Refreshment Course on

Hydrology and Hydraulics

Lecture 1

Fundamental Principles of Hydraulics and

Applications (Part 2)
C.W. Li
Department of Civil & Structural Engineering
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University


Dimensional similitude

Physical models

Dimensional Analysis - motivation

As an example, to investigate the

pressure rise across a centrifugal pump,
first step is to decide on the variables
that will affect the pressure rise p.

p = f (Q, , D, )

Where Q=discharge, =angular velocity

of impeller, D=diameter of impeller,
=fluid density
Direct method to perform experiments
by measuring p with one dependent
variable (say Q) changed while holding
all others constant, and repeat the
procedure with each of the other
variables changed in turn.
Two shortcomings for the direct method
a) some of the experiments may be
difficult to carry out; b) Not clear how to
analyze the results to generate a general
relationship which is valid for other
similar pumps.
3


To eliminate the difficulties, we combine the variables into 2

dimensionless groups
p
Q
=

(
)
2 2
3
D
D

The necessary experiments required is to vary the dimensionless

product and to determine the corresponding value of Q/D3 and
p / D 2 2

The experiments will be easier to do. We can change only one of the
variable (say Q) in the dimensionless product to vary its value.

The results can be easily applied to other similar pumps.

The basis of this method lies in the requirement of dimensional
consistency of a equation
4

Rayleighs method

In each dimensionally homogeneous equation the exponent of every
dimension on one side of the equation must be equal to the sum of
the exponents of the corresponding dimension on the other side.

In a problem if there are n parameters (1 dependent and n-1
independent) and m primary dimensions (e.g. M, L, T) we can write
m equations for n-1 unknown exponents.

m exponents can be determined with the remaining n-1-m
exponents of arbitrary values

A general function can be constructed with m independent variables
of known exponents and n-1-m dimensionless arguments with
unknown exponents

Experiments can be used to determine the unknown functions
5

Example Flow over a vee-notch weir

Assume the discharge Q is dependent on the head H and gravitational acceleration g

Q=(g,H)
Denotes dimensions of Q by [Q] and etc.
[Q]=k[g]a[H]b
where k, a, b are undefined constants

[L]
[T ]

So a=1/2 and b=5/2

[L]
b
= 2 [L]
[T ]
a

Q
= k = const
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H

Complete analysis shows that

Q = C d 2 tan g1/ 2 H 5 / 2
15

Where Cd=discharge coefficient, =subtended angle of the weir

6


More generally, if the analysis is extended to a variety of notches (v-notch,

rectangular and etc.) and different fluid, then

Q= (g,H,B,,)

Where B=width of the water surface at depth H, =viscosity of fluid, =density of fluid

Q=kgaHbBcde

[L]
[T ]

[M ]
3
[L ]

[L] 3=a+b+c-d-3e
[T] -1=-2a-d
[M] 0=d+e
a=(1+e)/2; d=-e, b=5/2+3/2e-c

or

[L ]
b
c [M ]
= k 2 [L ] [L ]

[L][T ]
[T ]
a

B
Q = kg1/ 2 H 5 / 2
H

g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2

B g 1 / 2 H 3 / 2
Q

= f ,
1/ 2 5 / 2
g H

(1)

Buckinghams theorem

In a problem if there are n parameters and m primary dimensions
(e.g. M, L, T) the equation relating the parameters can be expressed
in terms of n-m dimensionless groups denoted by 1, 2, .. n-m,
i.e.

1 = (2, 3, . n-m)

The terms can be determined by the method of repeating
variables which consists of the following 8 steps.

Step 1.
List all the variables involved in the
problem.

Step 2.
Express each of the variables in terms
of basic dimensions.

Step 3.
Determine the number of terms.


Step 4.

Select a number of repeating variables,

where the number required is equal to
the number of reference dimensions

Step 5.

Form a term by multiplying one of

the non-repeating variables by the
product of repeating variables each
raised to an exponent that will make
the combination dimensionless

Step 6.

Repeat step 5 for each of the

remaining non-repeating variables

Step 7.

Express the final form as a relationship

among the terms

Example Flow over a vee-notch weir

Q=f(g,H,B,,)

Taking , and g as the three
relevant variables

Obtaining the terms by
combining Q, H or B with them

1= abgcHd

[M ]0 [L]0 [T ]0 = [M ]
[L][T ]

[M ]
3
[L ]

The value of c is indeterminate but

is unimportant. Similarly

g 2 B 3
2 =
2

[L ]
2 [L]d
[T ]
c

[L] 0=-a-3b+c+d

[T] 0=a+2c

[M] 0=a+b

So

g H
1 = 2c 2c g c H 3c =
2

2

5gQ3
3 =
5

g H
=
2

g2 B3 g 2 H 3
5gQ3

=
,
5
2
2

(2)

10

Compounding

The solutions obtained by different methods to the problem of flow
over vee-notches are not all identical (cf. eq. (1) and (2)).

The reason is that the solutions are partial rather than complete and
a whole family of correct solutions is available.

Any parameter in a functional, dimensionless equation can be
multiplied by any constant or raised to any power without destroying
the validity of the equation.

New parameter can be obtained by multiplying two parameters each
raised to different powers.

The process is called compounding.

For example, the first term in eq. (2) can be obtained by the terms in
eq. (1) as follows.

gQ Q
= 1 / 2 5 / 2
5

g H
5

g1 / 2 H 3 / 2

11

Example Pump performance

The performance of a pump is
expected depending on the flow rate
Q, the energy change in the flow gH,
the power required P, and the
efficiency of the process . The
independent variables which
determine the performance will be
fixed by the design of the machine,
i.e. its shape, size (diameter of
impeller D), and rotational speed (N),
and the properties of the flowing
fluid (density ). Thus

Select , N, D as the dependent

parameters, the Buckingham
theorem gives

P
g H Q
,

,
, ,
)=0
3 5
2
3
N D
N D D ND

Further simplification can be made
by knowing that g is a constant and
can be combined with the head H to
give the potential energy per unit
mass.
(

( P, , g, H, , D, N, Q) = 0

P
gH
Q
,

,
,
)=0
N 3 D 5
N 2 D 2 ND 3

gH
P
Q
=

(
,

,
)
1
2 2
3 5
3
N D
N D
ND
12

As

The equation can be further

simplified to

P = gHQ

gH
Q
=

2
3
N 2D2
ND
P
Q
=

3
3
N 3 D5
ND

Q
= 4
3
ND

A set of performance curves can be

obtained

13

Dimensionless numbers

Major forces in a fluid flow system :

Inertia force ~ mass x acceleration ~ L3 L/t2 ~ L2(L/t)2 ~
L2v2

And driving or resistance forces including:

a) viscous force ~ viscous shear stress x area ~ viscosity
x velocity gradient x area ~ (v/L)L2 ~ vL

b) Gravity force ~ mass x gravitational acceleration ~
L3g

c) Elastic force ~ bulk modulus (dimension of pressure) x
area ~ KL2

d) Surface tension force ~ surface tension x length ~ L

e) Pressure force ~ pressure x area ~ pL2
14

Dimensionless numbers

Reynolds number Re = inertia force / viscous force ~
L2v2/(vL) ~ Lv/

Froude number Fr = inertia force / gravity force ~
L2v2/(L3g) ~ v2/(gL) v/(gL)

Mach number Ma = inertia force / elastic force ~
L2v2/(KL2) ~ v2/K v/(K/)

Cauchy number Ca = Ma2 = v2/K

Weber number We = inertia force / surface tension force
~ L2v2/(L) ~ Lv2/

Euler number Eu = pressure force / inertia force ~ pL2/
(L2v2) p/ (v2)
15

Dimensionless
number

Expression

Case of importance

Reynolds number

Lv/

Closed conduit flow, object

moving in a fluid medium.

Froude number

v/(gL)

Flow with a free surface open channel flow, waves on

a ship, flow on a bridge pier
or other hydraulic structures.

Cauchy Number
and Mach number

v2/K and
v/(K/)

Compressible flow, (K/) =

sonic speed in medium

Weber number

Lv2/

Surface tension dominant

e.g. thin sheet of liquid
flowing on a surface

Euler number

p/(v2)

Pressure or pressure
difference are of interest

16

Correlation of experimental data

A dimensional analysis cannot provide a complete solution to
any given problem.

It only provides the dimensionless groups describing the
phenomenon, not the specific relationship among the groups.

Suitable experimental data must be obtained to obtain the
relationship.

For example, if a given phenomenon can be described with
two pi terms such that 1=(2), the functional relationship
among the variables can be determined by varying 2 and
measuring the corresponding values of 1.

The empirical relationship between 1 and 2 is valid over the
range of 2 covered by the experiments. However,
extrapolation of the relationship beyond the measured range
may not be valid.
17

Example pressure drop in smooth pipe

The relationship between the pressure drop per unit length along a
horizontal pipe and the variables that affect the pressure drop is to be
determined experimentally. In the laboratory the pressure drop was
measured over a 1.523m length of pipe with an inside diameter of 0.0126m.
The fluid used was water of viscosity =0.00112Ns/m2 and density
=999.9kg/m3. Test were run in which the velocity was varied and the
corresponding pressure drop measured. The results are shown below:

Velocity (m/s)

0.356382

0.59397

0.886386

1.778864

3.390198

5.153832

7.109364

8.751158

Pressure drop (N/m^2)

299.7288

746.928

1479.492

5075.28

15752.52

32606.28

57456

82832.4

Find the general relationship between the pressure drop per unit length and
the other variables

18

Solution- pressure drop in smooth pipe

Perform a dimensional analysis by assuming that the pressure drop
per unit length pL is a function of the pipe diameter D, fluid density
, fluid viscosity , and the velocity V. Thus pL=f(D, , , V)

Using pi theorem yields
VD
Dp L
=

V 2
V

The functional relationship can be obtained by varying the Reynolds

number VD and to measure the corresponding values of DpL

V 2

To vary the Reynolds number, the simplest way is to vary the
velocity, since the same fluid and the same pipe can be used.
19

Solution- pressure drop in smooth pipe

From the data, the values of the two pi terms are as follows.
VD /
D p L / V 2

0.019511

0.017504

0.015569

0.01326

0.011331

0.010149

0.009398

0.008942

4004.26

6673.766

9959.313

19987.07

38091.8

57907.76

79879.85

98326.82

The relationship can be determined by plotting the above 2 pi terms

The result is
VD
Dp L
0
.
15
=

2
V

0.25

This is the Blasius formula for the prediction of pressure drop in

smooth pipe
20

0.025

0.02

0.015

Dp L
V 2

0.01

0.005

0
0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

VD /

0.1
1000

Dp L
V 2

10000

100000

0.01

0.001

VD /

21

Theory of Models

A model is a representation of a
physical system (usually in smaller
scale) and has the same behavior
as the physical system

A prototype is the physical system
itself

The hydraulic behavior of a physical
system can be described by a set of
terms

For a model of the same

phenomenon as the prototype, we
have

1m = ( 2 m , 3m ,...., nm )

The form of function will be the
same for both cases. Therefore

2 m = 2 p ; 3m = 3p ;

1 = ( 2 , 3 ,...., n )

The above equation is applicable to
any system governed by the same
variables. Thus for a prototype, we
have

1p = ( 2 p , 3p ,...., np )

......... nm = np

And

1m = 1p

Similarity between a model and a

prototype can be achieved by
equating terms
22

Geometric, kinematic and dynamic

similarity

Geometric similarity of two systems the length ratios in
any direction of the two systems (usually model and
prototype) are constant.

Kinematic similarity of two systems the shape of the
streamlines at any particular time is the same in both
systems, and the velocity ratios and acceleration ratios
are constant.

Dynamic similarity of two systems the ratio between
any two forces are the same in both systems.
23

Similitude analysis

Example - Flow over vee-notch weir

Q=f(g,H,B,,)
6 variables, 3 dimensions 3 terms
The terms specify the requirement for similarity and should
include ratios defining geometric similarity and dynamic similarity for
the gravitational and viscous forces.
Geometrical similarity, 1 = B/H
Dynamic similarity in gravitational force, Froude number v/(gL)
must have the same value in model and prototype. 2 = v/(gL).
As v~Q/L2, L~H , a more convenient expression is 2 = Q2/gH5
Dynamic similarity in viscous force, Reynolds number vL/ must be
the same for both systems. Using v~Q/L2, L~H, 3 = Q/H
Therefore
B Q
Q2
=

5
gH
H H

24

Model scales

Length scales ratio of
corresponding lengths in the model
and prototype. If there are two
length variables L1 and L2, then
terms equivalence gives

So

L1 p
L 2p

L1 m
L 2m

Other scales include velocity scale

(v), density scale (), viscosity
scale () and etc.

Model scales are related by the
terms equivalence

For example, Froude number
equivalence gives
Vp
Vm
=
gmLm
gpLp

In general gm=gp

L1m/L1p is the length scale and

usually specified initially

Vm
=
Vp

Lm
= L
Lp

L1m L 2 m
=
= L
L1p L 2 p
25


Discharge scale
Q m Vm L2m L m
=
=
Qp
Vp L2p L p

5/ 2

= 5L/ 2

Assuming that model and

prototype are operated with the
same fluid
3

Time scale
1/ 2

Tm L m / Vm L m
=
=
Tp
L p / Vp L p

= 1L/ 2

Fm L m
=
= 3L
Fp L p

Force scales
F
F
2 2 = 2 2
L V m L V p

Fm m L m
=
Fp p L p

Vm

V
p

26

Example - spillway

A spillway for a dam is 20m wide and is designed to carry 125m3/s at flood stage. A
1:15 model is constructed to study the flow characteristics through the spillway.
Determine the required model width and flowrate. What operating time for the model
corresponds to a 24-hr period in the prototype? The effects of surface tension and
viscosity are to be neglected.

Solution

The width wm of the model spillway is obtained from the length scale

wm/wp=1/15 and wm=20/15=1.33m

Froude number should be equal between model and prototype.

Vp
Vm
=
gmLm
gpLp

gm = gp

L
Qm V L
=
= m
L
Qp
VL
p
2
m m
2
p p

Vm
=
Vp

Lm
= 1 / 15
Lp

5/ 2

= (1 / 15)5 / 2

Qp=125m3/s, therefore Qm=(1/15)5/2(125)=0.143m3/s

1/ 2

Tm L m / Vm L m
=
=
Tp
L p / Vp L p

= (1 / 15)1 / 2

tp=24hr, therefore tm=(1/15)1/2(24)=6.2hr

27

Distorted Models

It is always not possible to satisfy all the similarity
requirements ( terms equivalence) for a model, so
1m 1p

In most cases, the behavior of a physical system is

governed by only one of the terms, useful model still can
be constructed based on the equivalence of some of the
terms to achieve
1m 1 p

Model with one or more of the similarity requirements not

satisfied are called distorted model and is very common in
practice
28

Geometrically distorted model

In rivers or estuaries, the horizontal
dimension is usually 2 order greater
than the vertical dimension. In the
corresponding models the vertical
depth is required to be kept to around
0.1m, the horizontal dimension will
then be in the order of 10m. Such
large model will be quite uneconomic.

In general, in this type of model the
vertical dimension is reduced less than
horizontal dimension so that an
exaggerated, or distorted, model
results.

There are two geometric scales

Horizontal scale = Xm/Xp

Vertical scale = Ym/Yp

Where X, Y denote distances
measured horizontally and vertically.

For surface waves, velocity

depends on the depth of the fluid.
Thus the velocity scale is
Vm
=
Vp

Ym
Yp

The discharge scale is

Q m Vm X m Ym X m Ym
=
=
Qp
Vp X p Yp
X p Yp

3/ 2

The time scale is

Tm X m / Vm X m Ym
=
=
Tp
X p / Vp
X p Yp

1 / 2

29

Dynamically distorted model

Example in open channel
flow both the Reynolds number
and Froude number are
terms

Froude number equivalence
gives
Vm
=
Vp

Lm
= L
Lp

Reynolds number equivalence

gives
mVm L m pVp L p
=
m
p

So
Vm m p L p
=
= L
Vp p m L m
m / m
= 3L/ 2
p /
/ p

It may be very difficult to find a

model fluid with kinematic
viscosity satisfying the above
equation (say, L=0.1,
L1.5=0.03)

Usually the model fluid used
will be the same as prototype
fluid (water) and the Reynolds
number equivalence is violated
30

Scale errors

The previous example shows that it is in general not
possible to satisfy both Froude and Reynolds number
criteria at the same time.

The practice is to model the prototype on the basis of
scale chosen to suit the dominant force action and to
allow the other forces to be out-of-scale.

The errors incurred are known as scale errors.

31

Scale errors

For cases if scale errors are not small, special treatment must be
made to reduce the errors.

For example, gravitational and viscous forces are both important in
ship modeling. The practice is to operate the model based on
Froude number equivalence. Drag force Fd on the ship model will be
separated into viscous component F and gravitational components
Fg.

Fd=F + Fg

The gravitational component is reproduced correctly in the model
but the viscous component is out of scale.

The viscous force will be separately calculated using semi-empirical
equations developed from experiments

32

Dynamically distorted model - Intake

Pump intakes are generally designed for full flow

Formation of vortex causes undesirable air
entrainment and spiral flow towards intake

Vortex formation:

a) Asymmetry of the approach channel causes
rotational motion in the flow, with a shallow
dimple on the surface

b) Water surface depression increases with
velocity and air bubbles eventually break free to
be carried into the intake

c) Air core will be formed under extreme cases
33

Air entraining vortices

Submerged vortices

Swirling flows

35

Modeling of vortex

Gravitational effects are most important. Froude number
should be preserved.

Viscosity and surface tension will also be important near
the core of the vortex where the fluid is rotating and
where the free surface is sharply curved.

Model velocities based on Froudian scaling are too small
to give comparable conditions for vortex formation

The model should first be operated at Froudian velocities
to establish the basic flow conditions and that the
velocities should be increased if there is any evidence of
swirl to compensate for viscous scale errors.

36

Surface
Dimple

Occurrence of Surface Dimple in Model Test

37

River and open channel models

1) The Froude number must be the same in model and prototype

2) Reynolds number cannot be scaled properly. However, at high
Reynolds number, frictional drag (or head loss) is independent of
Reynolds number. To model drag effects it is sufficient to ensure that
the model flow is turbulent and that frictional resistance due to form
effects is correctly scaled.

Re = V*k/ >100, V*=shear velocity, k=equivalent roughness size

V*=(gRhS)1/2, Rh=hydraulic radius, S=energy slope

3) Frictional resistance must be scaled correctly

4) Sometimes, geometrically undistorted model will lead to very
small depth and velocity which are difficult to measure accurately.
The flow may not be fully turbulent and the roughness will be very
small and difficult to be modeled.

The problem can be solved by using a geometrically distorted model
with depth exaggerated. Since for wide channel the flow patterns are
determined by the bed shear stress and are relatively independent 38
of width.

Scaling of frictional resistance

Based on Manning equation

2/3

1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V = Rh S
n

n=Manning roughness coefficient.
Apply the above equation to
model and prototype
Vm n p R hm
=
Vp n m R hp

2/3

Vm
=
Vp

Lm
Lp

1/ 2

Sm

S
p

For Froudian similarity

So
1/ 2

R hm Sm

n m R hp Sp
=
1/ 2
np
Lm

L
p

For geometrically undistorted

model
2/3

Lm

1/ 6

nm p
Lm

=
=
n p L 1/ 2 L p
m
L
p

39

Example: physical modelling of Upper Tai Po River

Objectives: To investigate the overall hydraulic performance of the
trained UTPR under the test flow scenarios and to recommend
essential modification of hydraulic structures if necessary

Geometrical Scale: 1:40

Froude number similarity
Flow Characteristics

Model/Prototype Ratios

Length, L

1 : 40

1 : Lr

Flow, Q

1 : 10,119

1 : Qr = 1: Lr2.5

Velocity, U

1 : 6.32

1 : Ur = 1: Lr0.5

Time, t

1 : 6.32

Mannings roughness coefficient, n

1 : 1.85

1 : tr = 1: Lr0.5
1 : nr = 1: L 1/6
r

Prototype inflow rates : 2.4m3/s to 142.4m3/s; corresponding model

inflow rates : 0.24 l/s to 14.07 l/s.
40

41

42

Mannings
Surface Types
Coefficients
Prototype
Gabion Mattress
0.035
Gabion Retaining Wall 0.040
Concrete Surface
0.018
Natural Surface
0.030

Roughness
Model
0.019
0.022
0.010
0.016

43

upstream end of model

TB-04 & TB-05

~Ch.110

~Ch.600

44

Mobile bed models effects of sediments

When the bed of a model is free to move under water flow both the
hydrodynamic and morphological processes are need to be modeled.

In brief, the procedures are as follows.

1) A suitable material is chosen to represent bed material. An estimation is
made of the roughness coefficient (e.g. Manning coefficient) and flume tests
might be carried out to determine the critical velocity required to set the
material in motion.

2) Knowing the magnitude of prototype velocities, a vertical scale is chosen
to ensure that model velocities lie in the range indicated by the flume tests.

3) A resistance equation is used to calculate the correct slope of the model.
This requires the knowledge of the velocity scale and estimated or
measured model material roughness
2

4/3

Sm Vm R hm n m
=
Sp Vp R hp n p

4) The horizontal scale is finally determined from
calculated velocity and slope scales.

Sm Ym / X m
=
using the
Sp
Yp / X p
45