Motor Selection Procedures Part One

First: AC Motors Selection Procedures

The type of motor chosen for an application depends on the characteristics needed in that
application which include:
1. The power supply,
2. System requirements,
3. Motor class,
4. Motor insulation type,
5. Motor Duty Cycle,
6. Bearing type,
7. Method of mounting the motor,
8. The cost and size of the motor,
9. Method of speed control,
10.Environmental conditions.

1- The Power Supply

The power supply is distinguished by its number of phases, rated voltage and frequency as follows:
1.1 Number of phases

A power system can be either single-phase or poly-phase.

Single-phase power is most commonly found in homes, rural areas and in small commercial
establishments.

A poly-phase power system consists of 2 or more alternating currents of equal frequency and
amplitude but offset from each other by a phase angle.

For motors, an advantage of three-phase power is simpler construction which requires less
maintenance. Also, a more powerful machine can be built into a smaller frame and will
generally operate at a higher efficiency than single-phase motors of the same rating.

1.2 Voltage:
1.2. A- Motor Nameplate Voltage
The motor nameplate voltage is determined by the available power supply which must be known in
order to properly select a motor for a given application. The nameplate voltage will normally be less
than the nominal distribution system voltage to allow for a voltage drop in the system between the
power source and the motor leads.
The bellow image lists motor nameplate voltages and provides the best match to distribution system
voltages and meets current motor design practices.

1.2. B- Dual Voltage Motors

Poly-phase and single-phase motors may be furnished as dual voltage ratings under the following
conditions:

Both voltages are standard for the particular rating as listed in the above image.
The two voltages are in a ratio of either 1:2 or 1:3 (e.g. 230/460, 60 Hz; 2300/4000, 60 Hz; or
220/380, 50 Hz).

Single-phase voltage ratios are 1:2 only.

1.2. C- Voltage Unbalance

Unbalanced line voltages applied to a poly-phase motor result in unbalanced currents in the stator
windings. Even a small percentage of voltage unbalance will result in a larger percentage of current
unbalance, thus increasing temperature rise and possibly result in nuisance tripping.
Percent voltage unbalance is calculated as follows:
Percent Unbalance = (100 x Maximum Voltage Deviation from Average Voltage) / Average Voltage
Note: Motor operation above 5% voltage unbalance is not recommended.
Unbalanced voltages will produce the following effects on performance characteristics:
Torques: Unbalanced voltage results in reduced locked-rotor and breakdown torques for the
application.
Full-Load Speed: Unbalanced voltage results in a slight reduction of full-load speed.

Current: Locked-rotor current will be unbalanced to the same degree that voltages are
unbalanced but locked-rotor KVA will increase only slightly. Full-load current at unbalanced
voltage will be unbalanced in the order of six to ten times the voltage unbalance.

Temperature Rise: A 3.5% voltage unbalance will cause an approximate 25% increase in
temperature rise.

1.3 Frequency
1.3. A- Standard Frequency
The predominant frequency in the United States is 60 hertz. However, 50 hertz systems are common
in other countries. Other systems, such as 40 and 25 hertz are isolated and relatively few in number.
1.3. B- 50 Hz Operation of 60 Hz Motors
General Electric standard motors rated at 60 Hz may be successfully operated at 50 Hz at reduced
voltage and horsepower as shown in the following table:

Rated Hp at 50 Hz = Nameplate Hp x Derate Factor.

Allowable voltage variation at derated Hp = 5%.

Select motor overload protection for 60 Hz Amps and 1.0 Service Factor.

Motor speed = 5/6 nameplate rated speed.

Service Factor = 1.0

Sixty hertz motors intended for use as shown above should be ordered as 60 Hz motors with no
reference to 50 Hz operation.

1.3. C- Dual Frequency

Motors that require 50 and 60 Hz operation of the same motor are non-NEMA defined motors and will
be nameplated as such. When this is a motor requirement, it must be specified with the order.

1.4 Voltage and Frequency Variation

All motors are designed to operate successfully with limited voltage and frequency variations.
However, voltage variation with rated frequency must be limited to 10% and frequency variations
with rated voltage must be limited to 5%. The combined variation of voltage and frequency must be
limited to the arithmetic sum of 10%.
Variations are expressed as deviation from motor nameplate values, not necessarily system nominal
values. The allowable 10% voltage variation is based upon the assumption that horsepower will not
exceed nameplate rating and that motor temperature may increase.
The following conditions are likely to occur with variations in voltage:

An increase or decrease in voltage may result in increased heating at rated horsepower load.
Under extended operation this may accelerate insulation deterioration and shorten motor
insulation life.
An increase in voltage will usually result in a noticeable decrease in power factor. Conversely,
a decrease in voltage will result in an increase in power factor.

Locked-rotor and breakdown torque will be proportional to the square of the voltage.
Therefore, a decrease in voltage will result in a decrease in available torque.

An increase of 10% in voltage will result in a reduction of slip of approximately 17%. A voltage
reduction of 10% would increase slip by about 21%.

The following conditions are likely to occur with variations in frequency:

Frequency greater than rated frequency normally improves power factor but decreases locked
rotor and maximum torque. This condition also increases speed, and therefore, friction and
winding losses.
Conversely, a decrease in frequency will usually lower power factor and speed while increasing
locked-rotor maximum torque and locked-rotor current.

1.5 Variable Frequency Operation

Motors are available for use on variable frequency inverters. Generally speaking, there are three
different types of inverters:

VVI is a square wave inverter in which voltage and frequency vary in proportion (constant volts
per hertz).
PWI is a pulse width modulated inverter and the same as the VVI type except pulses are varied
in time to simulate a sine wave.
CCI is a constant current inverter, which utilizes a square wave current supply as opposed to
voltage.

2- System requirements:
This will include:

Rated Speed (Speed measured in shaft revolutions per minute (RPM)).

Torque.

Horsepower.

Torque-Speed performance of a motor.

Torque, Speed and Current Relation of a motor.

2.1 Rated speed

The speed at which an induction motor operates is dependent upon the input power frequency and
the number of electrical magnetic poles for which the motor is wound.
The higher the frequency, the faster the motor runs. The more poles the motor has, the slower it
runs.
The speed of the rotating magnetic field in the stator is called synchronous speed. To determine the
synchronous speed of an induction motor, the following equation is used:
Synchronous Speed (rpm) = (60 x 2 x Frequency) / Number of poles
Actual full-load speed (the speed at which an induction motor will operate at nameplate rated load)
will be less than synchronous speed.
The difference between synchronous speed and full-load speed is called slip. Percent slip is defined
as follows:
Percent Slip = (Synchronous Speed - Full Load Speed) X 100 / Synchronous Speed
Induction motors are built having rated slip ranging from less than 5% to as much as 20%. A motor with
a slip of less than 5% is called a normal slip motor. Motors with a slip of 5% or more are used for
applications requiring high starting torque (conveyor) and/or higher than normal slip (punch press)
where, as the motor slows down, increased torque allows for flywheel energy release.

2.2 Torque
Torque is one key motor characteristic (in addition to horsepower) that determine the size of motor
for an application. Torque is merely a turning effort or force acting through a radius.

2.3 Horsepower

Horsepower take into account how fast the motor shaft is turned. Turning the shaft rapidly requires
more horsepower than turning it slowly. Thus, horsepower is a measure of the rate at which work is
done. By definition, the relationship between torque and horsepower is as follows:
Full-load torque in lb-ft = (Hp x 5252) / Full-Load rpm
2.4 Torque-Speed performance of a motor
The following graph illustrates a typical speed torque curve for a NEMA design B induction motor. An
understanding of several points on this curve will aid in properly applying motors.

2.4. A- Locked-Rotor Torque

Locked-rotor torque is the torque which the motor will develop at rest (for all angular positions of
the rotor) with rated voltage at rated frequency applied. It is also sometimes known as starting
torque and is usually expressed as a percentage of full-load torque.
2.4. B- Pull-Up Torque
Pull-up torque is the minimum torque developed during the period of acceleration from locked rotor
to the speed at which breakdown torque occurs. For motors which do not have a definite breakdown
torque (such as NEMA design D) pull-up torque is the minimum torque developed up to rated full-load

speed. It is usually expressed as a percentage of full-load torque.

2.4. C- Breakdown Torque
Breakdown torque is the maximum torque the motor will develop with rated voltage applied at rated
frequency without an abrupt drop in speed. Breakdown torque is usually expressed as a percentage of
full-load torque.
2.4. D- Full-Load Torque
Full-load torque is the torque necessary to produce rated horsepower at full-load speed. In poundfeet, it is equal to the rated horsepower times 5252 divided by the full-load speed in rpm.
Full-load torque in lb-ft = (Hp x 5252) / Full-Load rpm
2.5 Torque, Speed and Current Relation of a motor
In addition to the relationship between speed and torque, the relationship of motor current to these
two values is an important application consideration. The speed/torque curve is repeated below with
the current curve added to demonstrate a typical relationship.

Two important points on this current curve need to be examined:

2.5. A- Full-Load Current
The full-load current of an induction motor is the steady-state current taken from the power line
when the motor is operating at full-load torque with rated voltage and rated frequency applied.
2.5. B- Locked-Rotor Current
Locked-rotor current is the steady-state current of a motor with the rotor locked and with rated
voltage applied at rated frequency. NEMA has designated a set of code letters to define locked-rotor
KVA/HP. This code letter appears on the nameplate of all AC squirrel-cage induction motors. KVA per
horsepower is calculated as follows:

For three-phase motors:

KVA/HP = 3 x current (in amperes) x volts / (1000 x Hp)
For single-phase motors:
KVA/Hp = current (in amperes) x volts / (1000 x Hp)

The locked-rotor kilovolt-ampere-per-horsepower range includes the lower figure up to, but not
including, the higher figure. For example, 3.14 is letter A and 3.15 is letter B.
By manipulating the preceding equation for KVA/Hp for three-phase motors the following equation
can be derived for calculating locked-rotor current:

LRA = (1000 x Hp x Locked-Rotor KVA/Hp) / (3 x Volts)

This equation can then be used to determine approximate starting current of any particular motor.
For instance, the approximate starting current for a 7 1/2 Hp, 230 volt motor with a locked-rotor KVA
code letter G would be:
LRA = (1000 x 7.5 x 6.0) / (3 x230) = 113 Amps

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining the AC Motors Selection Procedures. So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an
introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type
of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail
the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors , I explained the different types of the
Brushed DC motor (BDC) which as in the following diagram:

Today, I will explain the Brushless DC motor (BLDC) and the AC induction motors as follows.
You can review the following related topics for review and good following.
Electrical Motors Basic Components

2- Brushless DC motors

Brushless DC motors
In brushes DC motors, the mechanical commutator and associated brushes are problematical for a
number of reasons as follows:
1. Brush wear occurs, and it increases dramatically in low-pressure environment.
2. Sparks from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains explosive materials.
3. RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or electronic devices, etc.
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining popularity. BLDC
motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive, Aerospace, Consumer, Medical,
Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they are
electronically commutated.
BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors, a few of these
are:
1. Better speed versus torque characteristics.
2. High dynamic response.
3. High efficiency.
4. Long operating life.
5. Noiseless operation.
6. Higher speed ranges.
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it useful in
applications where space and weight are critical factors.

Construction
BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the magnetic field generated by the stator and the
magnetic field generated by the rotor rotates at the same frequency.
BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding to its type, the stator has
the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors are the most popular and widely used.

1- Stator

Stator of a BLDC Motor

The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in the slots that are axially
cut along the inner periphery.
Most BLDC motors have three stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings is constructed
with numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in the slots and they are
interconnected to make a winding. Each of these windings is distributed over the stator periphery to form an even
numbers of poles.
Depending upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of the stator can be
chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in automotive, robotics, small arm movements and
so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher ratings, are used in appliances, automation and in industrial applications.
2- Rotor

Rotor of a BLDC Motor

The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and
South (S) poles.

BLDC Rotor Magnet Positions

Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor.
Ferrite magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets.

3- Hall Sensors

BLDC Hall Sensors

Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled electronically. To

rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is important
to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding will be energized following
the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors embedded into the
stator.

Most BLDC motors have three Hall sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end of
the motor.

Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal,
indicating the N or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three
Hall sensor signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined.

Based on the physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall
sensors may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor
manufacturer defines the commutation sequence, which should be followed when controlling
the motor.

Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4 volts to 24 volts.
Required current can range from 5 to 15 mAmps.
Theory of Operation

Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to positive power (current
enters into the winding), the second winding is negative (current exits the winding) and the
third is in a non-energized condition.

Torque is produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated by the
stator coils and the permanent magnets of the rotor.

In order to keep the motor running, the magnetic field produced by the windings should shift
position, as the rotor moves to catch up with the stator field. What is known as Six-Step
Commutation defines the sequence of energizing the windings.

In six-step commutation, only two out of the three Brushless DC Motor windings are used at a
time. Steps are equivalent to 60 electrical degrees, so six steps make a full, 360 degree
rotation. One full 360 degree loop is able to control the current, due to the fact that there is
only one current path. Six-step commutation is typically useful in applications requiring high
speed and commutation frequencies. A six-step Brushless DC Motor usually has lower torque
efficiency than a sine-wave commutated motor.

Typical BLDC Motor Applications

We can categorize the type of BLDC motor control into three major types:
1. Constant load.
2. Varying loads.
3. Positioning applications.

1- Applications with Constant Loads:

These are the types of applications where a variable speed is more important than keeping the
accuracy of the speed at a set speed. In addition, the acceleration and deceleration rates are not
dynamically changing. In these types of applications, the load is directly coupled to the motor shaft.
For example, fans, pumps and blowers come under these types of applications. These applications
demand low-cost controllers, mostly operating in open-loop.
2- Applications with Varying Loads:
These are the types of applications where the load on the motor varies over a speed range. These
applications may demand high-speed control accuracy and good dynamic responses.
For example,

In home appliances: washers, dryers and compressors.

In automotive, fuel pump control, electronic steering control, engine control and electric
vehicle control.

In aerospace, there are a number of applications, like centrifuges, pumps, robotic arm
controls, gyroscope controls and so on.

These applications may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop or in total closed
loop.
3- Positioning Applications:
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this category. The applications
in this category have some kind of power transmission, which could be mechanical gears or timer
belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these applications, the dynamic response of speed and
torque are important. Also, these applications may have frequent reversal of rotation direction.
These systems mostly operate in closed loop.
Finally, a comparison between Brushed DC motor (BDC) and Brushless DC motor (BLDC) is as shown
in the below image.

Second: AC Motors
Alternating current (AC) motors use an electrical current, which reverses its direction at regular
intervals.
The main advantage of DC motors over AC motors is that speed is more difficult to control for AC
motors. To compensate for this, AC motors can be equipped with variable frequency drives but the

improved speed control comes together with a reduced power quality.

Types of AC Motors:

AC motors in common use today may be divided into two broad categories:
1. Induction (asynchronous) motors.
2. Synchronous motors.
3. Linear Motors.

These two types of motors differ in how the rotor field excitation is supplied as follows:
For induction motors, there is no externally-applied rotor excitation, and current is instead induced
into the rotor windings due to the rotating stator magnetic field.
For synchronous motors, a field excitation is applied to the rotor windings. This difference in field
excitation leads to differences in motor characteristics, which leads in turn to different protection
and control requirements for each motor type.
1- Induction motor
Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipments in industry.
Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for brushes), but for
this to happen, the rotate than rotor must at a lower speed the magnetic field to allow for the
existence of an induced voltage.
Therefore a new term is needed to describe the induction motor which is the slip.
The slip:

A driving torque can only exist if there is an induced current in the shading ring. It is determined by
the current in the ring and can only exist if there is a flux variation in the ring. Therefore, there must
be a difference in speed in the shading ring and the rotating field. This is why an electric motor
operating to the principle described above is called an asynchronous motor.
The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the shading ring speed (N) is called slip (s)
and is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed.
S= (Nsyn Nm)/ Nsyn
Where s is the slip. Slip is one of the most important variables in the control and operation of
induction machines.
s = 0 : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed.
s = 1 : if the rotor is stationary.
s is ve : if the rotor runs at a speed above the synchronous speed.
s is +ve : if the rotor runs at a speed below the synchronous speed.

Advantages:
1. Simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance.
2. Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW.
3. Run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load.
4. Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source.
5. Most popular motor today in the low and medium horsepower range.
6. Very robust in construction.
7. Have replaced DC Motors in areas where traditional DC Motors cannot be used such as mining
or explosive environments Of two types depending on motor construction; Squirrel Cage or Slip
Ring.

Disadvantages:
1. Not easy to have variable speed control.
2. Requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control.
3. Most of them run with a lagging power factor.

Principle of operation:

The stator is usually connected to the grid and, thus, the stator is magnetized.
Stator magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage in the rotor
windings.

Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel cage and woundrotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings.

The rotor current produces another magnetic field.

A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic fields.

Construction:
An induction motor has two main parts
1- Stator

Induction Motor Stator

This is the immobile part of the motor. A body in cast iron or a light alloy houses a ring of thin silicon steel plates
(around 0.5mm thick). The plates are insulated from each other by oxidation or an insulating varnish. The
lamination of the magnetic circuit reduces losses by hysteresis and eddy currents.

The plates have notches for the stator windings that will produce the rotating field to fit into (three windings for a
3-phase motor). Each winding is made up of several coils. The way the coils are joined together determines the
number of pairs of poles on the motor and hence the speed of rotation.

2- Rotor
This is the mobile part of the motor. Like the magnetic circuit of the stator, it consists of stacked plates insulated
from each other and forming a cylinder keyed to the motor shaft.
Types of Induction Motors

Types of Induction Motors

Induction motors are classified according to the Rotor Type as follows:

A- Squirrel-Cage Rotor:

Squirrel-Cage Rotor
It consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. These bars are short-circuited at both

ends by means of short-circuiting rings.

B- Wound Rotor:

Wound Rotor
It has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed winding. It is wound for as many poles as the stator.
The three phases are wired internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a
shaft with brushes resting on them.
Each of the two types of Induction motors above can be classified into two main groups as
follows:
I- Single-phase induction motors:
These only have one stator winding, operate with a single-phase power supply, have a squirrel cage
rotor, and require a device to get the motor started. This is by far the most common type of motor
used in household appliances, such as fans, washing machines and clothes dryers, and for applications
for up to 3 to 4 horsepower.
Single phase induction motors come also with wound rotor which has excellent starting and
accelerating characteristics, and they are ideal for Value Operators, Farm Motor Applications, Hoists,
Floor Maintenance Machines, Air Compressors, Laundry Equipment and Mining Equipment.
II- Three-phase induction motors:
The rotating magnetic field is produced by the balanced three-phase supply. These motors have high
power capabilities, can have squirrel cage or wound rotors (although 90% have a squirrel cage rotor),
and are self-starting. It is estimated that about 70% of motors in industry are of this type, are used
in, for example, pumps, compressors, conveyor belts, heavy-duty electrical networks, and grinders.
They are available in 1/3 to hundreds of horsepower ratings.
Now, let us see the first classification of induction motors based on the above types:
1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:
This category have many types as shown in the below image.

A- Shaded-Pole Induction Motors

Construction and operation principle:

Shaded-Pole Induction Motors

Shaded-pole motors have only one main winding and no start winding. Starting is by means of a
design that rings a continuous copper loop around a small portion of each of the motor poles. This
shades that portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field in the shaded area to lag behind the
field in the unshaded area. The reaction of the two fields gets the shaft rotating.
Advantages:
1. Because the shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch or capacitor, it is
electrically simple and inexpensive.
2. The speed can be controlled merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap winding.
3. Mechanically, the shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume production.
4. These are usually considered as disposable motors, meaning they are much cheaper to
replace than to repair.
Disadvantages:
1. Its low starting torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated torque.
2. It is a high slip motor with a running speed 7% to 10% below the synchronous speed.
3. Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very low (below 20%).
Applications:
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty applications.
Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the low torque, low efficiency
and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors impractical for most industrial or
commercial use, where higher cycle rates or continuous duty are the norm.

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Single Phase, Squirrel Cage Induction

Motor. So, please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an introduction
only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads.
But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and
Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two , I explained the Brushless DC
motor (BLDC) and the first type of single phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor; Shaded-Pole
Induction Motors.
Today, I will explain other types of Squirrel Cage Induction Motors plus types of Wound rotor,
induction motors as follows.
You can review the following related topics for review and good following.
Electrical Motors Basic Components
Classification of Electric Motors Part One

1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:

This category have many types as shown in the below image.

B- Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:
The split-phase motor is also known as an induction start/induction run motor. It has two windings: a
start and a main winding. The start winding is made with smaller gauge wire and fewer turns, relative
to the main winding to create more resistance, thus putting the start windings field at a different
angle than that of the main winding which causes the motor to start rotating. The main winding,
which is of a heavier wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the time.

Advantages and disadvantages:

1. The starting torque is low, typically 100% to 175% of the rated torque.
2. The motor draws high starting current, approximately 700% to 1,000% of the rated current.

3. The maximum generated torque ranges from 250% to 350% of the rated torque.
Applications:
Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers and other low
starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 hp. Avoid using this type of motor in
any applications requiring high on/off cycle rates or high torque.
Types:
Split-phase motors are designed to use inductance, capacitance, or resistance to develop a starting
torque and so, they have many types as follows:
1. Capacitor-Start.
2. Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor.
3. Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor.
4. Resistance-Start.

1- Capacitor-Start
Construction and operation principle:

Capacitor-Start Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

The stator consists of the main winding and a starting winding (auxiliary). The starting winding is
connected in parallel with the main winding and is placed physically at right angles to it. A 90-degree
electrical phase difference between the two windings is obtained by connecting the auxiliary winding
in series with a capacitor and starting switch.
When the motor is first energized, the starting switch is closed. This places the capacitor in series
with the auxiliary winding. The capacitor is of such value that the auxiliary circuit is effectively a
resistive-capacitive circuit (referred to as capacitive reactance and expressed as XC). In this circuit
the current leads the line voltage by (because X C about equals R). The main winding has
enoughabout 45 resistance-inductance (referred to as inductive reactance and expressed as XL) to
cause the current to lag the line voltage by about (because X L about equals R). The currents in each
winding are45 out of phase - so are the magnetic fields that aretherefore 90 generated. The
effect is that the two windings act like a two-phase stator and produce the rotating field required to
start the motor.
When nearly full speed is obtained (75% of Rated speed), a centrifugal device (the starting switch)
cuts out the starting winding. The motor then runs as a plain single-phase induction motor. Since the
auxiliary winding is only a light winding, the motor does not develop sufficient torque to start heavy
loads. Split-phase motors, therefore, come only in small sizes.

Advantages and disadvantages:

1. Since the capacitor is in series with the start circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically
200% to 400% of the rated torque.
2. The starting current, usually 450% to 575% of the rated current, is much lower than the splitphase due to the larger wire in the start circuit.
3. Sizes range from fractional to 10 hp at 900 to 3600 rpm.

2- Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:

Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor

A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor has a run type capacitor permanently connected in series
with the start winding. This makes the start winding an auxiliary winding once the motor reaches the
running speed.
Since the run capacitor must be designed for continuous use, it cannot provide the starting boost of a
starting capacitor.
The typical starting torque of the PSC motor is low, from 30% to 150% of the rated torque.

PSC motors have low starting current, usually less than 200% of the rated current, making them
excellent for applications with high on/off cycle rates.

Advantages
1. The motor design can easily be altered for use with speed controllers.
2. They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power Factor (PF) at the rated
load.
3. Theyre considered to be the most reliable of the single-phase motors, mainly because no
centrifugal starting switch is required.

Applications
Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications depending on the design. These
include fans, blowers with low starting torque needs and intermittent cycling uses, such as adjusting
mechanisms, gate operators and garage door openers.

3- Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor

Construction and operation principle:

Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

This motor has a start type capacitor in series with the auxiliary winding like the capacitor start
motor for high starting torque. Like a PSC motor, it also has a run type capacitor that is in series with
the auxiliary winding after the start capacitor is switched out of the circuit. This allows high overload
torque.
Advantages
1. This type of motor can be designed for lower full-load currents and higher efficiency
Disadvantages
1. This motor is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal switch.
Applications
It is able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of single-phase motor. These
include woodworking machinery, air compressors, high-pressure water pumps, vacuum pumps and

other high torque applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.

4- Resistance-Start
Construction and operation principle:

Resistance-Start Split-Phase AC Induction Motor

A modified version of the capacitor start motor is the resistance start motor. In this motor type, the
starting capacitor is replaced by a resistor. This motor also has a starting winding in addition to the
main winding. It is switched in and out of the circuit just as it was in the capacitor-start motor. The
starting winding is positioned at right angles to the main winding. The electrical phase shift between
the currents in the two windings is obtained by making the impedance of the windings unequal. The
main winding has a high inductance and a low resistance. The current, therefore, lags the voltage by
a large angle. The starting winding is designed to have a fairly low inductance and a high resistance.
Here the current lags the voltage by a smaller angle.
For example, suppose the current in the main winding lags the voltage by 70. The current in the
auxiliary winding lags the voltage by 40. The currents are, therefore, out of phase by 30. The
magnetic fields are out of phase by the same amount. Although the ideal angular phase for maximum
starting torque, the 30-degree phasedifference is 90 difference still generates a rotating field. This

supplies enough torque to start the motor. When the motor comes up to speed, a speed-controlled
switch disconnects the starting winding from the line, and the motor continues to run as an induction
motor. The starting torque is not as great as it is in the capacitor-start.

Applications, Advantages and disadvantages:

The resistance start motor is used in applications where the starting torque requirement is less than
that provided by the capacitor start motor. Apart from the cost, this motor does not offer any major
advantage over the capacitor start motor.
A comparison for the popular types of a split phase motors is shown in the below image.

C- Universal motor:

Universal motor
Universal motors are mostly operated on AC power, but they can operate on either AC or DC. Tools
and appliances are among the most frequent applications.
Please review the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors Part One for more information
about Universal motor.
2- Three Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:
Almost 90% of the three-phase AC Induction motors are of Squirrel Cage type. Here, the rotor is of the
squirrel cage type and it works as explained earlier. The power ratings range from one-third to
several hundred horsepower in the three-phase motors. Motors of this type rated one horsepower or
larger, cost less and can start heavier loads than their single-phase counterparts.
Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are classified by application with a design letter which

gives an indication of key performance characteristics of the motor, these classification are made by
NEMA and IEC. The main Classifications of Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are shown in
the below image.

Three Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor

3- Single Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor
This category have many types as shown in the below image.

A- Repulsion motor
Construction:

Repulsion motor
The motor has a stator and a rotor but there is no electrical connection between the two and the
rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is connected to a commutator which is in
contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes which can be moved to change their angular position
relative to an imaginary line drawn through the axis of the stator. The motor can be started, stopped
and reversed, and the speed can be varied, simply by changing the angular position of the brushes.

The principle difference between an AC series motor and repulsion motors is the way in which power
is supplied to armature. In Ac series motor the armature receives voltage by conduction through the
power supply. But In repulsion motors the armature is supplied by induction from the stator windings.

Disadvantages of Repulsion Motor:

1. Occurrence of sparks at brushes.
2. Commutator and brushes wear out quickly. This is primarily due to arcing and heat generated
at brush assembly.

3. The power factor is poor at low speeds.

4. No load speed is very high and dangerous.
Application of Repulsion motors:
Because of excellent starting and accelerating characteristics, repulsion-induction motors are ideal
for:
1. Value Operators.
2. Farm Motor Applications.
3. Hoists.
4. Floor Maintenance Machines.
5. Air Compressors.
6. Laundry Equipment.
7. Mining Equipment.
Types:
The various types of motors which works under the repulsion principle are:
1. Repulsion-start Induction-run motor.
2. Repulsion Induction motor.

A- Repulsion-start induction-run

A repulsion-start induction motor is a single phase motor having the same windings as a repulsion
motor , When an induction motor drives a hard starting load like a compressor, the high starting
torque of the repulsion motor may be put to use. The induction motor rotor windings are brought out
to commutator segments for starting by a pair of shorted brushes. At near running speed, a
centrifugal switch shorts out all commutator segments, giving the effect of a squirrel cage rotor, the
brushes may also be lifted to prolong bush life. This means that they started as repulsion motors but
running as induction motor Starting torque is 300% to 600% of the full speed value as compared to
under 200% for a pure induction motor.
B- Repulsion-Induction Motor
A repulsion-induction motor is a form of repulsion motor which has a squirrel-cage winding in the
rotor in addition to the repulsion motor winding. A motor of this type may have either a constant
speed or varying-speed characteristic.

4- Three Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

Three Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

This type of 3-phase induction motor has high starting torque, which makes it ideal for
applications where standard NEMA design motors fall short. The wound-rotor motor is
particularly effective in applications where using a squirrel-cage motor may result in a starting
current that's too high for the capacity of the power system.

In addition, the wound-rotor motor is appropriate for high-inertia loads having a long
acceleration time.

The slip-ring motor or wound-rotor motor is a variation of the squirrel cage induction motor.
While the stator is the same as that of the squirrel cage motor, it has a set of windings on the
rotor which are not short-circuited, but are terminated to a set of slip rings. These are helpful
in adding external resistors and contactors.

Wound Rotor

The slip necessary to generate the maximum torque (pull-out torque) is directly proportional
to the rotor resistance. In the slip-ring motor, the effective rotor resistance is increased by
adding external resistance through the slip rings. Thus, it is possible to get higher slip and
hence, the pull-out torque at a lower speed.

A particularly high resistance can result in the pull-out torque occurring at almost zero speed,
providing a very high pull-out torque at a low starting current. As the motor accelerates, the
value of the resistance can be reduced, altering the motor characteristic to suit the load
requirement. Once the motor reaches the base speed, external resistors are removed from the
rotor. This means that now the motor is working as the standard induction motor.

This motor type is ideal for very high inertia loads, where it is required to generate the pullout torque at almost zero speed and accelerate to full speed in the minimum time with
minimum current draw.

Applications:
They are generally used to drive high-inertia loads (e.g., large pumps, cranes, grinders).

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining The Synchronous Motor Types. So, please keep
following.
Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an introduction
only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads.
But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and
Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three , I explained the Induction
motor and its different types.
Today, I will explain the Synchronous motor and its different types as follows.
You can review the following related topics for review and good following.
Electrical Motors Basic Components
Classification of Electric Motors Part One

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two

Second: Synchronous motor

Synchronous Motor: So called because rotor tries to line up with the rotating magnetic field in the
stator. It has the stator of an induction motor, and the rotor of a dc motor.
A synchronous motor is an AC motor, which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of the system.
It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque, and therefore suited for
applications that start with a low load, such as air compressors, frequency changes and motor
generators. Synchronous motors are able to improve the power factor of a system, which is why they
are often used in systems that use a lot of electricity.

Differences between Synchronous and Induction motors:

1. Synchronous motors are not as widely used as induction machines because their rotors are
more complex and they require exciters.
2. Synchronous motors are used in large industrial applications in situations where their ability to
provide leading power factor helps to support or stabilize voltage and to improve overall power
factor.
3. In ratings higher than several hundred horsepower, synchronous machines are often more
efficient than induction machines and so very large synchronous machines are sometimes
chosen over induction motors.
4. Unlike an induction motor, the synchronous motor is excited by an external DC source and,
therefore, requires slip rings and brushes to provide current to the rotor.
5. In the synchronous motor, the rotor locks into step with the rotating magnetic field and rotates
at synchronous speed. If the synchronous motor is loaded to the point where the rotor is pulled
out of step with the rotating magnetic field, no torque is developed, and the motor will stop.
6. A synchronous motor is not a self-starting motor because torque is only developed when
running at synchronous speed; therefore, the motor needs some type of device to bring the
rotor to Synchronous speed.

Construction:
Like the asynchronous (Induction) motor, the synchronous motor consists of a stator and a rotor separated by the
air gap. It differs from the asynchronous motor in that the flux in the air gap is not due to a component of the stator
current: it is created by magnets or by the field coil current provided by an external DC source energizing a
winding placed in the rotor.
The main components of a synchronous motor are as follows:
1- Stator:

Stator
The stator consists of a housing and a magnetic circuit generally comprising silicon steel laminations and a 3phase coil similar to that of an asynchronous motor supplied with 3-phase AC to produce a rotating field.
The stator produces a rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the frequency supplied. This motor rotates at a
synchronous speed, which is given by the following equation:
Ns = 120 f / P
Where:
f = frequency of the supply frequency
P= number of poles

2- Rotor

Rotor
Synchronous rotors are designed primarily for applications requiring highly efficient motors. Each pole
assembly is made from high strength steel laminations with a DC field winding encircling the pole
body. The field winding consists of a rectangular section of insulated copper wire wound directly on
an insulated pole body and bonded by a high temperature, high strength insulating epoxy resin which,
when cured, results in a coil impervious to dirt, moisture and other contaminants.
The rotor carries field magnets or coils through which a direct current flows and which create
interposed North and South poles. Unlike asynchronous (Induction) machines, the rotor rotates with
no slip at the speed of the rotating field.
There are two types of rotor structures as follows:
1. Salient pole rotor.
2. Round or cylindrical rotor (Non-salient-pole rotor).

a- Salient Pole Rotor

Salient Pole Rotor

Salient pole structure is used for low speed applications, such as hydroelectric generators.
Salient-pole rotor: four and more poles.

b- Round or Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient-Pole Rotor)

Round or Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient-Pole Rotor)

Round rotor structure is used for high speed synchronous machines, such as steam turbine
generators.
Non-salient-pole rotor: usually two- and four-pole rotors.

3- Amortisseur (starting winding)

Synchronous motors are provided with an Amortisseur, or starting winding, consisting of copper alloy
bars located in the pole face, parallel to the shaft, and brazed at the ends to copper alloy rings. The
Amortisseur winding is tailored for the application to provide the required starting performance.
4- Stator Frame
The stator frame contains and supports the other parts and may include bearing housings.
5- Other Parts
Large machines include additional parts for cooling the machine, supporting the rotor, lubricating and
cooling the bearings, and various protection and measurement devices.
Operation:

Operation of a Synchronous Motor

The operation of a synchronous motor is simple to imagine. The 'Stator' winding, when excited by a
poly-phase (usually 3-phase) supply, creates a rotating magnetic field inside the motor. The rotor
winding, which acts as a permanent magnet, supplied with a DC current and creating a field which
simply locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it? During operation, as the
rotor field locks in with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization and a
torque is developed.
Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply frequency.
When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the motor falls out of synchronization
i.e., the applied load is large enough to pull out the field winding from following the rotating
magnetic field. The motor immediately stalls after it falls out of synchronization.
Applications:
1. Synchronous motors find applications in all industrial applications where constant speed is
necessary.
2. Improving the power factor as synchronous condensers.
3. Low power applications include positioning machines, where high precision is required, and
robot actuators.
4. Mains synchronous motors are used for electric clocks.

5. Record player turntables.

6. Large plant compressors.
7. Fans, pumps, and large industrial grinders.
8. Mills in the steel industry.
9. Larger high-speed motors are popular in the natural-gas pipeline system.

Advantages:
Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors:
1. Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied.
2. Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, e.g. stepper motors.
3. They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor
windings.
4. Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the
load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by
increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the
whole installation.
5. Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required (as in
ball mills and similar apparatus).
6. They run either at the synchronous speed or they do not run at all.

Types:
There are two major types of synchronous motors as follows:
1. Non-excited motors.
2. DC-excited motors.
1- Non-excited motors
These motors employ a self-starting circuit and require no external excitation supply.

In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of solid steel. At synchronous speed it rotates in step with
the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The
external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it. The rotor is
made of a high-retentively steel such as cobalt steel. These are manufactured in three types as
follows:

Reluctance motors.
Hysteresis motors.

Permanent magnet motors.

A- Reluctance motors
Reluctance motor is A synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has salient poles and a cage so that it starts like an
induction motor, and runs like a synchronous motor.
Principle of operation:

Reluctance Rotor

A classic squirrel cage rotor with notches (or flats) in the rotor periphery. The number of
notches will correspond to the number of poles in the stator winding. The sections of the rotor
periphery between the high reluctance areas are known as salient poles. Since these poles
create a low reluctance path for the stator flux, they are attracted to the poles of the stator
field.

The reluctance synchronous rotor starts and accelerates like a regular squirrel cage rotor, but
as it approaches the rotational speed of the field, a critical point is reached where there is an
increased acceleration and the rotor snaps into synchronism with the stator field.

If the load (particularly inertial) is too great, the motor will not attain synchronous speed.
Motor pull-in torque is defined as the maximum load that the motor can accelerate and pull
into synchronism at rated voltage and frequency.

An applied load greater than the rated pull-in torque will prevent the motor from pulling the
load into synchronism and will result in rough, non-uniform operation.

Reluctance synchronous motors may be designed for poly-phase operation, as well as single-phase
versions in split-phase, CS and PSC configurations.
Reluctance synchronous motors ratings range from sub-fractional to about 30 hp. Sub-fractional
horsepower motors have low torque, and are generally used for instrumentation applications.
Moderate torque, integral horsepower motors use squirrel cage construction with toothed rotors.
Switched Reluctance Motors

Switched Reluctance Motors

The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an electric motor in which torque is produced by the
tendency of its moveable part to move to a position where the inductance of the excited
winding is maximized.
SRM is a type of synchronous machine. It has wound field coils of a DC motor for its stator
windings and has no coils or magnets on its rotor.

It can be seen that both the stator and rotor have salient poles; hence, the machine is a
doubly salient, singly excited machine.

Stator windings on diametrically opposite poles are connected in series or parallel to form one
phase of the motor.

Several combinations of stator and rotor poles are possible, such as 6/4 (6 stator poles and 4
rotor poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc.

The configurations with higher number of stator/rotor pole combinations have less torque
ripple.

Applications:
1. Flameproof drive systems for potentially explosive atmospheres.
2. Washing machine.
3. Environmentally friendly air conditioning system for passenger trains.
4. Servo systems for advanced technology weaving machine.

B- Hysteresis motors:

Hysteresis motors

Although the stator in a hysteresis synchronous design is wound much like that of the
conventional squirrel cage motor, its rotor is made of a heat-treated cast permanent magnet
alloy cylinder (with a nonmagnetic support) securely mounted to the shaft like "hard" cobalt
steel. This material has a wide hysteresis loop (high retentively), meaning once it is
magnetized in a given direction, it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse the
magnetization.

Stator of a Hysteresis Motor

The motors special performance characteristics are associated with its rotor design. The rotor
starts on the hysteresis principle and accelerates at a fairly constant rate until it reaches the
synchronous speed of the rotating field.

Cobalt Hysteresis Ring Rotor

Instead of the permanently fixed poles found in the rotor of the reluctance synchronous
design, hysteresis rotor poles are induced by the rotating magnetic field. During the
acceleration period, the stator field will rotate at a speed faster than the rotor, and the poles
which it induces in the rotor will shift around its periphery. When the rotor speed reaches that
of the rotating stator field, the rotor poles will take up a fixed position.

if the load is increased beyond the capacity of the motor, the poles on the periphery of the
rotor core will shift.

If the load is then reduced to the pullin capacity of the motor, the poles will take up fixed
positions until the motor is again overloaded or stopped and restarted.

The hysteresis rotor will lock-in at any position, in contrast to the reluctance rotor which has
only the lock-in points corresponding to the salient poles on the rotor.

Applications:
Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings, primarily as servomotors
and timing motors. More expensive than the reluctance type, hysteresis motors are used where
precise constant speed is required.

C- Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors

Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors

The stator portion of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors has an uneven distribution of

magnetic Poles and the solid steel rotor has permanent magnets embedded in it, the
purpose of this is to give the rotor a preferred starting point while providing an apparent shift
in field during starting due to the uneven reluctance of the stator.

Permanent-Magnet clock Motor and Rotor

They are not self-starting. Because of the constant magnetic field in the rotor these cannot use
induction windings for starting, and must have electronically controlled variable frequency
stator drive.

Some of these motors have a spring return mechanism to reverse the rotation just in case it
starts turning the wrong way.

Applications:
Industrial drives, e.g., pumps, fans, blowers, mills, hoists, handling systems, elevators and
escalators, people movers, light railways and streetcars (trams), electric road vehicles, aircraft flight
control surface actuation.
Advantages:
The use of permanent magnets (PMs) in construction of electrical machines brings the following
benefits:
1. No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation system and thus there are no excitation
losses which mean substantial increase in the efficiency.
2. Higher torque and/or output power per volume than when using electromagnetic excitation.
3. Better dynamic performance than motors with electromagnetic excitation (higher magnetic
flux density in the air gap).
4. Simplification of construction and maintenance.
5. Reduction of prices for some types of machines.
Disadvantages:
1. High cost of permanent magnets.
2. Magnet corrosion and possible demagnetization.
3. Large air gap in surface mount PM machines.

In the next Topic, I will continue explaining other types of Synchronous Motor. So, please keep
following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an introduction
only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type of Power loads.
But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail the Motor and
Pumps Loads calculations.

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Five

In the previous topic Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four , I explained the Synchronous
motor construction and applications. Also, I explained the first type of Synchronous motor which was
the Non-excited motors.
Today, I will explain the second type of Synchronous motor which is DC-excited motors in addition to
the Linear motors as follows.
You can review the following related topics for review and good following.
Electrical Motors Basic Components
Classification of Electric Motors Part One

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Two

Classification of Electric Motors - Part Three

2- DC-excited motors
They are made in sizes larger than 1 hp, these motors require direct current for excitation which can
be supplied from a separate source or from a dc generator directly connected to the motor shaft.
These motors are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices where correct
time is required.
Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field circuits on the rotating rotor:
1. Supply the DC power from an external DC source to the rotor by means of slip rings and
brushes Brush type Synchronous motors.
2. Supply the DC power from a special DC power source mounted directly on the shaft of the
machine brushless type Synchronous motors.

A- Brush type Synchronous motors:

Brush type Synchronous motors

The field exciter for a brush-type motor is typically a DC generator with its rotor mounted on the
motor shaft. The output of the DC generator is fed via brushes and slip rings to the motor field
windings.
A brush-style exciter is typically not used in a high speed application due to ignition problems caused
by the brushes physical contact with the slip ring. Proper and regular maintenance, though difficult
to perform, can reduce the occurrence of ignition problems in brush-type exciters

B- Brushless type Synchronous motors:

A rotor of large synchronous machine with a brushless exciter mounted on the same shaft.
The field exciter for a brushless synchronous motor typically consists of an AC generator with the
field windings on its stator, armature windings on its rotor, and with its rotor mounted on the motor
shaft. The output of the generator is rectified by solid-state rectifier elements also mounted on the
rotor shaft and fed directly to the motor field windings without the need for brushes or slip rings.
Because of the proliferation of solid-state power electronic technology, and because the brushlesstype motors require less maintenance almost all new synchronous motors are brushless-type.

Solid-State Rectifier for Brushless Motor

It is possible to adjust the field current on the main machine by controlling the small DC field current
of the exciter generator (located on the stator).
Note: In either design; brush and brushless, the field excitation to the exciter may be varied to vary
the power-factor operation of the motor, and in fact power factor correction is one common use of
synchronous motors since they can be made to operate at leading power factors.

3- Stepper motor:

Stepper motor is a special type of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate a specific number of
degrees for every electric pulse received by its control unit. Typical steps are 7.5 or 15 degree per
pulse.
It is a motor that can rotate in both directions, move in precise angular increments, sustain a holding
torque at zero speed, and be controlled with digital circuits. It moves in accurate angular increments
known as steps, in response to the application of digital pulses to the electric drive circuit.
Generally, such motors are manufactured with steps per revolution. Depending on its electrical power
supply, it may be:
A- Unipolar: if its coils are always supplied in the same direction by a single voltage, it requiring only
one power source, hence the name unipolar.
B- Bipolar: when its coils are supplied sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the other, it
requiring two power sources. They sometimes create a North Pole, and sometimes a South pole,
hence the name bipolar.
Stepper motors, unlike ordinary DC motors, are brushless and can divide a full 360 into a large
number of steps, for example 200.
Operating principles:

Stepper motors operate differently from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is applied to
their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other hand, effectively have multiple "toothed"
electromagnets arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The electromagnets are
energized by an external control circuit, such as a micro controller.
To make the motor shaft turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes the gear's teeth
magnetically attracted to the electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus aligned to the
first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet. So when the next
electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates slightly to align with the next
one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of those slight rotations is called a "step," with an
integer number of steps making a full rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise
angle.
Advantages:
1. Low cost.
2. Can work in an open loop (no feedback required).
3. Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches).
4. Excellent torque at low speeds.
5. Low maintenance (brushless).
6. Very rugged - any environment.

7. Excellent for precise positioning control.

8. No tuning required.

Disadvantages:
Some of the disadvantages of stepper motors in comparison with servo motors are as follows:
1. Rough performance at low speeds unless you use micro-stepping.
2. Consume current regardless of load.
3. Limited sizes available.
4. Noisy.
5. Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor for higher torque at higher speeds).
6. Stepper motors can stall or lose position running without a control loop.

Applications of Stepper motor:

1. Cruise control.
2. Auto air vents.
3. Light leveling.
4. Printers.
5. Industrial machines.
6. Automotive gauges.
7. Office equipment.
8. Computer drives.
9. Medical scanners.
10.Scientific Instrumentation.

Types of Stepper Motors:

1- Variable-Reluctance Step Motors

Variable-Reluctance Step Motors

The construction of variable-reluctance (VR) motors is generally as shown in above image, there is a
stator assembly consisting of an insulated lamination stack with copper coils wound around the teeth.
The stator assembly is positioned within a housing or main frame such that its location is secured.
The rotor assembly consists of a steel magnetic core, a steel output shaft, and bearings. The rotor
assembly is centrally located inside the stator assembly by end frames or bearing supports.

2- Permanent-Magnet-Rotor Step Motors

Permanent-Magnet-Rotor Step Motors

The PM step motor is illustrated in above image. It consists of two sets of stamped steel cups with
diagonal teeth facing the rotor. Each set of cups circumscribes a coil of wire. The two sets are
positioned with respect to each other such that they circumscribe the rotor but they are offset from
each other by one-half of a tooth pitch.
The permanent-magnet-rotor step motor is commonly referred to as the stamped-construction or
sheet-metal step motor. It is sometimes called simply a PM step motor but should not be confused
with the hybrid permanent-magnet step motor.
The rotor in a stamped-construction motor is a smooth cylindrical permanent magnet radially
magnetized with alternating N and S poles.
The stator has two cup-shaped halves with formed stator teeth. Each half contains a circular, bobbinwound coil. Because of this simple design, the price is low, but step accuracy and speed may not
equal the performance of other step-motor types.
3- Hybrid Permanent-Magnet Step Motors

Hybrid Permanent-Magnet Step Motors

The hybrid step motor is generally constructed as shown in above image. It has a stator assembly
similar to that of the VR motor, but the rotor consists of three sections.
Two pieces are similar to the VR step-motor rotor, but a magnet is placed between them, and they
are offset circumferentially from each other by one-half tooth pitch.
This motor is termed a hybrid because it uses elements of both variable reluctance and permanentmagnet-rotor step motors. The commonly known version is the 1.8 step-angle motor. It was originally
designed as an ac two-phase synchronous inductor motor for low-speed applications.
Its stator construction is similar to that of a variable-reluctance step motor with salient poles
(multiple teeth per pole).The phase windings may be either monofilar or bifilar coils, as discussed for
the stamped-construction motor. The rotor contains a cylindrical permanent magnet axially
magnetized and enclosed on each end by a soft-iron cup with uniformly spaced teeth. As for the
variable-reluctance motor, the number of stator phases and differing number of stator and rotor
teeth determine the step angle.

Third: Linear motors

Linear motors should be thought of as rotary electric motors that have been cut along a radial plane
and unrolled. The resultant motor is a linear electric motor that can produce linear motion without
the need of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or translation of rotary motion with the use of belts,
pulleys, or screws. This is desirable because the extra machine parts make the machine more
complicated, and there are more parts that will wear out, and need replacement.

However, because linear motors do not have the luxury of 360 degree contained rotation, they must
either increase the length of the primary, coil assembly, and keep a short moving secondary, magnet
assembly, or increase the length of the secondary, and keep a short moving primary. There is a
diagram that can be found below illustrating the differences between these two options.
So, a linear motor is an electric motor that has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of
producing a torque (rotation) it produces a linear force along its length. Linear electric motors can
drive a linear motion load without intermediate gears, screws, or crank shafts.
Applications:
1. Sliding doors and various similar actuators.
2. Accelerating cars for crash tests.
3. Transportation (Trains).
4. Robotics & Material Handling.

5. Elevators.
6. Compressors & Pumps.
7. Catapults and Launchers.
8. Curtain pullers.

Types:
there are two main types of Linear Motors as follows:
1. Linear induction motor (LIM).
2. Linear synchronous motor (LSM).
1- Linear induction motor (LIM)

Linear induction motor (LIM)

A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous linear motor that works by the same general
principles as other induction motors but is very typically designed to directly produce motion in a
straight line. Characteristically, linear induction motors have a finite length primary, which generates
end-effects, whereas with a conventional induction motor the primary is arranged in an endless loop.
Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply.
Despite their name, not all linear induction motors produce linear motion, some linear induction
motors are employed for generating rotations of large diameters where the use of a continuous
primary would be very expensive.

Construction:

Traditional Linear Motors

A linear electric motor's primary typically consists of a flat magnetic core (generally laminated) with
transverse slots which are often straight cut with coils laid into the slots.
The secondary is frequently a sheet of aluminum, often with an iron backing plate. Some LIMs are
double sided, with one primary either side of the secondary, and in this case no iron backing is
needed.
Two sorts of linear motor exist, short primary, where the coils are truncated shorter than the
secondary, and a short secondary where the conductive plate is smaller. Short secondary LIMs are
often wound as parallel connections between coils of the same phase, whereas short primaries are
usually wound in series.
The primaries of transverse flux LIMs have a series of twin poles lying transversely side-by-side, with
opposite winding directions.

Principles of operation
a- Moving magnetic field
In this design of electric motor, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic field acting on
conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is
placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in
accordance with Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the
magnetic field sweeps through the metal.

b- End effect
Unlike a circular induction motor, a linear induction motor shows end effects.
With a short secondary, the behavior is almost identical to a rotary machine, provided it is at least
two poles long, but with a short primary reduction in thrust occurs at low slip (below about 0.3) until
it is eight poles or longer.
However, because of end effect, linear motors cannot 'run light'- normal induction motors are able to
run the motor with a near synchronous field under low load conditions. Due to end effect this creates
much more significant losses with linear motors.

c- Levitation
In addition, unlike a rotary motor, an electrodynamics levitation force is shown, this is zero at zero
slip, and tends to a constant positive lift force as slip increases in either direction.

2- Linear synchronous motor (LSM)

Linear synchronous motor (LSM)

A linear synchronous motor (LSM) is a linear motor in which the mechanical motion is in synchronism
with the magnetic field, i.e., the mechanical speed is the same as the speed of the traveling
magnetic field. The thrust (propulsion force) can be generated as an action of the following two
fields:
1. traveling magnetic field produced by a polyphase winding and an array of magnetic poles N,
S,...,N, S or a variable reluctance ferromagnetic rail (LSMs with a.c. armature windings);
2. Magnetic field produced by electronically switched d.c. windings and an array of magnetic
poles N, S,...,N, S or variable reluctance ferromagnetic rail (linear stepping or switched
reluctance motors).
The part producing the traveling magnetic field is called the armature or forcer. The part that
provides the d.c. magnetic flux or variable reluctance is called the field excitation system (if the
excitation system exists) or salientpole rail, reaction rail, or variable reluctance platen.
In the next Topic, I will explain Motor selection procedures . So, please keep following.

Note: these topics about Motors in this course EE-1: Beginner's electrical design course is an
introduction only for beginners to know general basic information about Motors and Pumps as a type
of Power loads. But in other levels of our electrical design courses, we will show and explain in detail
the Motor and Pumps Loads calculations.