higher cognitive
abilities
Biliteracy
Monolingual L2
Monolingual L2
Allows students to have meaningful social interactions with their peers and adults.
Provides access to the students prior knowledge and experiences and connects
their prior knowledge to current lessons.
Promotes self-esteem and identity and confirms to students that their home
language and culture have value.
Foster literacy development by reading books and telling stories to children in home
language.
Work with their children with home writing materials stored in one accessible
location.
Draw pictures, write stories, and make lists with their children.
Write letters to grandparents and other family members still in native country.
Talk with their children about work, values, religion, and daily activities.
Make learning experiences out of every day activities (sorting mail, sorting socks,
shopping with lists, etc.)
Take their children to community events and activities designed for families.
Ask their children to tell them what they are learning in the classroom.
Suzanne Wagner
1998
MY GRANDPARENTS MADE IT; WHATS WRONG WITH YOU?
(FACTS ABOUT U.S. IMMIGRANTS AND EDUCATIONAL SUCCESS)
In 1908, in New York City, only 13% of children whose parents were foreign-born
went on to high school.
Only 32% of white children whose parents were native-born went on to high school.
Of those who had started high school in New York, 0% of Italian-Americans and
0.1% of Irish-Americans received a diploma in 1911.
Only 20% of the adult population (both immigrant and native-born) had completed
high school.
10
6/30/99
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Stage I: Preproduction
Definition: Students at this stage tend to be non-verbal. Most of what is spoken in
English is completely incomprehensible. Students will exhibit some level of frustration,
anxiety, and withdrawal, characterized as culture shock. Students will focus intensively
on listening and viewing what is happening in the classroom. They will copy from the
board and repeat what they hear with little or no comprehension at first. Please note:
Students may exhibit inattentiveness at times. However, it should be noted that the
language overload of second language learning can be exhausting. Suggestions for the
classroom are:
Allow students to listen, observe. Do not force students to speak. Provide many
listening opportunities.
Group students with more advanced ELLs or cooperative mainstream peers for
group activities.
Begin writing activities, such as dialogue journals for reflection and response to
learning materials.
Develop activities with content and context embedded practice in all four skill
areas.
Ask open-ended questions, but provide models for response orally or through
word banks.
Expanded use of predictable books containing more text, with primary-age ELLs.
Use of content area picture books, with expanded text [fiction and non-fiction] to
support learning of content [e.g. science and social studies, such as Adler, David
A. A picture book of Sacagawea; illustrated by Dan Brown. New York: Holiday
House, 2000. ISBN 082341485X. A biography of the Shoshone woman who
joined the Lewis and Clark expedition. See Resources for a short list of other
suggested content area picture books.
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resource for the student. Overall, the student, at this stage, can perform well in the
classroom, but teachers will need to provide structure, strategies, and guidance.
Suggestions for the classroom are:
Provide guided instruction in the use of reference/research materials for middlehigh school ELLs.
Move toward expanded text reading to include supporting details and extended
reading activities.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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S. Wagner, Illinois Resource Center, 1999 References: Collier, 95: Cummins, 94: Peregoy and Boyle, 97:
Richard-Amato, 96: Snow, 92
The following are some of the strategies that are practiced within the Natural Approach:
Total Physical Response (TPR)
TPR, developed by James Asher (1982), was designed primarily for students in
the early stages of language acquisition. Since commands can be made
comprehensible to students with very limited langauge, Asher used commands as the
basis for TPR. The teacher gives a command, demonstrates the command, and then
students respond physically to the command. Because students are actively involved
and not expected to repeat the command, anxiety is low, and student focus is on
comprehension rather than production. Hence, they demonstrate comprehension
before their speaking skills emerge. The imperatives, such as Bring me the book or
Pass your paper to the right, bring the language alive by making it comprehensible
and fun. TPR is a well-known beginning ESL method, but TPR-based activities can be
adapted to almost any level and incorporated into mainstream or multi-level classes,
particularly in areas where visible directions can be given. TPR also provides a base for
literacy development in the second language as students learn to read the commands
they followed.
Language Experience Approach (LEA)
The LEA is an effective method to help promote literacy development. Students
recount stories based on their own interests and activities, such as a trip, a movie, a
story, or a project in which they all participated, and the teacher writes their words.
These student-produced stories are then used for reading material and language
development. Application of LEA can be used with many different activities and
proficiency levels.
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Literature-Based Approach
In a literature-based approach, stories and literature are used as the base and
context for language learning. This is a valuable means of developing oral language
and literacy skills. Pattern books are especially beneficial for younger learners because
of rhyme, rhythm, repetition, easily identifiable situations, predictability, high frequency
vocabulary, and a strong correlation between the printed text and the use of visuals.
Authentic quality materials should be chosen, with a heavy inclusion of multicultural
books. Some childrens literature, such as historical fiction or stories related to social
problems can also be used very effectively with older learners.
Use of Graphic Organizers
The use of semantic webs and graphic organizers is a very helpful way for
students to simplify the reading and writing process. Besides helping students to plan
and organize material, they can also promote insight into cultural variations. As they are
used to elicit students thoughts and background knowledge, they also help t promote
higher-level thinking. Some common examples of graphic organizers are Venn
Diagrams, web diagrams, and story maps.
Use of Cooperative Structures
In cooperative structures, students work together in small groups, dependent on
each other to reach goals. These activities are very effective with ESL students
because they allow for interaction in a non-threatening situation. Students participate
and contribute to the group according to their proficiency levels. Some exampoles that
work well in mainstream content-area classes are Numbered-Heads-Together, ThinkPair-Share, and Jigsaw.
CONTENT-BASED APPROACH
According to the most recent research, one of the most effective methods of ESL
instruction is the content-based approach, where language instruction is integrated with
the content areas. Rather than developing an ESL program that is focused on the
language needed for social interactions or the structure of language, this method
incorporates language into the context of academic content. The core curriculum is the
basis for teaching language. Instructors focus on the key principles and concepts and
use visuals, hands-on activities, simpler language, adapted readings, graphic
organizers, and so forth to help make the most important academic content
comprehensible. Thus, language skills develop as children work on math, social
studies, science or language arts at their appropriate age and grade levels.
The examples given in this article are recommended because they work with English
language learners. These methods include learning situations that provide for the
following critical factors:
Comprehensible input
Low anxiety for the students
Many opportunities for interaction and language use
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