Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
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Religious Structures
efrosyni boutsikas
Abstract
Resumen
Efrosyni Boutsikas is a Lecturer of Classical Archaeology at the University of Kent and presently holds a Visiting Fellowship at the University
of Leicester. She received a B.Sc. in Archaeological Science from the University of Sheffield and an M.A. in Archaeology from the University
of Leicester. Boutsikas completed her Ph.D. (University of Leicester) on astronomy and ancient Greek cult in 2007. Between 2006 and 2008
she was an osteological and archaeological supervisor for the University of Leicesters Archaeological Services (ULAS), while between 2007
and 2008 she worked as a university teacher in Ancient History and Archaeology (University of Leicester).
Sample Description
The dataset of this study includes some of the most
important and representative sites of the periods
during which they were constructed and some of the
earliest self-standing religious structures found in
Greece from around 900 B.C. (e.g., Apollo Thermios,
excluding the megara, the function of which has not
been firmly established to this date). The region covered by this study includes the area covered by the
modern Greek state (Figure 1) rather than the world
of Hellenic city-states as a whole, which extended
from the western Mediterranean to the Black Sea. In
the selection procedure of temples to be surveyed,
no deities or types of sites have intentionally been
given greater emphasis. This study includes the vast
majority of religious sites that could be measured
within the study area. All religious structures for
which permission was given and whose preservation
was sufficient have been surveyed (including those
of foreign deities).
The geographical area covered by the sample
presented here includes the Greek mainland and the
Aegean islands of Aigina, Delos, Kos, Naxos, Poros,
Rhodes, Samos, and Tenos. The dataset includes
different types of sites, including temples located in
organically grown settlements that demonstrate the
continuity of a cult over several successive temples
constructed in the same location. Settlements that
developed organically are important to this study, as
they allow the examination of patterns of continuity and, more importantly, observations of changes
in the orientation between successive structures. In
some cases as many as four reconstructions of the
same temple have been measured (e.g., the temples
Volume XXI 20072008
Location
Site
1
Acheron
Oracle of the dead
2
Acheron
Oracle of the dead
3
Aegina
Sanctuary of Aphaia
4
Amphipolis Sanctuary of Attis
5
Amphipolis Thesmophorio
6
Argos
Heraion
7
Argos
Heraion
8
Athens
Acropolis
9
Athens
Acropolis
10 Athens
Acropolis
11 Athens
Agora
12 Athens
Agora
13 Athens
Agora
14 Athens
Agora
15 Athens
South slope
16 Athens
South slope
17 Bassae
Sanctuary of Apollo
18 Calydon
Ancient Calydon
19 Calydon
Ancient Calydon
20 Calydon
Ancient Calydon
21 Corinth
Agora
22 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
23 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
24 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
25 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
26 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
27 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
28 Delos
Sanctuary of Apollo
29 Delos
Sanctuary of Foreign Gods
30 Delos
Sanctuary of Foreign Gods
31 Delos
Sanctuary of Foreign Gods
32 Delos
Sanctuary of Foreign Gods
33 Delos
Sanctuary of Mount Kythnos
34 Delos
Sanctuary of Mount Kythnos
35 Delos
Sanctuary of Mount Kythnos
36 Delos
Theatre district
37 Delphi
Sanctuary of Apollo
38 Delphi
Sanctuary of Apollo
39 Delphi
Sanctuary of Apollo
40 Delphi
Sanctuary of Apollo
41 Dion
Sanctuary of Demeter
42 Dion
Sanctuary of Demeter
6
archaeoastronomy
Building
Main sanctuary
Palace of Hades & Persephone
Temple of Aphaia
Temple of Attis
Thesmophorio-Nymphaion
Old Temple of Hera
New Temple of Hera
Parthenon
Temple of Athena Polias
Erechtheion
Metroon
Temple of Apollo Patroos
Temple of Zeus & Athena Phatria
Hephaisteion
Old Temple of Dionysos
New Temple of Dionysos
Temple of Apollo
Temple of Apollo
Heroon
Temple of Artemis
Temple of Apollo
Letoon
Artemisio
Temple G
Poros Temple of Apollo
Temple of Apollo (Athenians)
Great Temple of Apollo
Dodekatheo
Heraion
Serapeion C
Temple of Isis
Serapeion A
Temple of Zeus
Hypsistos Mount Kythnos
Sanctuary of Artemis Locheia,
Hercules-Baal Zeboul, gods of
Askalon
Sanctuary of Agathe Tyche
Aphrodision
Old Temple of Athena Pronaia
Temple of Apollo
Old Temple of Apollo
Temple of Athena Pronaia
Temple A
Temple 1
4
4
67
101
165
118
119
77
85
353
102
97
99
104
75
75
4
129
180
122
77
186
108
347
265
263
264
97
172
178
268
297
286
3
0
1.5
4
11
3
3
2
3.5
3
4.5
4.5
4.5
5
3
4
14
1
0.5
3
3
1
3
2
0.5
0.5
0.5
3.5
7
2
0
2
0
53 21
50 1
18 35
-5 56
-36 28
-19 12
-19 56
11 7
5 48
54 15
-7
-2 59
-4 33
-8 6
13 21
14 00
62 1
-29 4
-51 36
-22 34
12 1
-51 40
-12 37
52 19
-4 11
-5 23
-4 59
-3 33
-45 8
-50 52
-1 45
22 24
12 17
85
3 37
266
170
177
49
49
190
64
70
0
9
7
27
27
8
0
0
-3 32
-42 45
-44 34
47 49
47 49
-42 42
19 2
14 37
ID
Location
Site
Building
43 Dion
Sanctuary of Demeter
Temple B
44 Dion
Sanctuary of Demeter
Temple 2
45 Dion
Sanctuary of Demeter
Small temple with offering table
46 Dion
Sanctuary of Egyptian Gods Temple of Isis
47 Dion
Sanctuary of Egyptian Gods Temple of Hypolympia Aphrodite
48 Dion
Temple of Zeus
Temple of Zeus Hypsistos
49 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
Temple of Aphrodite
50 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
Temple of Themis
51 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
Temple of Zeus (hiera oikia)
52 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
New Temple of Dione
53 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
Old Temple of Dione
54 Dodona
Oracle of Zeus
Temple of Hercules
55 Eleusis
Sanctuary of Demeter & Kore Megaron
56 Eleusis
Sanctuary of Demeter & Kore Telestirio-Solonion
57 Eleusis
Sanctuary of Demeter & Kore Telestirio-Peisistratid
58 Eleusis
Sanctuary of Demeter & Kore Ploutoneion
59 Gortyn
Asklepieion
Temple of Asklepios
60 Isthmia
Sanctuary of Poseidon
Old Temple of Poseidon
61 Isthmia
Sanctuary of Poseidon
New Temple of Poseidon
62 Kos
Asklepieion
Large Temple of Asklepios
63 Kos
Asklepieion
Prostyle Ionic Temple of
Asklepios
64 Lebadeia
Temple of Zeus
Temple of Zeus Vassileus
65 Mantineia Agora
Temple of Hera
66 Mantineia Agora
Podareion
67 Megalopolis Agora
Temple of Zeus Soter
68 Messene
Asklepieion
Temple of Asklepios
69 Messene
Asklepieion
Temple of Artemis
70 Messene
Asklepieion
Artemision
71 Messene
Asklepieion
Oikos Asklepeiou & Paidon
72 Naxos
City
Temple of Apollo Portara
73 Naxos
Sanctuary of Dionysos
Old Temple of Dionysos
74 Naxos
Sanctuary of Dionysos
Temple of Dionysos
75 Naxos
Sagri
Temple of Demeter
76 Nemea
Sanctuary of Zeus
Temple of Zeus
77 Nemea
Sanctuary of Zeus
Old Temple of Zeus
78 Olympia
Sanctuary of Zeus
Temple of Zeus
79 Olympia
Sanctuary of Zeus
Heraion
80 Olympia
Sanctuary of Zeus
Pelopeion
81 Pella
Thesmophorio
Thesmophorio
82 Pella
Thesmophorio
Thesmophorio
83 Perachora
Heraion
Temple of Hera Akraia
84 Poros
Sanctuary of Poseidon
Temple of Poseidon
85 Pylos
Nestors Palace
Hiero-Oplostasio
86 Pylos
Nestors Palace
Queens Hall SW entrance
0
0
0
1
0
1.5
8
7
7.5
8
12
3.5
2
2
2
2
20
0
1
1
2
8 37
13 52
21 12
-46 7
16 6
-40 32
-14 15
-23 51
-20 50
-9 56
-38 23
-42 35
-15 27
-18 29
-18 29
-9 18
-1 12
-6 35
-5 4
46 47
-18 13
64
93
86
101
115
129
115
215
140
203
202
213
75
75
83
87
208
267
84
93
68
147
220
0
8
8
4.5
11
11
11
1
0
4
4
0
7
7
3
2
3
2
1
12
2
2
0
20
2 32
83
-5 58
-12 11
-21 56
-12 11
-40 30
-38 6
-43 46
-44 11
-42 30
16 8
16 8
7 28
3 39
-42 8
-1 1
4 47
54
18 13
-37 18
-35 27
Table 1. (Cont.)
ID
Location
Site
87 Pylos
Nestors Palace
88 Rhodes
City of Rhodes
89 Rhodes
Ialyssos
90 Rhodes
Kameiros
91 Rhodes
Lindos, Acropolis
92 Samos
Heraion
93 Samos
Heraion
94 Samos
Heraion
95 Samos
Heraion
96 Sikyon
Acropolis & Agora
97 Sounio
Sanctuary of Poseidon
98 Sounio
Sanctuary of Poseidon
99 Sounio
Sanctuary of Poseidon
100 Sparta
Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia
101 Tegea
Temple of Athena Alea
102 Tenos
Sanctuary of Poseidon
& Amphitite
103 Thermum
Ancient Thermum
104 Thermum
Ancient Thermum
105 Thermum
Ancient Thermum
106 Tiryns
Palace
107 Tiryns
Palace
Building
Megaron
Temple of Aphrodite
Temple of Athena Polias &
Zeus Polieos
Temple of Pythian Apollo
Temple of Lindia Athena
Rhoecus Temple
Hekatombedon II
Greater Temple of Hera
Hekatombedon I
Temple of Artemis or Apollo
Temple of Poseidon
Great Temple of Athena
Small Temple of Athena
Temple of Artemis Orthia
Temple of Athena
Building B
147
93
184
3
0
0
-36 23
-3 5
-53 57
357
34
79
79
79
77
95
105
98
103
100
87
194
0.5
0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
2
1
1
1
4
5
0
53 36
41 21
8 47
8 47
8 23
9 57
-2 49
-11 37
-6 7
-10 3
-6 16
5 24
-50 47
Temple of Apollo
Megaron A
Megaron B
Temple of Hera
Megaron
191
194
196
180
180
5
5
4
2
2
-45 26
-44 44
-45 9
-50 42
-50 42
archaeoastronomy
Field Methodology
The measurements comprising this study were collected using a magnetic compass and clinometer over
four field seasons. A compass, duly corrected for
magnetic declination, will only determine the direction relative to true north to an accuracy of around
one degree. Taking into account the highest level of
astronomical precision that the ancient Greeks would
have been capable of measuring, this level of accuracy
is considered adequate. Local magnetic anomalies
were tested in two ways. Minor anomalies were tested
by several measurements taken along each of the long
walls of rectangular structures and from either end of
the wall. Great magnetic anomalies that could have
figure 1. Map of ancient Greece showing the sites included in this study. 107 measurements of temple orientations were
collected from 42 sites. The map shows 40 sites. The two sites missing are located in Athens. The point for Athens covers, therefore, three sites: the Acropolis, the south slope, and the Agora. Outline map created by R. A. LaFleur and Tom
Elliott. Copyright 20002001, Ancient World Mapping Center, http://www.unc.edu/awmc.
Data Reduction
This study improves the methods of analysis applied
to the orientations compared with previous studies
Volume XXI 20072008
archaeoastronomy
graph 1.
The distribution of the orientations of 107 Greek temples from 900 to 200 B.C. The Y axis shows the temple
count. The graph includes adjustments for standard deviation. Southern declinations are between -60 and -40 (to the left).
Western and eastern declinations overlap in the center, and northern ones are between +40 and +70 (to the right).
graph 2. Reproduction of the distribution of data, displaying the range of declinations visited by the Sun during its annual
movement (-24 to +24) (highlighted section). In the highlighted area both eastern and western declinations are included.
This group comprises 58 percent of the total sample facing toward eastern declinations and 7.4 percent of the total sample
facing toward western declinations.
11
graph 3.
archaeoastronomy
13
graph 4.
Reproduction of the distribution of the dataset, with the annual path of the Moon shaded darker (-30 to +28),
superimposed on the solar declination range.
graph 5.
Distribution of sample dating to the Archaic period (700480 B.C.) (30 structures).
archaeoastronomy
graph 6.
Distribution of sample dating to the Classical period (480330 B.C.) (27 structures).
Discussion
Previous research by Dinsmoor, Penrose, and Nissen
focused on the significance of the Sun in the orientation of Greek temples. To this day this idea has been
offered as the explanation for the general principles
behind the orientation of temples. In doing so, however, we overlook a very large body of data that falls
outside positions in the horizon that are visited by
the Sun. Dinsmoors ideas have persisted for years
without any attempt at verification or testing by other
researchers who have used his results. This study
forms the first systematic collection and analysis of
Volume XXI 20072008
15
graph 7. Changes in orientation between successive structures. Orientation measurements from 29 cults (of 72 successive
structures).
archaeoastronomy
New Directions
Epigraphic, literary, and archaeological evidence
attest that several minor games, competitions, and
celebrations were held in Greek sanctuaries. Usually
there was one major festival that was considered the
largest and most important, held in honor of the deity
to which the sanctuary and the main temple within it
were dedicated. This festival would usually take place
on a set day in the year, most commonly annually or,
in the case of major Panhellenic sanctuaries, every
two or four years, with minor celebrations on the same
day in the other years. It was important to ensure that
festivals were held on the correct day and that the
calendar did not move out of season. Lunar calendars
make such a requirement difficult. The Greeks were
well aware that the lunar cycle (approximately 29.5
days) does not fit into a year comprised of 365 days.
They compensated for this by intercalating an extra
month approximately every three years. Each polis
had its own calendar, with different month names
and intercalation times. In addition, although the new
months would always start with the sighting of the
new Moon, this was determined by local observations, was far from fixed, and was subject to manipulation (Aristophanes Clouds 1134; Trmpy 1997:1, 5).
Those festivals that attracted participants from across
Greece demanded a more Panhellenic timekeeping
17
archaeoastronomy
Acknowledgments
This project would not have been possible without
the cooperation of the following Greek Ephorates of
Classical and Prehistoric Antiquities who have kindly
given me permission to survey the archaeological
sites included in this study: , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , , , , ,
. I am also very grateful to the British School at
Athens for awarding me the Richard Bradford McConnell Fund for Landscape Studies in 2004, which
funded the survey of the majority of the sites in the
Aegean islands, and to Professor Ilias Mariolakos for
his help with questions of a geological nature. Finally,
but by no means least, I am indebted to Professor
Robert Hannah, Professor Graham Shipley, and Professor Clive Ruggles for their feedback and valuable
comments on earlier drafts of this paper.
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19