REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
Masonry construction is one of the oldest building systems utilized by the
humankind. The basic construction methodology has not changed much for several
thousand of years (Journal of Civil Engineering, 2007).
Cement and concrete are some of the most important things to consider when
it comes to building both residential and commercial houses.
Cement is a water-based binder used to bind other building materials
together. It is used in the production of mortar and concrete during the construction
process. Concrete on the other hand, is a material used in construction, made by mixing
aggregate (i.e. different types of sand and gravel), cement, small stones and water.
The reason cement is one of the most common construction ingredients
among other is its ability to hold the structure together. To get concrete, one mixes
water, sand and gravel. When cement is mixed with water and sand, the outcome is
cement plaster, yet when cement is mixed with water, lime and sand, the result is
mortar.
The word cement has become such a natural part of construction vocabulary
that even individuals who very remotely relate to modern construction processes make
glib references to the substance.
According to Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), the share of construction
industry to total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been steadily increasing, a
testament to the importance of this industry in sustaining growth in the domestic
economy from 2006 to 2010. Construction sector has been registered with a growth rate
of 7.9 percent according to NEDA Survey 2008. Housing and construction is one of the
major drivers of growth in more than 40 allied industries and directly adds to the
CONSTRUCTION HOLLW BLOCKS industry. In addition, for the building of roads,
flyovers and bypasses there is a mass and consistent need of prefabricated blocks
across the country. Various construction and real estate development projects are in
progress and are continuously being commissioned which will have high demand of
prefabricated construction material all over the country.

The proposed project envisages the setup of a construction hollow blocks and
reinforced concrete pipes manufacturing project. Construction blocks industry is an

important industrial sector in the country engaged in producing blocks and pipes used
as prefabricated material for various construction activities i.e. construction of road side,
irrigation, flood control, pave ways, garage and parking floorings, walls making, block
paved driveways, and floor coverings of commercial buildings, etc.

This is the extent of the annual housing market in the Philippines which
positively predicts a permanent growth in construction sector which directly adds to the
potential in prefabricated building blocks segment of the construction industry.
According to Global Shelter Cluster, Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB) is one of
the most extensively used walling materials in the Philippines. Some of the reasons for
this is their relative low cost when compared to other materials and speed of installation
by semi-skilled laborers. CHB walls are very weak against lateral loads (pushing or
pulling forces from typhoon or earthquake). Adding steel reinforcing bars vertically and
horizontally inside the CHBs can increase their resistance to lateral loads.
An overview of concrete as a material is difficult at this stage because we
must refrain from discussing specialized knowledge not yet presented, so that we have
to limit ourselves to some selected features of concrete.
Concrete, in the broadest sense, is any product or mass made by the use of a
cementing medium. Generally, this medium is the product of reaction between hydraulic
cement and water. But, these days, even such a definition would cover a wide range of
products: concrete is made with several types of cement and also containing pozzolan,
fly ash, blast-furnace slag, micro-silica, additives, recycled concrete aggregate,
admixtures, polymers, fibres, and so on; and these concretes can be heated, steamcured, autoclaved, vacuum-treated, hydraulically pressured, shock-vibrated, extruded,
and sprayed. This book is restricted to considering no more than a mixture of cement,
water, aggregate (fine and coarse) and admixtures.

This immediately begs the question: what is the relation between the
constituents of this mixture? There are three possibilities. First, one can view the
cementing medium, i.e. the products of hydration of cement, as the essential building
material, with the aggregate fulfilling the role of a cheap, or cheaper, dilutant. Second,
one can view the coarse aggregate as a sort of mini-masonry which is joined together
by mortar, i.e. by a mixture of hydrated cement and fine aggregate.
The third possibility is to recognize that, as a first approximation, concrete
consists of two phases: hydrated cement paste and aggregate, and, as a result, the
properties of concrete are governed by the properties of the two phases and also by the
presence of interfaces between them.
The second and third view each have some merit and can be used to explain the
behaviour of concrete. The first view, that of cement paste diluted by aggregate, we
should dispose of. Suppose you could buy cement more cheaply than aggregate should you use a mixture of cement and water alone as a building material? The answer
is emphatically no because the so-called volume changes 1 of hydrated cement paste
are far too large: shrinkage 2 of neat cement paste is almost ten times larger than
shrinkage of concrete with 250 kg of cement per cubic metre. Roughly the same applies
to creep.3 Furthermore, the heat generated by a large amount of hydrating cement, 4
especially in a hot climate, 5 may lead to cracking.6
TECHNOLOGY A.M NEVILLE & JJ BROKES)

as states by (CONCRETE

The third possibility is to recognize that, as a first approximation, concrete consists of

two phases: hydrated cement paste and aggregate, and, as a result, the properties of
concrete are governed by the properties of the two phases and also by the presence of
interfaces between them.

In its simplest form, concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates. The paste,
composed of Portland cement and water, coats the surface of the fine and coarse
aggregates. Through a chemical reaction called hydration, the paste hardens and gains
strength to form the rock-like mass known concrete. Within this process lies the key to a
remarkable trait of concrete: it's plastic and malleable when newly mixed, strong and
durable when hardened. Concretes durability, strength and relatively low cost make it
the backbone of buildings and infrastructure worldwidehouses, schools and hospitals
as well as airports, bridges, highways and rail systems.

The most-produced material on Earth will only be more in demand as, for example,
developing nations become increasingly urban, extreme weather events necessitate
more durable building materials.
Even construction professionals sometimes incorrectly use the terms cement
and concrete interchangeably. Cement is actually an ingredient of concrete. It is the fine
powder that, when mixed with water, sand, and gravel or crushed stone (fine and coarse
aggregate), forms the rock-like mass known as concrete. AMERICAS CEMENT
MANUFACTURERS

Concrete Hollow Blocks (CHB)

Concrete hollow blocks are primarily used as a building material in the
construction of walls. It is sometimes called a concrete masonry unit (CMU). Concrete
hollow blocks have an important place in modern building industry. Concrete hollow
blocks being usually larger in size than the normal clay building bricks and less mortar is
required, faster of construction is achieved. Also building construction with cement
concrete hollow blocks provides facility for concealing electrical conduit, water and
sewer pipes wherever so desired and requires less plastering.
The first hollow concrete block was designed in 1890 by Harmon S. Palmer in
the United States. After 10 years of experimenting, Palmer patented the design in 1900.
Early blocks were usually cast by hand, and the average output was about 10 blocks
per person per hour. Today, concrete block manufacturing is a highly automated process
that can produce up to 2,000 blocks per hour.
A concrete hollow block is one of several precast concrete products used in
construction. The term precast refers to the fact that the blocks are formed and
hardened before they are brought to the job site. Most concrete blocks have one or
more hollow cavities, and their sides may be cast smooth or with a design. In use,
concrete blocks are stacked one at a time and held together with fresh concrete mortar
to form the desired length and height of the wall. It was not until 1824 that the
English stonemason Joseph Aspdin developed portland cement, which became one of
the key components of modern concrete.

Brief Description
.

It is easy to make a concrete block. The successful block yard must however
make blocks of uniform quality and sell them at a price high enough to cover costs and
make a reasonable profit. Before to start a block yard, it is essential therefore to
investigate the economic feasibility of the venture. Determination of level of demand for
blocks in the area (how many per month) and degree of competition from other block
yards are important factors having a significant bearing on the feasibility of the venture.
Then comes the cost estimation based on various methods of production and output.

Factors which influence unit cost include:

Purchase price or rental of site
Cost of site improvements: fencing, paved areas for production and stockpiles,
pathways, roadways and buildings
Cost of equipment: concrete mixer, block making machine and miscellaneous
equipment
Cost of services: water and electricity Material costs
Wastage
Maintenance costs of site and equipment

Output: number of blocks per day dimensions of block, solid or hollow. Labor
costs
Cost of finance etc.

Raw Materials

Raw material to be used for the production of concrete based block is

available in the local market at reasonable price. Main production material components
include: cement and sand/crushed stone.
Concrete is a mixture of ordinary Portland cement, mineral aggregate (sand and stone
chips) and water. The water used in preparing the concrete serves two purposes:
(1) It combines with the cement to form a hardened paste
(2) It lubricates the aggregates to form a plastic and workable mass

The water that combines with the cement varies from about 22 to 28% of the
total amount of mixing water in concrete.
Mineral aggregates (sand and stone chips) are normally divided into two
fractions based on their particle size. Aggregate particles passing through the No.4 or
4.7 mm Indian Standard sieve are known as fine aggregate. The particles retained on
this sieve are designated as coarse aggregate. Natural sand is often used as fine
aggregate in cement concrete mixture. Coarse aggregate are crushed stone chips.
Crushed stone chips broken into particle sizes passing through the 4.7 mm sieve may
also be used as fine aggregate.

The maximum size of the coarse aggregate that may be used in cement
concrete hollow blocks is 12.5 mm. However, the particle size of the coarse aggregate
should not exceed one third thickness of the thinnest web of the hollow blocks.
Ordinary Portland cement is the cementing material used in cement concrete
hollow blocks. Cement is the highest priced material per unit weight of the concrete.
Hence, the fine and coarse aggregates are combined in such proportions that the
resulting concrete is workable and has minimum cement content for the desired quality.
The concrete commonly used to make concrete blocks is a mixture of
powdered portland cement, water, sand, and gravel. This produces a light gray block
with a fine surface texture and a high compressive strength. In general, the concrete
mixture used for blocks has a higher percentage of sand and a lower percentage of
gravel and water than the concrete mixtures used for general construction purposes.
This produces a very dry, stiff mixture that holds its shape when it is removed from the
block mold.

The shapes and sizes of most common concrete blocks have been
standardized to ensure uniform building construction. The most common block size in
the United States is referred to as an 8-by-8-by-16 block, with the nominal
measurements of 8 in (20.3 cm) high by 8 in (20.3 cm) deep by 16 in (40.6 cm) wide.
This nominal measurement includes room for a bead of mortar, and the block itself
actually measures 7.63 in (19.4 cm) high by 7.63 in (19.4 cm) deep by 15.63 in (38.8
cm) wide.
The production of concrete blocks consists of four basic processes: mixing,
molding, curing, and cubing. Some manufacturing plants produce only concrete blocks,
while others may produce a wide variety of concrete hollow blocks, flat paver stones,
and decorative landscaping pieces such as lawn edging, etc.

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE HOLLOW BLOCK

1.

Rapid Execution of Work

Hollow concrete block are of uniform and regular size and it has less weight. This
facilitates rapid execution of work.
2.

Increase in Floor Area

It is possible to construct thin walls using hollow blocks. Therefore it helps to save
space and increase floor area.
3.

Reduces Construction Cost

Hollow block helps in saving construction materials and therefore use of hollow block
reduces construction cost.

Use of larger size concrete block reduces number of joints in work and hence helps in
saving mortar.
4.

Better Insulation Properties

Hollow concrete block have good insulating properties against sound, heat and
dampness.
5.

More Durable

Hollow concrete block masonry can safely withstand the atmospheric action and it
requires no protective covering.
6.

Employment of Unskilled Labour

Unskilled labour can also be employed in the construction of hollow concrete block
masonry.
7.

Good Bonding of Mortar & Plaster

Presence of rough surface on concrete blocks provides good bonding of mortar and
plaster.

CHB Manufacturing Process

The following steps are commonly used to manufacture concrete blocks.

1. Mixing
The sand and gravel are stored outside in piles and are transferred into storage bins in
the plant by a conveyor belt as they are needed. The Portland cement is stored outside
in large vertical silos to protect it from moisture.
As a production run starts, the required amounts of sand, gravel, and cement are
transferred by gravity or by mechanical means to a weigh batcher, which measures the
proper amounts of each material.
The dry materials then flow into a stationary mixer where they are blended together for
several minutes. There are two types of mixers commonly used. One type, called a

planetary or pan mixer, resembles a shallow pan with a lid. Mixing blades are attached
to a vertical rotating shaft inside the mixer. The other type is called a horizontal drum
mixer. It resembles a coffee can turned on its side and has mixing blades attached to a
horizontal rotating shaft inside the mixer.

After the dry materials are blended, a small amount of water is added to the mixer. If the
plant is located in a climate subject to temperature extremes, the water may first pass
through a heater or chiller to regulate its temperature. Admixture chemicals and coloring
pigments may also be added at this time. The concrete is then mixed for six to eight
minutes.

2. Molding
Once the load of concrete is thoroughly mixed, it is dumped into an inclined bucket
conveyor and transported to an elevated hopper. The mixing cycle begins again for the
next load.
From the hopper, the concrete is conveyed to another hopper on top of the block
machine at a measured flow rate. In the block machine, the concrete is forced
downward into molds. The molds consist of an outer mold box containing several mold
liners. The liners determine the outer shape of the block and the inner shape of the
block cavities. As many as 15 blocks may be molded at one time.
When the molds are full, the concrete is compacted by the weight of the upper
mold head coming down on the mold cavities. This compaction may be supplemented
by air or hydraulic pressure cylinders acting on the mold head. Most block machines
also use a short burst of mechanical vibration to further aid compaction.
The compacted blocks are pushed down and out of the molds onto a flat steel
pallet. The pallet and blocks are pushed out of the machine and onto a chain conveyor.
In some operations, the blocks then pass under a rotating brush which removes loose
material from the top of the blocks.

3. Curing
The pallets of blocks are conveyed to an automated stacker or loader which
places them in a curing rack. Each rack holds several hundred blocks. When a rack is
full, it is rolled onto a set of rails and moved into a curing kiln.

The kiln is an enclosed room with the capacity to hold several racks of blocks
at a time. There are two basic types of curing kilns. The most common type is a lowpressure steam kiln. In this type, the blocks are held in the kiln for one to three hours at
room temperature to allow them to harden slightly. Steam is then gradually introduced to
raise the temperature at a controlled rate of not more than 60F per hour (16C per
hour).
Standard weight blocks are usually cured at a temperature of 150-165F (6674C), while lightweight blocks are cured at 170-185F (77-85C). When the curing
temperature has been reached, the steam is shut off, and the blocks are allowed to
soak in the hot, moist air for 12-18 hours.
After soaking, the blocks are dried by exhausting the moist air and further
raising the temperature in the kiln. The whole curing cycle takes about 24 hours.
Another type of kiln is the high-pressure steam kiln, sometimes called an
autoclave. In this type, the temperature is raised to 300-375F (149-191C), and the
pressure is raised to 80-185 psi (5.5-12.8 bar). The blocks are allowed to soak for five to
10 hours. The pressure is then rapidly vented, which causes the blocks to quickly
release their trapped moisture. The autoclave curing process requires more energy and
a more expensive kiln, but it can produce blocks in less time.

4. Cubing
The racks of cured blocks are rolled out of the kiln, and the pallets of blocks
are un-stacked and placed on a chain conveyor. The blocks are pushed off the steel
pallets, and the empty pallets are fed back into the block machine to receive a new set
of molded blocks.
If the blocks are to be made into split-face blocks, they are first molded as two
blocks joined together. Once these double blocks are cured, they pass through a
splitter, which strikes them with a heavy blade along the section between the two
halves. This causes the double block to fracture and form a rough, stone-like texture on
one face of each piece.
The blocks pass through a cuber which aligns each block and then stacks
them into a cube three blocks across by six blocks deep by three or four blocks high.
These cubes are carried outside with a forklift and placed in storage.

Hornbostel, Caleb. Construction Materials, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1991.

Quality control
Three aspects should be monitored to ensure quality masonry units: strength,
dimensions and shrinkage.
Strength
Quality of blocks should be controlled so that strengths are adequate (to avoid
breakages or rejection by customers) and mixes are as economical as possible. Ideally,
blocks should be regularly tested for strength and mixes and production processes
modified if necessary. If testing is impracticable or unaffordable, block strength should
be continually assessed by noting whether corners and edges, or even whole blocks,
tend to break in handling. Strength can also be assessed by knocking two mature bricks
together.
Dimensions
The length and width of the units are determined by the mould and will not
vary greatly. However, the height can vary and should be monitored using a simple
gauge. Units of inconsistent height will lead to difficulties in the construction of masonry
and possible rain penetration.

Shrinkage
Concrete masonry units shrink slightly after manufacture. In order to avoid this
happening in the wall, blocks should be allowed to dry out for at least seven days before
being used for construction.

Materials Sourcing
Crushed Hard Lime Stone, Sand, Cement and Water will be used as raw
material for manufacturing prefab construction blocks. Crushed raw stone and sand
could be purchased directly from the excavator (quarry lease holder) or supplier,
whereas, cement could be sourced from manufacturers by signing a regular supply
contract which would lead to a controlled cost. For the purpose of this pre-feasibility, it is
proposed to hold a supply contract with the three types of material suppliers to avoid

any possible threat in procuring raw material as well as to keep the project economically
stable.
Based on our discussions with the business operators, it has been estimated
that 1 sq. ft. of loose aggregate will yield 0.7 sq. ft. of concrete volume. For the
proposed project, a total of 5200 sq. ft. of aggregate would be required daily to produce
4000 sq. ft. of concrete blocks. Sand-Cement ratio will largely depend on the type and
desired strength of blocks, however, for this pre-feasibility study, assumed ratio is 100:1
(one 50kg bag of cement for each 100 blocks) by loose volumes. Daily cement
requirement for the said production would be around 50 bags of 50kg each.
Ordering and Delivery Procedure:

Block maker appoints order booking agents (building material suppliers) with
in the locality who entertain the customer. Customers usually send someone or
personally go to the booking office and place the order which includes details indicating
quantity, quality, size and time of delivery etc. Booking agent gets the payment in cash
(mostly) and issues an order / delivery slip to the customer, showing order details.

Buyer hires a truck or loading vehicle and goes to the block yard, where he
produces the order slip (kanvaser) to the person responsible for the physical delivery of
the blocks. That person renders the order as given on the slip. After loading the vehicle
he hands it over it to the order booker and here ends the role of the block mak

Construction hollow blocks producers also book direct orders at site office for
the construction contractors, retail customers and builders on cellphone and supply
directly to the identified delivery points; however, these types of facilities are provided
only for bulk orders using hired delivery vehicles. Bulk deliveries typically account for
around 30% of the total annual sales.

Construction hollow blocks making units across the country are working mostly
as unorganized sector (about 80%) and no reliable data is available, precisely, for the
installed capacity and the number of units working etc. However, since it is an allied
industry of the construction sector, growth in construction sector may be considered as
a close proxy for the growth in prefab construction blocks sector which is 7.9% (NEDA
2006).

REINFORCED CONCRETE PIPES

Reinforced concrete pipe offers an impressive record of strength and performance,

making it the most economical and reliable choice for drainage materials available
today. Recommended for installations where low, moderate or severe cover and/or live
load conditions exist. Retention of shape to minimize stoppage is necessary.

Materials & Manufacturing Process for Reinforced Concrete Pipe

Without RCP our nations cities would not function or be able to continue to support their
residents with adequate sanitary sewers, storm sewers, and roadway culverts. Concrete pipe

provides the backbone of our modern sewer and drainage systems currently in operation today
over this country and the world. All of our nations most important transportation systems are
supported by RCP. Our products history speaks for itself. RCP has proven to be strong, durable,
and economically proficient to serve our countries needs and will continue to meet any demand
identified in the future.

Introduction
The quality of concrete pipe is a key factor that has contributed to its success and continued
use.
The quality is obtained from sophisticated facilities, processes, equipment, and knowledgeable
people integrated under controlled conditions.

The concrete in precast pipe is of exceptionally high quality. All raw materials, coarse and fine
aggregates, reinforcing steel, Portland cement, admixtures, and the mixing water routinely
undergo quality control tests. Mix designs are developed to provide optimum strength and
density, and actual proportioning is controlled by precision batching equipment.

There are several different processes used to produce high quality concrete pipe. New and
improved machines and methods are continually being developed. In our study we will touch on
the more commonly used production methods. We would suggest you review and develop an
understanding of the particular production methods method or methods your firm uses to
complete this educational experience. In the pages to follow, we will discuss briefly the
component materials and the techniques and equipment used to produce a consistently high
quality product.

Materials

Materials used to produce concrete pipe consist of locally available aggregates and
manufactured
products, such as Portland cement and steel reinforcement. Each of the products is covered by
an
ASTM standard relative to its properties and methods of testing.

Portland Cement, The Glue That Holds it All Together.

The cementicious material (glue that hold all the ingredients together) in the
concrete used to manufacture concrete pipe
is composed principally of Portland cement. Portland cement is a closely controlled
chemical
combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron, and small amounts of other
compounds, to
which gypsum is added in the final grinding process to regulate the setting time of
the concrete.
According to the American Concrete Pipe Association 2008, Portland Cements are
produced to meet ASTM Standard C 150 and classified into five types.
This ASTM standard sets limits for chemical composition, fineness of grind, setting
time,
strength at certain ages, resistance to chemical attack, and rate of development of
heat of
hydration.

Type I. Normal Portland Cement

Type I cement is a general purpose cement suitable for many uses. Type I cement
can be used in
any application not subject to sulfates or where heat of hydration is not critical.
Sulfates found in
soils, groundwater, or effluent can be highly aggressive to Portland cement concrete
by

combining chemically with certain constituents of concrete which leads to eventual

disruption of
the concrete. Sulfate attack caused by alkali soils primarily occur in the western and
southwestern areas of the US. A detailed discussion of Sulfates is included in
Chapter 6 of the
Concrete Pipe Handbook.

Type II Modified Portland Cement

Type II cement has a lower heat of hydration than Type I, improved resistance to
sulfate attack,
and is intended for use in structures of considerable size to minimize temperature
rise. Some 2008 American Concrete Pipe Association, all rights reserved 5
production facilities use Type II cement in the summer months to take advantage of
the lower
heat of hydration, and use Type I cement in the colder months due to its higher heat
of hydration.

Type III High-Early Strength Portland Cement

Type III cement is used where high early strengths are desired. Production facilities
might
choose to use Type III cement when quick service/shipment of product is required, or
during
cold weather to protect against low temperatures.

Type IV Low-Heat Portland Cement

Type IV cement is used when the amount of rate of heat generated must be kept to
a minimum,
but strength development also proceeds at a slower rate. Type IV is rarely used in
the production
of RCP.

Type V Sulfate Resistant Portland Cement

Type V is a special cement intended for use in structures exposed to severe sulfate
action. It has
a slower rate of strength development than Type I. It provides better sulfate
resistance than Type
II cement.

Blended Hydraulic Cements

Blended hydraulic cements are blends of Portland cements and one or more natural
or
manufactured pozzolans. Pozzolans are materials that when placed in the presence
of moisture;
chemically react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds processing
cementitious properties.
Fly ash and blast furnace slag are commonly used pozzolans blended with Portland
cement used
for production of concrete to produce concrete pipe.

Steel Reinforcement
The amount of steel reinforcement is specified in ASTM C-76 or other ASTM
standards. The
type of reinforcement used depends on the production processes and local
availability. The two
most commonly utilized steel reinforcement types for RCP production are Welded
Wire Fabric
and Cold Drawn Wire.

Welded wire fabric is prefabricated from high-strength cold drawn wires and consists
of
longitudinal wires welded to transverse wires to form rectangular grids. Each wire
intersection is
electric resistance and welded by automatic welders. Smooth wires, deformed
wires, or a
combination of both may be used. Prior to 2009 wire fabric was manufactured to
ASTM
Standards A 185 or A 497.

Cold drawn wire is produced from hot rolled rods by one or more cold reduction
processes that
produce the size desired and improved surface, finish and dimensional accuracy.
Prior to 2009
ASTM Standard A 82 and A 496 covered cold-drawn reinforcement used in the
manufacture of
pipe. The process of producing the wire cages for concrete pipe is usually
manufactured by
machines that are designed to produce a perfect diameter cage that provides
proper required steel
areas and strong welds at each wire intersection.

In 2009 ASTM Specifications for welded wire reinforcement and Steel wire were
combined into
one specification ASTM A 1064.

Aggregates 2008 American Concrete Pipe Association, all rights reserved 6

Aggregates are granular material of mineral composition, such as sand, gravel or
crushed stone,

and are combined with a cementing medium to form concrete. Aggregates for
concrete pipe
meet the requirements of ASTM C 33, except for gradation requirements. This
specification sets
forth requirements for grading, strength and soundness. Without sound, strong and
properly
shaped aggregates the finished concrete will not meet correct strength
requirements. Aggregates
are generally classified as fine or course aggregate.

Fine aggregate consists of materials ranging from a size passing a 3/8 inch down to
material just
passing the 100-seive (normal natural beach sand particle).

Coarse aggregate ranges from large sand particles to a size up to 1-inch.

Blended Hydraulic Cements

Blended hydraulic cements are blends of Portland cements and one or more natural
or
manufactured pozzolans. Pozzolans are materials that when placed in the presence
of moisture;
chemically react with calcium hydroxide to form compounds processing
cementitious properties.
Fly ash and blast furnace slag are commonly used pozzolans blended with Portland
cement used
for production of concrete to produce concrete pipe.

Steel Reinforcement
The amount of steel reinforcement is specified in ASTM C-76 or other ASTM
standards. The
type of reinforcement used depends on the production processes and local
availability. The two
most commonly utilized steel reinforcement types for RCP production are Welded
Wire Fabric
and Cold Drawn Wire.

Welded wire fabric is prefabricated from high-strength cold drawn wires and consists
of
longitudinal wires welded to transverse wires to form rectangular grids. Each wire
intersection is
electric resistance and welded by automatic welders. Smooth wires, deformed
wires, or a
combination of both may be used. Prior to 2009 wire fabric was manufactured to
ASTM
Standards A 185 or A 497.

Cold drawn wire is produced from hot rolled rods by one or more cold reduction
processes that
produce the size desired and improved surface, finish and dimensional accuracy.
Prior to 2009
ASTM Standard A 82 and A 496 covered cold-drawn reinforcement used in the
manufacture of
pipe. The process of producing the wire cages for concrete pipe is usually
manufactured by
machines that are designed to produce a perfect diameter cage that provides
proper required steel
areas and strong welds at each wire intersection.

In 2009 ASTM Specifications for welded wire reinforcement and Steel wire were
combined into
one specification ASTM A 1064.

Aggregates 2008 American Concrete Pipe Association, all rights reserved 6

Aggregates are granular material of mineral composition, such as sand, gravel or
crushed stone,
and are combined with a cementing medium to form concrete. Aggregates for
concrete pipe
meet the requirements of ASTM C 33, except for gradation requirements. This
specification sets
forth requirements for grading, strength and soundness. Without sound, strong and
properly
shaped aggregates the finished concrete will not meet correct strength
requirements. Aggregates
are generally classified as fine or course aggregate.

Fine aggregate consists of materials ranging from a size passing a 3/8 inch down to
material just
passing the 100-seive (normal natural beach sand particle).

Coarse aggregate ranges from large sand particles to a size up to 1-inch.

Size

Available in diameters ranging from

12" through 96"

Applications

Sanitary sewers
Storm drains
Culverts
Irrigation distribution systems
Low-pressure sewer force mains
Low-pressure water supply systems
Treatment plant piping
Outfalls
Utility tunnels
Groundwater recharge systems
Jacked or tunneled installations
Cattle pass tunneling
Trenchless installations
Applications with internal hydrostatic pressures (up to 65 psi)

Applicable specifications
The following specifications apply to reinforced concrete pipe:

ASTM C76/AASHTO M170 - Reinforced concrete culvert, storm drain

and sewer pipe
ASTM C361 - Reinforced concrete low head pressure pipe
ASTM C655 - Reinforced concrete D-load culvert, storm drain, sewer
pipe
AWWA C302 - Reinforced concrete pressure pipe, non-cylinder type
for water and other liquids
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation - Standard specifications for reinforced
concrete pressure pipe
ASTM C443/AASHTO M198 - Joints for circular concrete sewer and
culvert pipe using rubber gaskets

Humes is the leading manufacturer of steel reinforced concrete pipe (SRCP)

and associated precast products in Australia. Available in a wide range of diameters,
lengths and with varying strengths. Concrete pipe have a proven track record and are

custom design for user application including drainage, sewage, water supply and
irrigation. (Concrete Pipe Reference Manual, 2009)

C. QUALITY CONTROL
Strength
Quality of blocks should be controlled so that strengths are adequate (to
avoid breakages or rejection by customers) and mixes are as economical as
possible. Ideally, blocks should be regularly tested for strength and mixes
and production processes modified if necessary. If testing is impracticable or
unaffordable, block strength should be continually assessed by noting
whether corners and edges, or even whole blocks, tend to break in handling.
Strength can also be assessed by knocking two mature bricks together.

Dimensions
The length and width of the units are determined by the mould and will not
vary greatly. However, the height can vary and should be monitored using a
simple gauge. Units of inconsistent height will lead to difficulties in the
construction of masonry and possible rain penetration.

Shrinkage
Concrete masonry units shrink slightly after manufacture. In order to avoid
this happening in the wall, blocks should be allowed to dry out for at least
seven days before being used for construction.

An overview of concrete as a material is difficult at this stage because we must refrain

from discussing specialized knowledge not yet presented, so that we have to limit
ourselves to some selected features of concrete.
Concrete, in the broadest sense, is any product or mass made by the use of a
cementing medium. Generally, this medium is the product of reaction between hydraulic
cement and water. But, these days, even such a definition would cover a wide range of
products: concrete is made with several types of cement and also containing pozzolan,
fly ash, blast-furnace slag, micro-silica, additives, recycled concrete aggregate,
admixtures, polymers, fibres, and so on; and these concretes can be heated, steamcured, autoclaved, vacuum-treated, hydraulically pressured, shock-vibrated, extruded,
and sprayed. This book is restricted to considering no more than a mixture of cement,
water, aggregate (fine and coarse) and admixtures.
This immediately begs the question: what is the relation between the constituents of this
mixture? There are three possibilities. First, one can view the cementing medium, i.e.
the products of hydration of cement, as the essential building material, with the
aggregate fulfilling the role of a cheap, or cheaper, dilutant. Second, one can view the
coarse aggregate as a sort of mini-masonry which is joined together by mortar, i.e. by a
mixture of hydrated cement and fine aggregate.